\r\n\tManagement of these disorders requires good clinical evaluation, diagnostic tests, appropriate therapy and huge healthcare cost. Sometimes multiple specialties (gastroenterologists, \r\n\tgastrointestinal motility specialists, otolaryngologists, surgeons, speech therapists, medical oncologists and radiation oncologists) are involved in the management of dysphonia and dysphagia. In the recent years, there have been many updates in the management of these disorders. This book will discuss systematically the different etiologies and management of dysphonia, maxillofacial, oropharyngeal and esophageal dysphagia. This book will be a good \r\n\tguide to the practicing physicians for the management of voice and swallowing disorders.
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Chan and Manoj Kumar Tiwari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3794.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"252210",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",surname:"Chan",slug:"felix-chan",fullName:"Felix Chan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"55876",title:"Thick‐Film Resistor Failure Analysis Based on Low‐Frequency Noise Measurements",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69442",slug:"thick-film-resistor-failure-analysis-based-on-low-frequency-noise-measurements",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Thick‐film technology that has been in continuous use for decades, mostly in commercial and specialized electronics, is once again increasing interest. The revival of thick‐film technology can be attributed to the increasing application of ceramic micro‐electro‐mechanical systems (C‐MEMSs) and the communications industry’s need for electronic circuitry with increased functional capability, reduced weight, improved reliability and environmental stability. When C‐MEMS are in question, thick‐film technology provides simultaneous realization of sensor and actuator elements as well as electronic circuitry for signal processing. In addition, thick‐film resistors, the key assets of thick‐film technology, are being used both as sensing and as resistive elements. This new application of thick‐film resistive materials leads to reduction in resistor dimensions, higher required tolerances and increasing use of buried components. On the other hand, increasing application of thick‐film devices in communication systems requires better knowledge of their modulation effects in these systems that are correlated to low‐frequency noise sources in thick resistive films. Since noise investigations are powerful tools in reliability investigations it is of the great importance to determine whether standard low‐frequency noise measurements can be used in evaluation of these complex structures. Low‐frequency noise in thick‐film resistors depends on their microstructure and for that reason it can be used to track structural changes caused by different types of stressing conditions that affect reliability of the film. Relationship between low‐frequency noise and structure of thick resistive films has mostly been investigated experimentally. The theoretical problem is not simple because of the thick‐film’s quite complex microstructure. The variety of the parameters that has to be taken into consideration is certainly one of the most significant limitations. However, data related to thick‐film compositions and technological processes can provide information about ranges of parameter values. Moreover, the formation of conducting paths and metal‐insulator‐metal (MIM) units requires the special attention. For these reasons, this chapter focuses on the correlation between noise parameters and parameters of noise sources in thick‐film resistors. Firstly, a model of low‐frequency noise in thick resistive films that relate noise parameters to thick‐film structural and electrical characteristics is described. Then, failure analysis of thick‐film resistors subjected to high‐voltage pulse stressing is presented based on resistance and low‐frequency noise measurements. At the closing subsection, the brief summary of the topic is presented with an emphasis on the possibility that standard resistance and noise measurements can be used in degradation and failure analysis of thick resistive structures under a wide range of extreme working conditions.
\n
\n
\n
2. Low‐frequency noise in thick‐film resistive structures
\n
Transport of electrical charges in thick‐film materials takes place via chains of conducting particles (Figure 1) [1]. Two adjacent conducting particles in the chain can be sintered or insulated by a thin, glass barrier thus determining the electrical current flow. Therefore, metallic conduction and direct tunnelling are dominant conducting mechanisms present in thick resistive films. Tunnelling via traps is also present in thick‐film resistors but it is a dominant conducting mechanism when thick insulating layers are in question. Since the insulator layers are thin [2], direct tunnelling is one of the dominant conduction mechanisms [3]. For low applied voltages \n\n\n\nV\nB\n\n≫\n\nΦ\nB\n\n,\n\n\n where ΦB is the height of the potential barrier, the applied voltage and the current are proportional. Resistance of the resistor is determined by the barrier resistance. Trap at the location x1, shown in Figure 1, is being randomly occupied by electron. Therefore, its presence modulates the direct tunnelling current. Because of the barrier height, field and thermal injection effects are neglected.
\n
Figure 1.
Schematic presentation of thick‐film resistor and a segment of a chain where adjacent conducting particles are separated by thin insulating layers.
\n
Low‐frequency noise sources in these noisy devices are correlated to following conducting mechanisms:
\n
Metallic conduction
Hooge’s empirical expression [4] describes low‐frequency relative voltage noise spectrum for conduction through conductive grains and contacts between them:
where α is the Hooge numerical parameter of the order of 10−3, while Vef and n are the effective volume of sintered contact and free carriers concentration in the contact region, respectively. Hooge’s expression is used as the empirical relation with the effective parameters in order to express 1/f noise, which is a consequence of contact and particle resistivity fluctuations.
Tunnelling processes
When conduction through glass barriers is in question, low‐frequency fluctuations of tunnelling processes are correlated to the glass matrix space charge fluctuations. These fluctuations can be caused by the presence of traps in glass barriers and fluctuations caused by the thermal noise in the glass matrix [5]. If it is assumed that potential barrier height fluctuations are caused by Nyquist noise of the insulator, then the relative voltage noise spectrum due to the Nyquist noise modulation can be given by the following expression [1, 5]:
where q and m are the electron charge and its effective mass, h is the Planck’s constant, k is the Boltzmann’s constant, T is the absolute temperature, s is the thickness of the insulating layer, tgδ is the loss tangent of the insulator, ΦB is the potential barrier height measured with respect to the Fermi energy and C is the capacitance of metal‐insulator‐metal (MIM) unit [1] that consists of two spherical conducting particles separated by a thin insulating layer.
\n
If it is assumed that MIM insulating layers contain traps, the trap may be of neutral or negative charge. The trap may have negative charge as a consequence of occupation by electron during the tunnelling process. The trap occupation function fluctuation induces the barrier height fluctuation due to the local charge fluctuation. In calculations of noise spectrum due to the trap occupation fluctuations, the following is taken into account:
the greatest contribution to the noise is the traps with energies equal to the Fermi level in the conducting particle,
the potential barrier is rectangular and of height ΦB and width s, and
the applied voltage VB is low, i.e. \n\n\n\nV\nB\n\n≫\n\nΦ\nB\n\n.\n\n\n
\n
In that case, the relative voltage noise spectrum due to the presence of traps in glass barriers is given by the following expression [6, 7]:
where x1 is the position of the trap (Figure 1), A is the barrier cross‐section, ε0 is the vacuum electrical permittivity, εr is the relative electrical permittivity of the glass, while χ and θ are parameters given by the following expressions:
where \n\n\n\n|\nk\n|\n\n\n\n is the electron wave vector magnitude. The concentration n(E) is the free electron concentration in the conducting particle, with energy E equal to the Fermi energy Efm. C1 and C2 are constants of electron capture and emission. The random occupation of the trap depends on the random tunnelling of the electron between two particles separated by a thin glass barrier that contains the trap. As the consequence of the presence of the single‐energy level trap, Lorentzian terms may be present in low‐frequency noise spectrum of the resistor. The distribution of the trap energy levels can result in noise spectrum with 1/f γ dependence (γ = 1 or γ ≠ 1) [8].
\n
Under assumption that thick‐film resistor can be viewed as the complex network [1] that consists of M parallel chains and that one chain consists of KC contacts and KB MIM units, then the total resistance of the resistor is given by
where RC is the resistance of the sintered contact between two neighbouring conducting particles and RB is the barrier resistance. Resistance of the sintered contact between two adjacent conducting particles is determined by the specific resistance of the contact ρ and the radius of the barrier cross section a [1]:
where NB, NT and NC are the total number of barriers, traps and contacts, respectively, taking part in the conduction process between two opposite electrodes.
\n
Contributions of different kinds of noise sources included in Eq. (10) are shown in Figure 2. These results are obtained by numerical simulation for parameter values: s = 1.33 nm, d = 150 nm, a = 6.2 nm, NB = 3.8 × 108, NC = 4.6 × 109, NT = 6.9 × 109 and R = 100 kΩ [6]. 1/f noise and noise due to the presence of traps in glass barriers are included along with two Lorentzian terms (fC1 = 115 Hz and fC2 = 1.1 kHz). The contribution of the noise due to the conduction through the conductive grains or contacts between the adjacent ones is negligible, and, therefore, is not shown in Figure 2.
\n
Figure 2.
Contributions of different kinds of the noise sources in the total voltage noise spectrum (continuous line) as calculated using Eq. (10) (1—thermal noise; 2, 3—noise due to the presence of traps in glass barriers; and 4—1/f noise) [6].
\n
\n
\n
3. Failure analysis of thick‐film resistors subjected to high‐voltage pulse stressing
\n
Different conditions of thick‐film resistor application have induced the need to investigate their behaviour under stress, especially high‐voltage pulse stress. The most of the published data dealt with trimming of thick resistive films by energy of high‐voltage pulses (HVP trimming) [9, 10]—a trimming method based on internal discharges using both thick‐film resistor terminations as electrodes for applying the high‐voltage energy to the resistor body. Moreover, several papers explored properties of thick‐film surge resistors [11] that serve as protection of communication systems from a variety of voltage disturbances such as short duration, high‐voltage transients caused by lightning strikes or longer duration over voltages. Nowadays, the revival of thick‐film technology that can be attributed to new applications of thick‐film resistors induced the necessity of extensive behavioural studies related to undesirable high‐voltage pulse stressing of conventional thick resistive films [12–14].
\n
In order to qualitatively analyse the influence of high‐voltage pulsing on thick‐film resistors, pulse performances have been investigated using a model of low‐frequency noise in thick resistive films presented in the previous chapter. Behavioural analysis of thick‐film resistors subjected to high‐voltage pulse stressing was performed using several groups of thick‐film test samples with different resistor geometries (Figure 3) realized using commercially available RuO2 and Bi2Ru2O7 mixture‐based‐thick‐film resistor compositions in combination with Pd/Ag conductor composition. Test samples were formed on ceramic alumina (96% Al2O3) substrates using conventional screen‐printing techniques. After 15 min levelling at 21°C, wet layers were dried at 150°C in a conveyer infrared drier for 10 min. Dry resistive films were 25 ± 3 μm thick. Firing was performed using standard 30‐min cycle (Tmax = 850°C, tmax = 10 min). Pulse performances have been investigated using 100/700 μs pulses delivered by Haefely P6T impulse tester with an output resistance of 25 Ω. Following experimental set‐up was used: 1.5–4.0 kV voltage range, 10 pulse series, 6 pulses/min frequency, T = 21°C. Testing conditions were selected in compliance with ITU‐T K.20 standard that refers to the resistibility of telecommunication equipment to over‐voltages and over‐currents. Keithley nanovolt amplifier, Model 103A, was used for voltage noise spectrum measurements along with Hewlett‐Packard dynamic signal analyzer 3561B in the 10 Hz to 10 kHz frequency range. A noise index [15] was also measured in compliance with the test method standard for electronic and electrical component parts MIL‐STD‐202D, Method 308, at 1 kHz. For noise index measurements, Quan‐Tech Resistor Noise Test Set, Model 315B was used. Hewlett‐Packard 34401A instrument was used for resistance measurements.
\n
Figure 3.
Thick‐film test resistors of different lengths and widths used in experimental investigations.
\n
Table 1 and Figure 4 [12] present typical results obtained by noise and resistance measurements for 10 and 100 kΩ/sq test resistors that were exposed to the high‐voltage treatment. Resistors with identical 1 × 2 mm2 geometries suffered degradation but they did not catastrophically fail. Results obtained by noise index, voltage noise spectrum and resistance measurements are given for resistors with a nominal resistance of 16 kΩ that were subjected to the impact of eleven 1500 V pulses and a single 3000 V pulse and resistors with a nominal resistance of 220 kΩ that were subjected to the impact of eleven 1500 V pulses and eleven 3000 V pulses. After impacts of the first and the tenth pulse from the series of pulses with the same amplitude, voltage noise spectrum and resistance measurements were performed. Results for two series of degraded resistors (10 and 100 kΩ/sq) and two resistors that suffered catastrophic failure are given in Table 1. Sheet resistances, Rsq, nominal resistances, RN, resistances, R, resistance noise spectra, SR, and noise indexes, NI, before (i) and after (s) high‐voltage pulse treatment are presented.
\n
Figure 4.
Experimental results for voltage and resistance noise spectra (◆—before pulse stressing, ■—after pulse stressing), for thick‐film resistors with following nominal resistances: R = 16 kΩ (a, b) and R = 220 kΩ (c) [12].
Resistor parameters before (i) and after (s) high‐voltage pulse stressing [12].
\n
Results given in Table 1 show that resistance decreases with high‐voltage pulse treatment of thick resistive films. The relative resistance change for both groups of resistors is of the order of several percents. This change although small is higher for 10 kΩ/sq resistors (3%) than for 100 kΩ/sq resistors (1%).
\n
Figure 4 presents the experimental results for resistance noise spectra before and after high‐voltage pulse stressing. Since the voltage noise spectrum depends on current I, the measured values for the voltage noise spectrum were used for resistance noise spectrum (SR= SV/I2) calculations. Compliance of voltage and resistance noise spectra, which is in agreement with Ohms law, is shown in Figure 4a and b. An increase of resistance noise due to high‐voltage treatment is observed. Resistors based on compositions with higher sheet resistances exhibit smaller final change of the resistance noise. Since the same test conditions were applied to all test samples, the obtained results were expected. Results for all test resistors presented in Table 1 show that measured resistance changes are less distinguished than the measured resistor noise spectrum changes.
\n
High‐voltage pulse stressing caused microscopic changes in thick resistive films that manifested in presented results. Thick resistive films are complex conductive networks. These conductive networks are result of the sintering processes. Transport of electrical charges takes place via a number of conducting chains. These chains consist of clusters of particles (particles that are in contact) and neighbouring particles separated by thin glass barriers (MIM units). Therefore, the current flow is being determined by metallic conduction through clusters of particles and tunnelling through glass barriers. Multiple tunnelling processes take place when the traps are present in glass barriers. Impurities introduced during technological processes and partial dissolution of metal‐oxide in glass are responsible for the presence of traps. During high‐voltage treatment, resistance change occurs due to barrier and contact resistance changes. High‐voltage pulse stressing induces electrical field inside metal‐insulator‐metal unit that is not sufficient to induce dielectric breakthrough and therefore a decrease in the resistance due to the increase in a number of contacts between neighbouring particles does not occur. It is more likely that high‐voltage treatment affects electrical charges captured within thin glass layers between neighbouring conducting particles or that the concentration of traps increases due to changes in microstructure of the resistor thus affecting noise performances of the resistor more than resistance values. Besides that, resistance decrease may occur due to the conversion of single chain from the non‐conducting state to the conducting state. Under the same straining conditions, depending on the volume fraction of the conductive phase, thick‐film resistor exhibits different changes in resistance values. A conductive/insulating phase ratio determines the microstructure of the thick resistive film and present conducting mechanisms as it is shown in scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs of 10 and 100 kΩ/sq thick‐film resistors given in Figure 5. It can be seen that resistors based on compositions with greater sheet resistances have greater content of the glass phase. For that reason the most of the neighbouring conducting particles are separated by thin glass barriers. In that case, the conducting mechanism known as multiple tunnelling becomes dominant. On the other hand, resistors based on compositions with lower sheet resistances have lower content of the glass phase and therefore large conductive areas are present. In that case, the conducting mechanism known as metallic conduction is also present. This also means that for the same voltage pulse, a greater electric field can be achieved within the thin glass layer between two neighbouring particles along with the greater current. For these reasons, resistors with smaller sheet resistances exhibit greater resistance changes caused by high‐voltage treatment.
\n
Figure 5.
SEM micrographs of 10 kΩ/sq (a) and 100 kΩ/sq (b) thick‐film resistors fired for 10 min at 850°C [12].
\n
Measurements of the noise voltage spectrum showed that high‐voltage treatment results in the increase of noise voltage and corresponding resistance noise spectra. Moreover, dominant contribution of the 1/f noise source is observed. High‐voltage pulse stressing affects electrons captured by traps in thin glass barriers that are not directly involved in the conduction. However, conduction is being modulated by electrical charges captured by traps that alter the height of the potential barrier of metal‐insulator‐metal unit. For these reasons, change in the resistance noise spectrum is considerably higher than change in resistance values before and after high‐voltage pulse stressing. It confirms the presumption that low‐frequency noise exhibits greater sensitivity to changes at the microstructural level than resistance. Besides that, resistors formed using compositions with higher sheet resistances exhibit smaller resistance noise spectrum changes. Since it is noted that contacts between neighbouring conducting particles negligibly affect low‐frequency noise, such behaviour can be attributed to differing spatial distributions of traps in resistors based on compositions with different sheet resistances. Along with measurements of noise voltage spectrum, noise index [15] measurements were performed since noise index is well known as one of the standard quality and reliability indicators used in the fabrication of thick resistive films. Noise index was measured before and after performed stressing. Measurements showed increasing noise index values due to applied stressing. As expected, the observed noise index increase is in agreement with the resistance noise spectrum measurements having in mind the noise index definition. However, noise spectra measurements can provide additional information regarding noise nature and sources that are related to microstructural properties of thick resistive films and present conducting mechanisms.
\n
High‐voltage treatment caused numerous catastrophic failures in tested resistors [12]. Figure 6 shows failed 100 kΩ/sq thick‐film resistor that was exposed to eleven 1500 V pulses and a single 3000 V pulse. A resistor with the initial resistance of R = 111.92 kΩ was covered with fine Ag powder that migrated from the contact area between resistive film and conducting path. Ag powder affected resistance of the resistor by decreasing its value. After the mechanical removal of the powder resistor regained its 100 kΩ value and damaged area became visible. As it can be seen from Figure 6a, the segregation of the resistive film took place. The cause of the failure is probably a faulty technological process that introduced impurities in the resistive film. The micrograph of the failure spot shown in Figure 6b showed that thin resistive layers still remained present in the failure region. The ratio between the glass and conductive phase was changed because of the higher concentration of the conductive phase in the surface layer of the resistor. Several factors affected the performances of this resistor. High‐voltage treatment affected both the microstructure and macrostructure of the resistor, introduced visible physical damage and damage caused by mechanical removal of thin layer of Ag powder.
\n
Figure 6.
Photograph of 100 kΩ/sq thick‐film resistor that catastrophically failed (a) and micrograph of the damaged area (b) [12].
\n
In order to prove that high‐voltage treatment caused microstructural changes in noise index and resistance noise spectra were measured. Figure 7 and Table 1 show that noise performances of the failed resistor were in correlation with noise performances of resistors that did not suffer failure. The segregated area accidentally did not strongly affect microstructure of the resistor. A thin conducting layer that remained at the failure spot probably had a shunting effect that compensated decreased thickness of the resistive film.
\n
Figure 7.
Experimental results for resistance noise spectrum (◆—before pulse stressing, ■—after pulse stressing) for catastrophically failed thick‐film resistor with the initial resistance R = 111.92 kΩ [12].
\n
Figure 8a shows the failed 10 kΩ/sq thick‐film resistor. The conducting film, as well as the contact area between resistive and conductive film, was damaged after the impact of a single 1500 V pulse. The possible cause of this occurrence may be defect migration or poorly formed contact between resistor and neighbouring conducting path. Resistance increase confirmed that the resistor area was affected. However, it cannot be concluded how this defect influenced the frequency‐dependent part of the low‐frequency noise spectrum. According to the results given in previous figures, the resistance noise spectrum and noise index increases (Figure 8b and Table 1) are probably mainly related to changes in the microstructure of the resistive layer.
\n
Figure 8.
Photograph of catastrophically failed thick‐film resistor (a) with the initial resistance R = 7.842 kΩ and experimental results for resistance noise spectrum (◆—before pulse stressing, ■—after pulse stressing) (b) [12].
\n
Figure 9 shows catastrophically failed resistor with a sheet resistance of 1 kΩ/sq [14]. Resistance of the thick‐film resistor gradually increased with high‐voltage pulse treatment until pulse amplitude reached its critical level at which resistor suffered catastrophic failure due to the excess loaded voltage. Both resistive film and conducting path were visibly damaged. As expected, pulse stressing also affected noise performances of the resistor. Noise index gradually increased with applied stressing until failures occurred resulting in maximal noise index values (Figure 9a). Figure 9b illustrates this mode of catastrophic failure.
\n
Figure 9.
Experimental results for relative resistance changes and noise index during high‐voltage pulse stressing of 1 kΩ/sq thick‐film resistor (a) and a photograph of catastrophically failed resistor with designated failure points (b) [14].
\n
During the high‐voltage pulse treatment, destruction of the resistor may also occur. Conducting path degradation may lead to the dispersion of the conductive material to the resistor area resulting in the presence of local hot spots and resistor burning and evaporation. A typical example of this mode of catastrophic failure is shown in Figure 10.
\n
Figure 10.
Photograph of catastrophically failed thick‐film resistor due to the presence of hot spots caused by conducting material dispersion.
\n
During testing, several encapsulated resistors suffered progressive resistor degradation that led to catastrophic failure [13]. The photograph of the characteristic mode of progressive 10 kΩ/sq resistor degradation due to thermal effects induced by high‐voltage treatment is given in Figure 11. Note that 10 kΩ/sq resistor was subjected to high‐voltage pulse treatment using pulses with 3 and 4 kV amplitudes. With each applied 3 kV pulse resistor gradually degraded. At first, glass encapsulant started to melt and with further stressing several areas of thick resistive film became fully exposed to the environment. After increasing the pulse amplitude to 4 kV catastrophic failure took place. Thick resistive film burned and evaporated. The volume of the resistor decreased resulting in 430% resistance increase. The reported noise index values were in accordance with resistance values. Unacceptably high resistance and noise index values registering strain induced degradations along with diminished integrity of the resistive layer qualified this test resistor as unreliable.
\n
Figure 11.
Photographs of progressive resistor degradation due to high‐voltage pulse stressing: melting of glass encapsulant, direct exposure of resistive layer to surrounding atmosphere and burned and partially evaporated resistive layer [13].
\n
It should be mentioned that the failure of resistive layers due to high‐voltage pulse stressing is often accompanied by the failure of conducting paths. The characteristics of failure modes for thick‐film conducting paths are shown in Figure 12. The high‐voltage treatment may diminish conducting path integrity causing burning and evaporation of conducting path segments.
\n
Figure 12.
Photographs of failed conducting paths.
\n
\n
\n
4. Conclusion
\n
Degradation and failure analysis of thick‐film resistors is identified as the constant manufacturers challenge due to the growing market of C‐MEMS devices and reliable communication systems. These contemporary applications of thick resistive materials induced the need to investigate their behaviour under various stressing conditions, especially electrical stressing conditions. On the other hand, there is a growing interest in noise measurements as means of thick‐film resistor quality evaluation and evaluation of degradation under stress. For these reasons, this chapter presented the study of high‐voltage pulse stressing effects on thick‐film resistors based on the model of low‐frequency noise in thick‐film structures based on close relationship of the noise and conduction mechanisms. Correlation between resistance and low‐frequency noise changes and high‐voltage pulse stressing was observed and qualitative degradation and failure analysis was performed based on standard noise and resistance measurements. Several catastrophically failed resistors were presented and their failure modes were analysed. Results presented in this chapter confirmed that standard resistance and noise measurements can be used in degradation and failure analysis of thick resistive structures. They aim to open new prospects for further investigations and quantitative analysis that may result in a method of diagnostic of microstructure effects as well as improved quality assessment of thick‐film resistors under a wide range of extreme working conditions.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia for supporting this research within projects III44003 and III45007.
\n
\n',keywords:"thick‐film resistors, low‐frequency noise, conducting mechanisms, high‐voltage pulse stressing, failure analysis",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/55876.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/55876.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55876",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55876",totalDownloads:514,totalViews:337,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 9th 2016",dateReviewed:"April 25th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"December 20th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The chapter aims to present research results in the field of thick‐film resistor failure analysis based on standard resistance and low‐frequency noise measurements. Noise spectroscopy–based analysis establishes correlation between noise parameters and parameters of noise sources in these heterogeneous nanostructures. Validity of the presented model is verified experimentally for resistors operating under extreme working conditions. For the experimental purposes, thick‐film resistors of different sheet resistances and geometries, realized using commercially available thick‐film resistor compositions, were subjected to high‐voltage pulse (HVP) stressing. The obtained experimental results are qualitatively analysed from microstructure, charge transport mechanism and low‐frequency noise aspects. Correlation between resistance and low‐frequency noise changes with resistor degradation and failure due to high‐voltage pulse stressing is observed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/55876",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/55876",book:{slug:"failure-analysis-and-prevention"},signatures:"Ivanka Stanimirović",authors:[{id:"3420",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivanka",middleName:null,surname:"Stanimirović",fullName:"Ivanka Stanimirović",slug:"ivanka-stanimirovic",email:"inam@iritel.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"3421",title:"Dr.",name:"Zdravko",middleName:null,surname:"Stanimirović",fullName:"Zdravko Stanimirović",slug:"zdravko-stanimirovic",email:"zdravkos@iritel.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Low‐frequency noise in thick‐film resistive structures",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Failure analysis of thick‐film resistors subjected to high‐voltage pulse stressing",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Kusy A, Szpytma A. On 1/f noise in RuO2‐based thick resistive films. Solid‐State Electronics. 1986;29:657-665. DOI: 10.1016/0038‐1101(86)90148‐6\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Chiang Y‐M, Silverman LA, French RH, Cannon RM. Thin glass film between ultrafine conductor particles in thick‐film resistors. The Journal of the American Ceramic Society. 1994;77:1143-1152. DOI: 10.1111/j.1151‐2916.1994.tb05386.x\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Pike GE, Seager SH. Electrical properties and conduction mechanisms of Ru‐based thick‐film (cermet) resistors. Journal of Applied Physics. 1977;48:5152-5169. DOI: 10.1063/1.323595\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Hooge FN. 1/f noise is no surface effect. Physics Letters A. 1969;29A:139-140. DOI: 10.1016/0375‐9601(69)90076‐0\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Kleipenning TGM. On low‐frequency noise in tunnel junctions. Solid‐State Electronics. 1982;25:78-79. DOI: 10.1016/0038‐1101(82)90100‐9\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Mrak I, Jevtić MM, Stanimirović Z. Low‐frequency noise in thick‐film structures caused by traps in glass barriers. Microelectronics Reliability. 1998;38:1569-1576. DOI: 10.1016/S0026‐2714(98)00032‐8\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Jevtić MM, Stanimirović Z, Mrak I. Low‐frequency noise in thick‐film resistors due to two‐step tunnelling process in insulator layer of elemental MIM cell. IEEE Transactions on Components, Packaging, and Manufacturing Technology. 1999;22(01):120-127. DOI: 10.1109/6144.759361\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Pellegrini B. 1/fγ noise from single‐energy‐level defects. Physical Review B. 1987;35(2):571-580. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevB.35.571\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Ehrhardt W, Thrust H. Trimming of thick‐film‐resistors by energy of high voltage pulses and its influence on microstructure. In: Proceedings of 13th European Microelectronics and Packaging Conference, May 31st–June 1st, Strasbourg, France, 2001; 403-407\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Dziedzic A, Kolek A, Ehrhardt W, Thust H: Advanced electrical and stability characterization of untrimmed and variously trimmed thick‐film and LTCC resistors. Microelectronics Reliability. 2006;46:352-359. DOI:10.1016/j.microrel.2004.12.014\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Barker MF. Low Ohm resistor series for optimum performance in high voltage surge applications. Microelectronics International. 1997;43:22-26. DOI: 10.1108/13565369710800493\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Stanimirović I, Jevtić MM, Stanimirović Z. High‐voltage pulse stressing of thick‐film resistors and noise. Microelectronics Reliability. 2003;43:905-911. DOI: 10.1016/S0026‐2714(03)00094‐5\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Stanimirović I, Jevtić MM, Stanimirović Z. Multiple high‐voltage pulse stressing of conventional thick‐film resistors. Microelectronics Reliability. 2007;47:2242-2248. DOI: 10.1016/j.microrel.2006.11.017\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Stanimirović Z, Jevtić MM, Stanimirović I. Simultaneous mechanical and electrical straining of conventional thick‐film resistors. Microelectronics Reliability. 2008;48:59-67. DOI:10.1016/j.microrel.2006.09.039\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Jevtić MM, Stanimirović Z, Stanimirović I. Evaluation of thick‐film resistor structural parameters based on noise index measurements. Microelectronics Reliability. 2001;41:59-66. DOI: 10.1016/S0026‐2714(00)00207‐9\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ivanka Stanimirović",address:"inam@iritel.com",affiliation:'
Institute for Telecommunications and Electronics IRITEL a.d. Beograd, Belgrade, Republic of Serbia
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"5720",title:"Failure Analysis and Prevention",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Failure Analysis and Prevention",slug:"failure-analysis-and-prevention",publishedDate:"December 20th 2017",bookSignature:"Aidy Ali",coverURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/cover.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"13626",title:"Prof.",name:"Aidy",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"aidy-ali",fullName:"Aidy Ali"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"56973",title:"Fatigue Failure Analysis of a Centrifugal Pump Shaft",slug:"fatigue-failure-analysis-of-a-centrifugal-pump-shaft",totalDownloads:1356,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Mohd Nasir Tamin and Mohammad Arif Hamzah",authors:[{id:"196884",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohd Nasir",middleName:null,surname:"Tamin",fullName:"Mohd Nasir Tamin",slug:"mohd-nasir-tamin"}]},{id:"57634",title:"Slope Failure Analysis Using Chromaticity 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Currently, we know that the enteric nervous system, although it has a certain sovereignty or autonomy, will always need to communicate with other systems in order to carry out functions of its authorship or of other adjacent systems. Thus, in a classical way, the enteric nervous system interacts with the central nervous system but also exhibits a certain exchange of stimuli with other systems. Through this connection afferent and efferent responses are generated, with the consequent exchange of information. Remember that the afferent neurons send information of the intraluminal chemical content, mechanical state of the intestinal wall, and tissue situation (inflammation, pH, cold, and heat) to the central nervous system. The responses follow an extrinsic efferent pathway where the main neurotransmitter is norepinephrine. In addition, the efferent neurons come from the prevertebral nodes that control motility and secretion and the paravertebrals that control the flow of gastrointestinal blood vessels. Also, the relaxation of the gastric fundus and gastric and pancreatic secretion is mediated through vagal neurons. In contrast to what happens in the upper digestive tract, the distal colon and rectum are innervated by pelvic nerves. In general, vagal stimulation inhibits motor activity, gastrointestinal secretion, sphincter contraction, and blood flow, while, on the contrary, spinal stimulation stimulates them. The responses may have extrinsic afferent pathways where spinal and vagal reflexes are also activated. The primary afferent vagal neurons have their cell bodies in the nodosum and jugular ganglia and project medially to the brain, while the spinal neuronal bodies are found in the roots of the dorsal ganglia. The vagal pathways transmit information about the physiological state of the digestive organs and regulate inflammatory responses, while the spinal pathways transmit the painful impulses.
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\n
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2. Gut microbiota
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Since 2007, the genome of 500 bacterial species that normally reside in the human intestine, and which together are known as microbiome or microbiota, has been identified. Our intestinal tract contains over 100 billion microbes, the vast majority in the colon, exceeding the number of human cells by a factor [1]. This complex microbial community is known as the gastrointestinal microbiota, and it consists of bacteria, archaea, eukaryotes, fungi, and viruses. Therefore, it has been proposed that the human being is a “meta-organism” with 10–100 times more bacterial than human cells, which integrate metabolically and immunologically. The composition of the microbiota, in addition to location, is influenced by age, sex, race, and other factors like diet, medication (especially antibiotics), stress, smoking, or gastrointestinal infections, as well as from each individual [2]. Even within each person, there are great variations in their composition if measured at different times. Although it is impossible to define the concept of healthy microbiota today, we do know that the richness and diversity of the microbiota are indicators of its health and that its impoverishment is associated with obesity and metabolic markers [2]. As for the qualitative composition, numerous studies are emerging that try to relate certain classes of microorganisms with different physiological states. It is proposed that there are those that improve the metabolic state, resistance to infections, cancer, autoimmunity, inflammation, endocrine signaling, and brain functionality (gut-brain axis): Bacteroides, Bifidobacterium, Clostridium group XIVa and IVa (butyrate producing), Eubacterium, Faecalibacterium, Lactobacillus, and Roseburia are considered today [3]. The relationship between the microbiota and the human being has been redefined from commensal to a mutualist relationship, where the bacteria provide biological functions not coded genetically in our organism, which go from metabolic activity to immunological homeostasis, considering the microbiota as a fundamental, virtual organ in the pathophysiological and immunological responses. There are studies related to the role of the intestinal microbiota in human health, infections, and neurological diseases [4] (Figure 1).
\n
Figure 1.
The composition of the intestinal microbiota is influenced by physicochemical conditions and also depends on the anatomical region along the GI. The type and number of microbial species that persist and colonize the GI tract are determined by a combination of factors including but not limited to the host genetics, medications, diet, environmental factors, and to the inflammatory state of the host. In elderly patients, we can observe changes in the composition of the microbiota in comparison to young people, which could lead to a dysbiosis.
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It has rarely been thought that microorganisms and the brain interact except in instances where pathogens penetrate the blood-brain barrier, which is the cellular strength that protects the brain from infections and inflammation [5]. When they do, they can have strong effects. Bidirectional communication between the brain-nervous system and the microbiota is well known in specific cases. Pavlov’s experiments showed how a sound processed by the brain can condition the physiology of the digestive system, stimulating, among other things, gastric secretion [6].
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Clostridium botulinum can colonize the intestine and from there release its toxin that blocks the release of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular synapse. In the case of hepatic encephalopathy, brain dysfunction is a consequence of substances produced in the intestine, and its treatment includes the use of antibiotics and probiotics [7]. Certain autoimmune neurological diseases, such as Guillain-Barré syndrome, may have their origin in certain intestinal bacteria and Campylobacter jejuni. The virus that causes rabies generates aggression, agitation, and even a fear of water, but for decades the vast majority of the body’s natural microbes had not been described, and while the idea that they could influence neurobiology hardly prevailed, that is slowly changing [8]. On the other hand, metabolic functions include the degradation of polysaccharides to short-chain fatty acids, such as butyrate, propionate, and acetate, with anti-inflammatory properties and the main energetic substrate of colonocytes, and thus are implicated in the barrier function of the gut mucosa [9]. Some bacteria, particularly lactobacilli, have been implicated in cholesterol metabolism and in the production of vitamins K and B and are also involved in the metabolism of xenobiotics, drugs, antibiotics, or bioactive products, conditioning pharmacokinetics, and the production of certain toxins involved in many diseases [9].
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2.1. Microbiota and immune response
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The microbiota contributes to various immunological functions. In the gut barrier, it prevents colonization and growth of pathogenic microorganisms, and it matures the immune barrier, both stimulating the innate response through Toll-like receptors (TLR) and NOD-like receptors (NLR) as the adaptive one, with an important role in the secretion of mucins, antimicrobial peptides, defensins, and IgA [10]. Regarding the development of the systemic immune response, in working with germ-free mice, the microbiota has been observed to intervene in the regulation and maturation of Peyer’s plaques, mesenteric lymph nodes, and germinal centers [11]. It also regulates the number of plasma cells producing IgA, gut Tγδ cells, and CD4 + T lymphocytes in the lamina propria or intraepithelial and is involved in the gene expression of TLR and the major histocompatibility complex II [12]. The microbiota also conditions the development of effector T cells and the production of cytokines, highlighting the influence on Th and Treg lymphocytes involved in the autoimmune response and its regulation and, therefore, in autoimmune diseases in general and in multiple sclerosis in particular [13]. Germ-free mice (mice raised to lack intestinal microbiota) present a reduction in Th1 and Th lymphocytes, balancing the T-immune response to Th, which is reversed by reconstituting the normal gut microbiota in these animals. It has been proposed that the microbiota is involved in the passage of stationary T lymphocytes to pro-autoimmune T lymphocytes, so that mutualist microorganisms induce the production of Th at a steady state, which, in the presence of a proinflammatory microenvironment, promoted by certain cytokines such as IL- 12, IL-23, IL-1β, or TGF-β3, would pass to pathogenic Th, a producer of IFN-γ, contributing to the progression of the inflammatory bowel environment [14]. It has been shown that the involvement of a single bacterium, the segmented filamentous bacteria, can contribute to this Th pro-autoimmune activity [14] (Figure 2).
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Figure 2.
Microbiota stimulation leads to B cell switch to lga, regulatory T-cell induction, and T-cell differentiation to Th17. This image is a modification of QIAGEN’s original at www.qiagen.com/mx/shop/genes-and-pathways/pathway-details/?pwid=468.
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As for the Treg, the microbiota is indispensable for its development and function. These lymphocytes regulate the inflammation that is generated against microbial stimuli through IL-10 [15]. Numerous microbial agents have been linked to the induction of Treg, notably the role of Bacteroides fragilis and specifically its polysaccharide A (PSA) with the development of IL-10 producing Foxp3+ regulatory T cells and with the prevention and cure of experimental colitis or shock in animal models, showing its key role in the regulation of immunological tolerance [16]. The aforementioned short-chain fatty acids, especially butyrate, balance the immune system to an “anti-inflammatory state” by increasing the production of IL-10 and IL-4, reducing vascular adhesion of VCAM-mediated leukocytes, inhibiting function of IFN-γ and therefore its proinflammatory capacity, and regulating the Treg lymphocytes and the inflammatory function of leukocytes [17] (Figure 3).
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Figure 3.
Regulation of inflammation by Treg, through IL-10 and IL-4 generated against microbial stimuli, Bacteroides fragilis specifically its polysaccharide a (PSA).
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2.2. Gut and nervous system
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The surface of the gut mucosa is the most extensive of the organism and also houses the largest number of lymphoid structures in the human body. The innervations of the digestive tract are very abundant and are structured in three levels of plexus: functions of the enteric autonomic nervous system include bowel motility, vaso-regulation and permeability control, and secretion of certain gastroenteropancreatic hormones [18]. In addition, similar to what occurs in the blood-brain barrier, there are numerous astrocyte terminations at the border of the intestinal barrier that represent a potential pathway for communication with the rest of the nervous system. In the intestine we have about 100 million neurons, which are more than the spinal cord contains [19]. This multitude of neurons in the enteric nervous system allows us to feel the inner world of our gut and its contents. Much of this neuronal arsenal is evidenced in the elaborate daily routine of digestion, through decomposing food and absorbing nutrients. Expelling waste requires chemical, mechanical, and rhythmic muscle contractions that move everything to the end. Therefore, equipped with its own reflexes and senses, it can control the behavior of the gut independently of the brain. This nervous system of the intestine is connected to the brain in a bidirectional way. On one hand, the bowel receives information from the brain, and on the other hand, the bowel sends messages to the brain [20]. This communication of the intestine with the brain occurs both through the nervous system and the bloodstream and is called the gut-brain axis. Typical examples of this bidirectional circuit would be the increase in intestinal peristalsis (colicky pain and diarrhea) when our brain perceives a danger or, in the opposite direction, the sensation of satiety that our brain perceives when we have ingested a certain quantity of food [20] (Figure 4).
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Figure 4.
Key aspects of gastrointestinal physiology are controlled by the enteric nervous system, which is composed of neurons and glial cells. These cells of the enteric nervous system are connected to the central nervous system (in a bidirectional way). As an example, when we ingest food, through neural pathways and immune and endocrine mechanisms, we will perceive the sensation of satiety.
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The intestine, besides having a nervous system of its own, is also an ecosystem. Colonization by the intestinal microbiota affects the brain development of mammals and their behavior during adulthood [21]. Through measurements of motor activity and behavior related to anxiety, it has been demonstrated in mice that the microbial colonization process triggers signaling mechanisms that affect these neural circuits, so that the gut microbiota can influence normal brain development and behavioral functions [22], and the microbiota is capable of modifying the expression of some risk genes or is part of the mechanisms that alter the cognitive functions observed in patients with gastrointestinal diseases [22]. The alteration of this microbiota and gut-brain axis could explain some of the mechanisms of the pathogenesis of diverse cerebral diseases like, for example, Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, depression, Alzheimer’s disease, etc., although today its etiology still remains unknown [23]. In studies in mice, it has been shown that alterations in the intestinal microbiota could be responsible for alterations in social behavior and that supplementation with probiotics such as B. fragilis administered in the early stages of adolescence in mice could reduce brain alterations [23]. But the influence of the microbiota on the brain is unknown in detail, beyond the simple examples previously uncovered, which do not reflect the full extent of this relationship. Much more articulate is the observation of what happens to mice whose digestive tract has remained sterile throughout their development as “germ-free” [23]. It has been found that in these animals the microglia does not mature properly and it is very difficult to provoke experimental allergic encephalitis and that these mice also have changes in their behavior, with increased responses to stress, and most amazingly, certain areas of their brain, like the amygdala and hippocampus, show structural differences.
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Given the role of the vagus nerve in the communication of signals between the gut and the brain, many investigations that seek to explore the connections between microorganisms and the CNS have examined the function of this nerve. Thus, it has been shown that both pathogenic and nonpathogenic bacteria appear to activate the vagus nerve. For example, subdiaphragmatic vagotomy attenuates the expression of c-fos in rats inoculated with Salmonella typhimurium; the combination of a C. rodentium infection and stress causes an increase in the activation of the vagal ganglion in mice; intraduodenal injection of L. lactis La1 activates the gastric vagal nerve in rats; subdiaphragmatic vagotomy blocks the anxiolytic and antidepressive effects of the chronic ingestion of L. rhamnosus in normal adult mice while avoiding the associated alterations in the expression of GABAAα2 mRNA in the amygdala; and vagotomy abolishes the ability of B. longum to attenuate anxiety induced by DSS colitis.
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3. The second brain
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The relationship between the brain, the emotions, and the digestive tract is intense. So much so that many scientists refer to the intestine as the “second brain” or “gut-brain,” since the digestive tract contains a very complex neural network with a neuronal function very similar to the activity of the head.
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The presence of receptors to various neurotransmitters in the intestine has been demonstrated: it is known that some intestinal molecules, such as serotonin 5-HT, can modulate the pathogenic potential of Pseudomonas fluorescens by affecting its motility and pyoverdine production but without affecting its growth. It has been reported that gut microbiota can control the tryptophan metabolism of the host by enhancing the fraction of tryptophan available for the kynurenine route and decreasing the amount available for 5-HT synthesis [24]. Free fatty acid receptor 3 (FFAR3) receptors for short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) have been detected in submucosal and myenteric ganglia, and the responsiveness of enteric neurons to glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids has been demonstrated [24]. For example, there are receptors to the stress hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine, and this increases by more than four orders of magnitude in the human gut in the presence of Clostridium/Bacteroides. A recent report has demonstrated that Vibrio cholerae can respond to epinephrine and norepinephrine (enhancing the growth rate, swimming motility, and production of virulence factors such as iron sequestering phenotypes) by means of specific sensor proteins [24]. Less information is available on prokaryotic Glu receptors; however, 100 prokaryotic channel proteins with putative Glu-binding domains have recently been identified through a bioinformatic study. Among them, 22 proteins have been found to be homologs of vertebrate ionotropic Glu receptors. Multiple Glu receptor types (including ionotropic, types 1 and 4 metabotropic receptors, and heterodimeric TAS1R1 + TAS1R3, L-Glu taste receptors) have been detected in gastrointestinal (GI) epithelial cells and/or enteric neurons in the stomach, small intestine, and colon. And mGlu4 receptors have been detected in the mucosa of both the gastric antrum and duodenum, while both mGlu4 and mGlu7 receptors have been identified in the colon epithelium. A role of mGluRs in the human colon in the control of colon peristalsis and electrolyte transport has been described. High levels of mGlu7 and mGlu8 have been detected in myenteric neurons, where they are possibly involved in the regulation of gut motility [24]. The GABAB receptors are abundantly expressed in the GI tract. GABA and its ionotropic and metabotropic receptors are widely distributed throughout the ENS, in both submucosal and myenteric neurons, from the stomach to the ileum. The release of 5-HT by endothelial cells in the small intestine of guinea pig is modulated by GABAA and GABAB receptors. Involvement of GABAB receptors in modulation of sensitivity of vagal and spinal afferents has been reported [24].
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To think that the intestine acts as a second brain is not something new if we look at the more oriental cultures [25]. For them, the belly was and is the center of the vital energy of the organism where they integrate mind and body. The small brain that we have in the gut works in connection with the big brain in the skull and partly determines our mental state and plays a key role in certain diseases that affect other parts of the body. In addition to neurons, all types of neurotransmitters in the brain are present in the digestive system. The enteric nervous system secretes the same substances as those found in our central nervous system. There are nerve pathways that specifically connect the brain areas related to our emotions and thoughts, the immune system, the endocrine system, and the enteric nervous system to each other. When there is a disfunction between any of these conected systems, pathological symptoms may appear in any of the others even without direct damage to them [25, 26] (Figure 5).
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Figure 5.
Second brain. In the intestine we can find neurotransmitters that are exported to the CNS.
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Is well known that 90% of total body serotonin is synthesized in the intestine and it has a direct implication in gastrointestinal physiology. In this sense, our diet is important because this serotonin is formed from a tryptophan, an essential amino acid, which is only obtained through food. Here we begin to see the relationship between the brain, the intestine, and the diet [27].
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3.1. Is the gut autonomous?
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The gut has the ability to work in two ways: independently and in connection with the brain. This connection to the brain (gut-brain axis) is bidirectional in that it goes from the brain to the intestine and vice versa. We have long known that many emotional alterations, psychological issues, affect at the intestinal level, such as feelings, sadness, and loss of, or increase in, appetite. We mentioned above that serotonin in the intestine works as a neurotransmitter in the inhibition of anger, aggression, body temperature, mood, sleep, vomiting, and appetite and is responsible for keeping our state of equilibrium in balance (its different levels in our organism are related to depression). Here, more than 50% of the activity of dopamine also occurs: a neurotransmitter that among its functions regulates the levels of pleasure in our brain. Its secretion occurs during pleasant situations and encourages us to seek that activity or pleasing occupation. This means that food, sex, and various drugs are also stimulants for the secretion of dopamine in the brain in certain areas such as the nucleus accumbens and the prefrontal cortex [28].
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3.2. Some other interactions in the gut-brain axis
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Memory: the protein that burns the body fat is also responsible for memory, which is why obese people are more prone to dementia. Well-being: mood is lodged in the stomach since 90% of serotonin, the “happiness hormone,” is produced and stored there. Sleep: when we relax the gut, our stomach neurons produce benzodiazepines that relax and induce sleep. Stress: in an emergency the brain takes energy from the bowel, and the guts send signals like upset stomach. Gluttony: the trillions of bacteria that lodge in the gut choose their own nutrients to thrive, and sometimes they are greedier than you. Fear: panic causes the brain to frighten the large intestine. It no longer has time to absorb fluid, and the result is diarrhea. The relationship between the brain, the microbiota, and the emotions is little investigated. There are very preliminary studies. Knowing exactly, at the clinical level, how it can impact is difficult to pin down. There are studies that point to the idea of using probiotics as a complementary treatment to drugs that treat anxiety or depressive disorders, as they may help amplify the effects, but this is still quite preliminary. Probiotics or foods rich in healthy bacteria, such as yogurts and other fermented milks, exhibited a positive influence on our behavior: Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium bacteria are capable of producing gamma-aminobutyric acid, a neurotransmitter of the brain that regulates many psychological processes and whose dysfunction is related to anxiety and depression [29].
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4. Neurodegenerative diseases
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Knowledge of the possible relationship of the microbiota with frequent neurological diseases is still new. Several studies have been carried out to analyze the type of microbiota and many neurological diseases. Recently, changes in the microbiota have been linked to the onset of Parkinson’s disease (PD). A current theory proposes PD as a disease that progresses parallel to the propagation of insoluble protein accumulations in the nervous system [30]. The enteric autonomic nervous system could be one of the starting points of this pathological accumulation of proteins, and a change in the microbiota that increases local inflammation and oxidative stress could initiate the pathological cascade, similar to what happens in experimental models. In addition, digestive autonomic changes, such as precocious constipation, are almost a preclinical constant in PD, and all this would support this hypothesis [31]. In certain neurological diseases, immunomodulatory drugs that seek to reestablish a situation in which the anti-inflammatory cytokines predominate in the system are used. The important relationship of the intestinal microbiota with the immune system offers the possibility of acting on the intestinal bacteria to achieve this change. Experimentally, and through this mechanism, treatment with certain antibiotics has influenced the prognosis of cerebral infarctions in experimental animals [32]. It is possible that the lack of knowledge about the etiopathogenesis of many neurological diseases and the gut microbiota prevents us from seeing the magnitude of the relationship between them and the possibilities of intervention to protect health or prevent or ameliorate diseases. Beyond the knowledge of all agents of the microbiota, their genes, and their functions, it is even more important to identify the molecules they produce and their effects on metabolism. Advances in proteomics and metabolomics with practical applications in the daily clinic may be the key to establishing microbiota profiles and the different relationships with neuronal diseases [33] (Figure 6).
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Figure 6.
This figure shows the effect of the microbiota on the increased inflammation that results in Parkinson’s disease. In addition, the accumulation of insoluble proteins may be an explanation for the pathological accumulation of proteins in the nervous system. IP, insoluble protein; NF-kB, nuclear factor kappa enhancer of activated B cells; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; P50, cytochromes P450; IKB, inhibitor of kB; IL-8, interleukin 8. This image is a modification of QIAGEN’s original at www.QIAGEN.com/es/shop/genes-and-pathways/pathway-details/?pwid=29.
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4.1. Parkinson’s disease
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Recently, possible changes in the microbiota have been linked to the onset of Parkinson’s disease (PD). A current theory suggests that PD is a disease that progresses parallel to the propagation of accumulations of insoluble proteins in the nervous system. The enteric autonomic nervous system could be one of the starting points of this protein accumulation. A change in the microbiota that increased local inflammation and oxidative stress could start the pathological cascade, similar to what happens in experimental models of PD. In addition, the autonomic changes to digestive disorders, such as precocious constipation, are almost a preclinical constant in PD, and all this would support this hypothesis [34]. In Parkinson’s disease, a direct correlation between the amount of Enterobacteriaceae microbes in the gut of patients, and the degree of severity in the problems of balance and mobility was detected: Scheperjans explains that the abundance of Enterobacteriaceae was related to a high degree of postural instability and gait difficulty; therefore, there is a connection between the intestinal microbiota and the motor symptoms of our patients [35]. The question is, if the differences are permanent and whether the intestinal bacteria are linked to the progression of the disease and therefore to its prognosis. This fact implies that if we can establish the basis of the relationship between the intestinal microbiota and PD we will be in a much better position for developing new strategies for prevention of the disease and its progression [35, 36]. Microbial metabolites have been shown to influence the basic physiology of the blood-brain barrier. Intestinal microorganisms break down complex carbohydrates into short chains of fatty acids with a set of effects; for example, fatty butyric acid strengthens the blood-brain barrier by adjusting the connections between cells. Also, there are recent studies of neurotransmitters that could enable them to communicate with neurons. For example, it has been studied how certain metabolites of the bacterial microbiota promote the production of serotonin in the cells lining the colon, an interesting finding given that some antidepressant drugs work promoting serotonin at the junctions between neurons [37]. Even though the association of gastrointestinal disorders and PD has been studied extensively, it does not occur in the same way with the study of the influence of the gut microbiota on PD. The first studies in this regard were limited to evaluating the association between Helicobacter pylori infestation and PD. These investigations were based on the causal role of H. pylori in a variety of human diseases including chronic gastritis, peptic ulcers, and stomach cancer and in the well-known association of PD with gastric ulcers [38, 39, 40, 41]. Several studies have demonstrated the existence of an association between PD and levels of H. pylori infestation. In a small, case-control study, a fivefold increase in H. pylori antibody levels was observed among patients older than 80 years of age with Parkinsonian manifestations [42]. Similarly, in patients with PD, a threefold increase in H. pylori antibody levels compared to control subjects has been reported. More recently, in an extensive study conducted in Denmark that included a total of 4484 PD patients diagnosed between 2001 and 2008, and a total of 22,416 controls, it was shown that chronic infections with H. pylori or the presence of gastritis contributed to PD or that there are pathologies related to this disease that precede the occurrence of motor symptoms. Additionally, it has been shown that the eradication of H. pylori infections decreases PD symptoms [43]. Composition of the fecal microbiome has been compared between patients with PD and control subjects in the District Hospital of Helsinki and Uusimaa [44]. In this study, 72 patients with idiopathic PD and an equal number of control individuals matched by sex and age were included. The existence of alterations of the intestinal microbiome in patients with PD was demonstrated, and such alterations were associated to the motor phenotype. The average abundance of the Prevotellaceae was reduced in 77.6% in the patients with PD in comparison with the control subjects. The relative abundance of Prevotellaceae of 6.5% or less had a sensitivity of 86.1% and a specificity of 38.9%, while a classifier obtained by logistic regression based on the abundance of four bacterial families and the severity of constipation identified PD patients with a sensitivity of 66.7% and a specificity of 90.3%. On the other hand, the relative abundance of Enterobacteriaceae was positively associated with the severity of postural instability and difficulty walking. The enterotype of the intestinal microbiota represented by Prevotella has been associated with increased levels of short-chain fatty acids with a neuroactive health-promoting function and with a high capacity for the synthesis of thiamine and folate. From these observations, it has been proposed that the observed decrease in the abundance of Prevotella could be associated to the previously reported decrease in the levels of these vitamins in PD patients and that the supplementation of these vitamins and short-chain fatty acids may have potential therapeutic effects in patients with PD.
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4.2. Demyelinating diseases
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There is a broad line of research on the relationship between intestinal microbiota and optic neuromyelitis and mainly with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of multiple sclerosis (MS), and an emerging line that is trying to extrapolate the results of the EAE to the MS. Patients with aquaporin-positive neuromyelitis optical have a higher serum antibody response to gastrointestinal antigens than healthy controls, especially in extensive myelitis, which seems to be related to the control of the microbiota on autoimmune inflammation [45]. The peripheral existence of aquaporin-specific T cells, capable of developing Th responses, which showed cross-reactivity with a homologous sequence in an epitope present in Clostridium perfringens, representative of the commensal flora, has also been demonstrated, insinuating a mechanism of responsible cellular mimicry of activating said Th response [46]. Demyelination usually occurs as a phenomenon secondary to an infectious disorder or a toxin. In the primary demyelinating processes, its cause is unknown, but an autoimmune mechanism is thought to occur because its appearance sometimes follows a virosis, an antiviral vaccination, or an alteration of the microbiota. Demyelination tends to be segmental or patchy and often affects multiple zones at once or in succession. Often remyelination occurs, with repair, regeneration, and complete recovery of nerve functions. However, any extensive loss of myelin is often followed by axonal degeneration and, often, also of cellular soma, and both processes can be irreversible. Demyelination should be considered for any patient suffering from a neurological deficit without any other explanation. Primary demyelinating disorders are suggested by:
Diffuse or multifocal deficits
Sudden onset, especially in young adults
Appearance within weeks after an infection or vaccination
A course with ups and downs
Symptoms indicative of a specific demyelinating process (e.g., unexplained optic neuritis or internuclear ophthalmoplegia that suggests multiple sclerosis).
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4.3. Multiple sclerosis
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MS is caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Among the causal factors, it could be that a certain individual with certain bacterial microbiota could more easily develop the disease. However, if we want to identify what happens with the gut microbiota, we might also include this within the environmental causes of the individual and understand the conditioning of the disease. The first line of work is to identify if the bacterial flora plays a role in multiple sclerosis and the second, if it plays a role, is to determine which bacteria are protective and which are harmful [21, 47]. This surprising finding was made possible by the recent development of genetically modified mice. In the absence of exposure to any external influences, inflammatory reactions emerge in the brains of these animals that are similar to those associated with multiple sclerosis in humans, yet this only occurs when mice have intact gut microbiota [48]. Mice without microorganisms in their gut, which remained in a sterile environment, remained healthy. When vaccinated, animals bred under sterile conditions, with normal intestinal microorganisms, also became ill; however, the gut microbiota influences the immune systems in the digestive tract, and mice without intestinal flora have fewer T cells. On the other hand, the spleen of these animals produces fewer inflammatory substances, like cytokines, and, in addition, B cells produce few or no antibodies against myelin and restore the microbiota of mice, and their T cells and B cells increase their production of cytokines and antibodies [49].
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Another group of habitual commensal bacteria related to the regulation of the immune response and studied in EAE is lactic acid bacteria. Within this group is Pediococcus acidilactici, which is administered orally and induces an IL-10 mediated response that decreases the severity of EAE both therapeutically and prophylactically, through the inhibition of IL-17 and IFN-γ and a decrease in cellular infiltrates in the CNS. In this case, the responsible, related lymphocytes, rather than being TCD4 + FoxP3+ (with a slight increase), were the type 1 regulatory T lymphocytes (Treg1) [50]. The potential use of probiotics in EAE has been investigated. Bifidobacterium animalis has been used during lactation of rodents that were later induced for EAE, with a reduction in the duration of clinical symptoms, curiously only in male mice. Using a combination of three strains of Lactobacillus, they demonstrated that the combination, but not each separately, reversed EAE in mice, associated with an increase in TregFoxP3 + lymphocytes and IL-4, IL-10 and TGFβ1 in the nodules of lymphatic vessels and the spleen [50]. Using other mixtures of probiotics (Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, and Streptococcus), similar results have been obtained, as well as the association of IL-10 and the development of Treg in the mechanism, which, as previously mentioned, leads to a lower polarization of lymphocytes T helper toward Th1/Th1 [51]. Scientists would now like to analyze the total microbial genome of patients with multiple sclerosis and thus identify differences in the intestinal flora of healthy individuals and patients with multiple sclerosis. Scientists are sure that the microbiota can also trigger an exaggerated reaction of the immune system against the myelin layer in people with a genetic predisposition for multiple sclerosis. Therefore, nutrition can play a central role in the disease since diet largely determines the bacteria that colonize the intestine. Changing eating habits could explain, for example, why the incidence of multiple sclerosis has increased in Asian countries in recent years. Apparently the immune system is activated in two stages. First, the T cells in the lymphatic vessels of the gut are activated and proliferate together with the proteins of the surface of the myelin layer, and these stimulate the B cells to form pathogenic antibodies. Both processes trigger inflammatory reactions in the brain that progressively destroy the myelin layer, a process that is very similar to the way multiple sclerosis develops in humans [52]. How does the intestinal flora influence the health of the brain? This is an area that arouses more and more interest in those who work with neurodegenerative diseases, and understanding this balance and how to control it can open the way to a new type of probiotic-based therapy (foods that contain live bacteria that may be beneficial), synbiotics which stimulate the growth of existing beneficial bacteria (Figure 7).
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Figure 7.
This figure shows an inflammatory pathway in mice very similar to that developed in MS patients. This inflammatory reaction is associated with modifications in the intestinal microbiota in mice. This image is a modification of QIAGEN’s at www.QIAGEN.com/es/shop/genes-and-pathways/pathway-details/?pwid=29.
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In another study, it has been shown that there is a link between intestinal commensal bacteria and autoimmune pathologies in murine models of MS. In one study, 34 pairs of monozygotic twins were selected, one ill and the other not. This choice permits eliminating the influence of genetic factors and reducing the environmental factors in the appearance of MS. In advance, they compared fecal microbiota without finding important differences, except for an excess of Akkermansia in untreated sick subjects. To test the functionality of these intestinal floras, they selected five pairs of twins. The intestinal microbiota of each individual was transferred to rodents predisposed to autoimmune encephalomyelitis, which is the animal model of MS. This transplant triggered the disease in more than 60% of the animals that received microbiota from subjects with MS, compared to 30% in those who received the microbiota of healthy subjects. The analysis of the intestinal microbiota of the transplanted animals revealed an increase of the Sutterella deficit in the animals that received the microbiota of subjects with MS. However, the presence of this bacterium was associated with a better defense against inflammatory diseases. At the immune level, the study shows a deficit in the production of interleukin 10 in the animals that received the EM microbiota. In parallel, the blockade of this cytokine in rodents that received the healthy microbiota increased the incidence of autoimmune encephalomyelitis, which suggests that this molecule has a regulatory role in autoimmune diseases of the central nervous system [53].
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5. Alteration in protein conformation: microbiota and nervous system
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One of the problems that exist in common in several neurological diseases is alterations in the folding of proteins. It is the process by which the sequence of amino acids adopts a three-dimensional structure that constitutes its native form. In some proteins, in addition to the native and unfolding states, there are partially folded states known as intermediates. The concentration of proteins in the cytoplasm is high. Despite this, proteins in the native state are not normally added. On the other hand, the denatured state has a very short half-life. In this sense, various evidences strongly suggest that the aggregation is due to the specific association of non-native states. Several diseases that exhibit deposits of aggregated proteins have been associated with genetic factors, that is, point mutations in the protein that cause their aggregation. How do mutations facilitate aggregation? In physicochemical terms, mutations can alter the stability or speed of interconversion between the native form and the fibrillar form; denaturing conditions have been found that favor the presence of non-native conformations, which act as precursors of the formation of the altered proteins. Another coincidence that exists in several neuropathologies is that we know what is happening (not always everything), but the root cause, what or who initiates, is unknown; we mention that this is multifactorial and, in it, we cover part of our ignorance. A particular case is the stabilization of the folding of α-synuclein, which is involved in Parkinson’s disease, dementia associated with Lewy bodies, and the variant of Alzheimer’s disease also associated with Lewy bodies.
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As mentioned above, a large number of proteins without homology, or not associated with diseases, present conformational structural alterations. If so, why are not all proteins added? And at this point is when we have the obligation to analyze these neuropathologies in a systemic way. Our body has taken thousands of years to perfect itself, and we often forget that the set of systems that make up our body is a unit and that this is in constant interaction between its organs and systems but also with the environment and other organisms that are part of it, including the microbiota, which is currently telling us how there are close dialogs between our gut and our nervous system and other systems in a constant back and forth of information in both directions. In most diseases described above, their diagnosis is another challenge because only if we are strict enough we will only say probable Parkinson’s disease, and this will only be corroborated with its postmortem study, the same happens with Alzheimer’s. When classifying these diseases, we reach another coincidence in most of them—sporadic or genetic—and their percentages between them are similar 85–90% vs. 15–10% (respectively). Where the genetic and the environment are usually variations of the same symphony, at the end of the day, the relationship between the nervous system and the microbiota of the gut is a fact that invites us to reflect on the individuality of the systems and the need for research in translational medicine.
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\n\n',keywords:"brain, intestine, microbiota, neurodegeneration",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/62745.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/62745.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62745",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62745",totalDownloads:1120,totalViews:758,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 14th 2017",dateReviewed:"June 13th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"February 6th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"It has recently been discovered that the digestive tract is lined with about 100 million nerve cells; the digestive tract has been baptized, metaphorically speaking, as “the second brain,” which contains a multitude of neurotransmitters, viruses, and bacteria that help regulate our emotional state. This second brain, known as the enteric nervous system, is a unique anatomical unit that extends from the esophagus to the anus. Like the nervous system, it produces a whole series of psychoactive substances, such as serotonin, dopamine, and opioids for pain, and synthesizes benzodiazepines. In it, we find the microbiota: a set of microorganisms (viruses and bacteria). Together with the brain, the microbiota directly influences mood, character, or sleep. Knowledge about the possible relationship of the microbiota with frequent neurological diseases is still just beginning. Recently, possible changes in the microbiota have been linked to the onset of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Also, today, we know that there are differences between the microbiota of healthy people and people with multiple sclerosis and that these differences have also been related to the disease and its evolution.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/62745",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/62745",signatures:"Genaro Gabriel Ortiz, Luis H. de, José A. Cruz-Serrano, Erandis D.\nTorres-Sánchez, Miriam A. Mora-Navarro, Daniela L. C. Delgado-\nLara, Irma Gabriela Ortiz-Velázquez, Héctor González-Usigli, Oscar\nK. 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Gabriela",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz-Velázquez",fullName:"I. Gabriela Ortiz-Velázquez",slug:"i.-gabriela-ortiz-velazquez",email:"gaorve@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Gut microbiota",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Microbiota and immune response",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Gut and nervous system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. The second brain",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1. Is the gut autonomous?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2. Some other interactions in the gut-brain axis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Neurodegenerative diseases",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1. Parkinson’s disease",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.2. Demyelinating diseases",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.3. Multiple sclerosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"5. 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Frontiers in Bioscience. 2010;15:25-34\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Nielsen OL, Olsen HG, Iburg T, Jensen HE, Leifsson PS, Agerholm JS, Skovgaard K. Cytokine and acute phase protein mRNA expression in liver tissue from pigs with severe sepsis caused by intravenous inoculation of Staphylococcus aureus. In 2010 Annual Meeting SLB & IEIIS: Abstracts; 2010\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Mawe G, Hoffman J. Serotonin signaling in the gastrointestinal tract. Nature Reviews. Gastroenterology & Hepatology. 2013;10(8):473-486\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Silver J, Schwab M, Popovich P. Central nervous system regenerative failure: Role of oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, and microglia. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology. 2015;7(3): a020602. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a020602\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Lyte M, John Cryan F. Microbial Endocrinology: The MicrobiotaGut-Brain Axis in Health and Disease Springer New York. Abilene, TX, USA: Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center; 2014. p. 2014\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Lee-Phillips M. Gut reaction: Environmental effects on the human microbiota. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2009;117(5):A198-A205\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Rogers G, Keating D, Young R, Wong M, Licinio J, Wesselingh S. From gut dysbiosis to altered brain function and mental illness: Mechanisms and pathways. Molecular Psychiatry. 2016;21(6):738-748\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Wang Y, Kasper L. The role of microbiome in central nervous system disorders. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 2014;38:1-12\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Mazzoli R, Pessione E. The neuro-endocrinological role of microbial glutamate and GABA signaling. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2016;7:1934\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Carpenter S. The gut feeling. American Psychological Association. 2012;43(8):50-54\n'},{id:"B26",body:'Carabotti M, Scirocco A, Maselli M, Severi C. The gut-brain axis: Interactions between enteric microbiota, central and enteric nervous systems. Annals of Gastroenterology. 2015;28(2):203-209\n'},{id:"B27",body:'Young S. Acute tryptophan depletion in humans: A review of theoretical, practical and ethical aspects. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience. 2013;38(5):294-305\n'},{id:"B28",body:'Dichter G, Damiano C, Allen J. Reward circuitry dysfunction in psychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders and genetic syndromes: Animal models and clinical finding. Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders. 2012;4(1):19\n'},{id:"B29",body:'Sarkar A, Lehto S, Harty S, Dinan T, Cryan J, Burnet P. Psychobiotics and the manipulation of bacteria-gut-brain signals. Trends in Neurosciences. 2016;39(11):763-781\n'},{id:"B30",body:'Umbrello G, Esposito S. Microbiota and neurologic diseases: Potential effects of probiotics. Journal of Translational Medicine. 2016;14:298\n'},{id:"B31",body:'Mulak A, Bonaz B. Brain-gut-microbiota axis in Parkinson\'s disease. World Journal of Gastroenterology. 2015;21(37):10609-10620\n'},{id:"B32",body:'Plaza-Diaz J, Gomez-Llorente C, Fontana L, Gil A. Modulation of immunity and inflammatory gene expression in the gut, in inflammatory diseases of the gut and in the liver by probiotics. World Journal of Gastroenterology. 2014;20(42):15632-15649\n'},{id:"B33",body:'Chang R, Shoemaker R, Wang WA. Novel knowledge-driven systems biology approach for phenotype prediction upon genetic intervention. IEEE/ACM Transactions on Computational Biology and Bioinformatics. 2011;8(5):1170-1182\n'},{id:"B34",body:'Haroon E, Raison C, Miller A. Psychoneuroimmunology meets neuropsychopharmacology: Translational implications of the impact of inflammation on behavior. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2012;37(1):137-162\n'},{id:"B35",body:'Scheperjans F, Aho V, Pereira PA, Koskinen K, Paulin L, Pekkonen E, Haapaniemi E, Kaakkola S, Eerola-Rautio J, Pohja M, Kinnunen E, Murros K, Auvinen P. Gut microbiota are related to Parkinson\'s disease and clinical phenotype. Movement Disorders. 2015;30(3):350-358\n'},{id:"B36",body:'Mulak A, Bonaz B. Brain-gut-microbiota axis in Parkinson\'s disease. World Journal of Gastroenterology. 2015;21(37):10609-10620\n'},{id:"B37",body:'Conlon M, Bird A. The impact of diet and lifestyle on gut microbiota and human health. Nutrients. 2015;7(1):17-44\n'},{id:"B38",body:'Cersosimo MG, Raina GB, Pecci C, Pellene A, Calandra CR, Gutiérrez C, et al. Gastrointestinal manifestations in Parkinson’s disease: Prevalence and occurrence before motor symptoms. Journal of Neurology. 2013;260:1332-1338\n'},{id:"B39",body:'Zlotnik Y, Balash Y, Korczyn AD, Giladi N, Gurevich T. Disorders of the oral cavity in Parkinson’s disease and parkinsonian syndromes. Parkinsons Disease. 2015;2015:379-482\n'},{id:"B40",body:'Cereda E, Cilia R, Klersy C, Canesi M, Zecchinelli AL, Mariani CB, et al. Swallowing disturbances in Parkinson’s disease: A multivariate analysis of contributing factors. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders. 2014;20:1382-1387\n'},{id:"B41",body:'Fasano A, Visanji NP, Liu LW, Lang AE, Pfeiffer RF. Gastrointestinal dysfunction in Parkinson\'s disease. Lancet Neurology. 2015;14(6):625-639\n'},{id:"B42",body:'Weller C, Charlett A, Oxlade NL. Role of chronic infection and inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract in the etiology and pathogenesis of idiopathic parkinsonism. Part 3: Predicted probability and gradients of severity of idiopathic parkinsonism based on H. pylori antibody profile. Helicobacter. 2005;10:288-297\n'},{id:"B43",body:'Nielsen HH, Qiu J, Friis S, Wermuth L, Ritz B. Treatment for helicobacter pylori infection and risk of Parkinson’s disease in Denmark. European Journal of Neurology. 2012;19:864-869\n'},{id:"B44",body:'Scheperjans F, Aho V, Pereira PAB, Koskinen K, Paulin L, Pekkonen E, et al. Gut microbiota are related to Parkinson\'s disease and clinical phenotype. Movement Disorders. 2015;30(3):350-358\n'},{id:"B45",body:'Kim S-M, Kim S-J, Lee HJ, Kuroda H, Palace J, Fujihara K. Differential diagnosis of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders. Therapeutic Advances in Neurological Disorders. 2017;10(7):265-289\n'},{id:"B46",body:'Bradl M, Lassmann H. Experimental models of neuromyelitis optica. Brain Pathology. 2014;24(1):74-82\n'},{id:"B47",body:'Belkaid Y, Hand T. Role of the microbiota in immunity and inflammation – NCBI – NIH. Cell. 2014;157(1):121-141\n'},{id:"B48",body:'Denic A, Johnson A, Bieber A, Warrington A, Rodriguez M, Pirko I. The relevance of animal models in multiple sclerosis research. Pathophysiology. 2011;18(1)\n'},{id:"B49",body:'Belkaid Y, Hand T. Role of the microbiota in immunity and inflammation. Cell. 2014;157(1):121-141\n'},{id:"B50",body:'Thomé R, Moraes A, Bombeiro A, dos Santos Farias A, Francelin C, Alves da Costa T, Di Gangi R, Barbosa dos Santos L, Rodrigues de Oliveira A, Verinaud L. Chloroquine treatment enhances regulatory T cells and reduces the severity of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. 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Laboratory of Mitochondria-Oxidative Stress and Pathology, Neurosciences Division, Western Biomedical Research Center, Mexican Social Security Institute, Mexico
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Luis H. de",address:null,affiliation:'
Laboratory of Mitochondria-Oxidative Stress and Pathology, Neurosciences Division, Western Biomedical Research Center, Mexican Social Security Institute, Mexico
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"José A. Cruz-Serrano",address:null,affiliation:'
Kurago Biotek, Mexico
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Erandis D. Torres-Sánchez",address:null,affiliation:'
Ciénega University Center, University of Guadalajara, Mexico
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Miriam A. Mora-Navarro",address:null,affiliation:'
Laboratory of Mitochondria-Oxidative Stress and Pathology, Neurosciences Division, Western Biomedical Research Center, Mexican Social Security Institute, Mexico
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Daniela L. C. Delgado-Lara",address:null,affiliation:'
Laboratory of Mitochondria-Oxidative Stress and Pathology, Neurosciences Division, Western Biomedical Research Center, Mexican Social Security Institute, Mexico
Laboratory of Mitochondria-Oxidative Stress and Pathology, Neurosciences Division, Western Biomedical Research Center, Mexican Social Security Institute, Mexico
Department of Neurology, UMAE-HE, National Occidental Medical Center, Mexican Social Security Institute, México
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