Countries with top biodiesel production in 2016.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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The need to substitute the conventional petroleum diesel with a renewable alternative, one that is sustainable and environmentally friendly, has driven various investigators over a decade now to research on the potentials of biodiesel [1]. This has risen due to depletion of fossil fuels and emission of greenhouse gases such as CO2 and methane upon combustion, which causes climate change, the result of which is the rise in the global temperature above the nominal margin of 2°C with the potential to extinct over 1 million species [2, 3]. Other adverse effects of this global temperature rise also known as global warming include receding of glaciers, rise in sea level and loss of biodiversity [4]. However, biodiesel is a renewable fuel produced from the reaction between triacylglycerol or fatty acid with alcohol in the presence of a catalyst [5]. The fuel exists as liquid and consists of mono-alkyl esters of long-chain fatty acids with similar characteristics as the conventional petroleum diesel, making it a potential substitute [6]. Biodiesel is biodegradable, sustainable, and nontoxic, and has less impact on the environment. The shortcomings of biodiesel include low energy density, relatively high production cost and poor cold flow [7]. The global production capacity of biodiesel is envisaged to reach 12 billion gallons by 2020 with Brazil, United States of America, Malaysia, Argentina, Netherlands, Spain, Philippines, Belgium, Indonesia and Germany meeting more than 80% of the world demand [8, 9]. In 2016, the biodiesel produced globally were contributed mostly by USA and Brazil (see Table 1). Larger proportions of which are consumed by countries such as USA, Brazil, Germany, Indonesia and France [2]. Countries like US, China and India are currently experiencing a great growth in the biodiesel market with their respective governments planning to replace about 15% of the conventional diesel with biodiesel by 2020.
\nCountry | \nBiodiesel production/billion liters | \n
---|---|
USA | \n5.5 | \n
Brazil | \n3.8 | \n
Germany | \n3 | \n
Indonesia | \n3 | \n
Argentina | \n3 | \n
France | \n1.5 | \n
Thailand | \n1.4 | \n
Spain | \n1.1 | \n
Belgium | \n0.5 | \n
Colombia | \n0.5 | \n
Canada | \n0.4 | \n
China | \n0.3 | \n
India | \n0 | \n
Singapore | \n0 | \n
Countries with top biodiesel production in 2016.
Biodiesel can be classified into three types based on the kind of feedstocks used in its production [10]. These are first-, second- and third-generation biodiesels.
\nThis type of biodiesel is produced using edible vegetable oils. These oils are discussed in the next section. Biodiesel produced from these oils usually has the following disadvantages [11, 12, 13, 14]:
Poor storage
Oxidation stability
High feedstock cost, up to 60−80% of biodiesel production cost
Low heating value
Higher NOx emission compared to the conventional diesel fuel
Loss of biodiversity
In order to minimize the over dependency on the edible vegetable oils feedstocks in biodiesel production, alternative sources from non-edible oils are explored. Biodiesel produced from this type of oils is known as second-generation biodiesel. The quality and yield obtained are similar to that from edible oils [15]. Lignocellulosic biomass (LCB) is also being considered as an alternative feedstock to edible oil in biodiesel production probably because it is suspected to promote faster production, less labour, more season and climate flexibility, easier scale-up, and potential economic advantage [16]. This biomass can be derived from food crops, non-food/energy crops, forest residue and industrial process residues (see Table 2). But, the most predominant is agricultural crop residues [17]. Although, some of the LCB resources might not be suitable for energy production, probably due to their wide dispersal or low bulk density, which makes energy recovery, transport and storage expensive [18]. Generally, the production of biodiesel from lignocellulosic biomass is hampered due to lack of economically feasible technologies [18].
\nFood crops | \nNon-food/energy crops | \nForest residue | \nIndustrial process residues | \n
---|---|---|---|
*Rice straw | \n*Cardoon ( | \n*Tree residue (twigs, leaves, bark, and roots) | \n*Rice husk | \n
*Wheat straw | \n*Giant reed ( | \n*Wood processing residues (sawmill off-cuts and sawdust) | \n*Rice bran | \n
*Sugarcane tops | \n*Salix | \n*Recycled wood (from demolition of buildings, pallets, and packing crates) | \n*Sugarcane bagasse | \n
*Maize stalks millet | \n*Jute stalks | \n\n | *Coconut husks | \n
*Groundnut stalks | \n*Willow | \n\n | *Maize husks | \n
*Corn straw | \n*Poplar | \n\n | *Groundnut husks | \n
*Soybean residue | \n*Eucalyptus | \n\n | \n |
*Residue from vegetables | \n*Miscanthus | \n\n | \n |
*Residence from pulses | \n*Reed canary grass | \n\n | \n |
\n | *Switch grass | \n\n | \n |
\n | *Hemp | \n\n | \n |
Sources of lignocellulosic biomass for biodiesel production [17].
This is produced from micro-and macro-species including algae [11]. Third-generation biodiesel is discussed further in Section 3.2.
\nThis can be produced from feedstocks that possess the capability of being genetically modified, accumulate large quantity of biomass, and can be utilized in photo-biological solar cells with the ability to convert solar energy directly to usable biodiesel. Example of such feedstocks is algal species. This concept focuses on producing biodiesel in addition to developing a means of trapping and storing CO2. The method of producing this energy is similar to that of the second-generation biofuels, except that CO2 is arrested at each stage of the production using techniques such as oxy-fuel combustion. The CO2 trapped is stored in saline aquifers, gas fields or old oils through the method known as geo-sequestration. The process has the capacity to trap carbon inclusively making it ‘carbon negative’ as opposed to ‘carbon neutral’ [2, 19].
\nThese include edible and non-edible oils, and are presented below.
\nAt the moment, over 95% of biodiesel globally is produced from edible vegetable oils. The commonly used of these oils are palm oil, soybean, coconut oil, rapeseed and sunflower due to their availability [12, 13, 14, 15, 19, 20]. Rapeseed oil, sunflower oil, palm oil and soybean oil are used in Europe, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippians and US, respectively to produce biodiesel [21]. There is no doubt that the use of these feedstocks for biodiesel production competes with their need for human consumption and some other applications, the disadvantage of which is insecurity, high cost of production and potential depletion of ecological resources due to some agricultural practices. Biodiesel produced from these oils usually has the disadvantages highlighted in Section 2.1 [12, 13, 14, 21]. The sources of edible oil and the respective yield of oil are presented in Table 3.
\nS/N | \nSource | \nYield | \n
---|---|---|
1. | \nRapeseed (Brassica oilseed) | \n38–46 | \n
2. | \nCoconut | \n63–65 | \n
3. | \nSoybean | \n15–20 | \n
4. | \nPalm | \n30–60 | \n
5. | \nSunflower | \n25–35 | \n
Sources of edible oil used in biodiesel production [11].
Non-edible oils are cultivated on lands requiring minimum attention and as such are less expensive compared to edible oils [22]. These oils include jatropha, karanja, polanga, cotton seed
Sources of non-edible oils used in biodiesel production [
These include
\n\nSome of these non-edible oils are discussed in more detail below:
\nThis oil maybe yellow or brown grease obtained from palm, canola, corn, sunflower and other edible oils. Usually, it is ubiquitous and inexpensive, making it ideal for biodiesel production. In recent times, some researchers have demonstrated that biodiesel can be produced from WCO by pyrolysis and transesterification methods. The latter method is preferred due its low cost and simplicity [1]. The performance of the process is usually measured in terms of yield and it depends on factors such as catalyst, catalyst loading, temperature, time and methanol-to-oil molar ratio (see Table 4).
\nS/N | \nCatalyst | \nReaction condition | \nBiodiesel yield (%) | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
1. | \nCalcined chicken manure | \nCatalyst loading 7.5wt%, temperature 65°C and methanol-to-oil molar ratio 1:15 | \n90 | \n[36] | \n
2. | \nChicken manure biochar | \nTemperature 350°C | \n95 | \n[37] | \n
3. | \nCsPW-CB | \nCatalyst loading 2 wt%, methanol-to-oil molar ratio 11:1, temperature 70°C and time 2.5 h | \n95.1 | \n[38] | \n
4. | \nKOH | \nCatalyst loading 1 wt%, methanol-to-oil molar ratio 1:3, temperature 60°C and time 0.8 h | \n94 | \n[39, 40] | \n
5. | \nTitanium iso-propoxide (TiO2) + graphene oxide (GO) | \nCatalyst loading 1.5 wt%, methanol-to-oil molar ratio 1:12, temperature 65°C and time 3 h | \n98 | \n[41] | \n
6. | \nCalcium diglyceroxide | \nCatalyst loading 1.03 wt%, methanol-to-oil molar ratio 7.46:1, temperature 62°C and time 0.4 h | \n94.86 | \n[40] | \n
7. | \nKOH | \nCatalyst loading 1.5 wt%, methanol-to-oil molar ratio 7:1, temperature 60°C and time 1.5 h | \n92 | \n[42] | \n
8. | \nKOH | \nCatalyst loading 1.16 wt%, methanol-to-oil molar ratio 9.4:1, temperature 62.4°C and time 2 h | \n98.26 | \n[43] | \n
9. | \nCaO/MgO | \nCatalyst loading 6 wt%, methanol-to-oil molar ratio 1:15, temperature 90°C and time 2 h | \n96.47 | \n[44] | \n
10. | \nCaO | \nCatalyst loading 5 wt%, methanol-to-oil molar ratio 20:1, temperature 65°C and time 4 h | \n96.74 | \n[45] | \n
11. | \nBaSnO3\n | \nCatalyst loading 6 wt%, methanol-to-oil molar ratio 10:1, temperature 90°C and time 2 h | \n96 | \n[46] | \n
12. | \nSulphamic acid | \nCatalyst loading 1 wt%, methanol-to-oil molar ratio 10:1, temperature 110°C and time 2 h | \n95.6 | \n[47] | \n
13. | \nFusion waste chicken and fish bones | \nCatalyst loading 1.98 wt%, methanol-to-oil molar ratio 10:1, temperature 65°C and time 1.5 h | \n89.5 | \n[48] | \n
14. | \nBiomass fly ash | \nCatalyst loading 10 wt%, methanol-to-oil molar ratio 9:1, temperature 60°C and time 3 h | \n95 | \n[49] | \n
15. | \nKettle limescale | \nCatalyst loading 8.87 wt%, methanol-to-oil molar ratio 1.7:3, temperature 61.7°C and time 0.25 h | \n93.41 | \n[43] | \n
16. | \nCalcium oxide (CaO) nano-catalyst | \nCatalyst loading 1 wt%, methanol-to-oil molar ratio 8:1, temperature 50°C, time 1.5 h and particle size 29 nm | \n96 | \n[50] | \n
Dependence of the yield of biodiesel from WCO on reaction parameters.
The use of algae in biofuel production is gaining traction globally, especially as it is considered to be safer, non-competitive and made up of microorganisms with precocious growth. These organisms are aquatic and may be unicellular or multicellular with over 300,000 species. The number is greater than plant species and the organisms exhibit varying compositions, but are faced with higher cost of production. Also, more complexity of processes and technology are required for cultivation compared to plants [51]. Algae grow naturally in open ponds and can be cultivated through tubular photobioreactors. The former is the oldest method involving a simple and inexpensive process, compared to the latter, which enjoys high productivity rate, less maturity time and the capacity to selectively produced high lipid content using desirable algae species. Algae contain lipids, carbohydrates and complex oil depending on their species [52, 53, 54, 55]. The lipid content ranges from 20 to 80% depending on the various species. Some species such as
Algae are not edible and using them as a feedstock for biodiesel production poses no threat to food production. They have the capability to convert carbon dioxide to biofuels and oleochemical products [51]. The remaining biomass can be converted into useful chemicals to generate more revenue to ameliorate the high economic cost of the process.
\nDue to high lipid content and availability, several investigators have explored the potential of algae as a feedstock for biofuel production. This usually begins by selecting algae species with high lipid yield and very good fatty acid composition as shown in Figure 2. The desirable algae species for the production of biodiesel is usually selected based on growth rate, degree of survival and physicochemical properties and fatty acid composition.
\nProcesses involved in applying algae as feedstock for the production of biodiesel at a small scale or experimental level [
The typical properties of biodiesel algae oil compared with standards and biodiesel from other sources are presented in Table 5. Applying such biodiesel in an internal combustion engine usually consumes more fuel and has less thermal efficiency than petroleum diesel. This may be due to its physicochemical properties such as higher density and viscosity, lower calorific value and cetane number. The effect of this problem can be minimized by blending it with petroleum diesel (up to 30%) [57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65]. The presence of excess oxygen molecule in the algae biofuel ensures that complete combustion is attained, thereby eliminating the emission of undesirable substances such as hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. But, NOx emission like biodiesel from other sources is high and can be reduced by the addition of n-butanol to the blends [63].
\nS/N | \nProperties | \nASTM 6751-12 | \nEN 14,214 | \nDiesel | \nAlgae oil | \nPalm oil | \nJatropha | \nKaranja | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nCalorific value (kJ/kg) | \n— | \n— | \n43,000 | \n40,072 | \n37,800 | \n39,000 | \n39,200 | \n
2 | \nDensity (kg/L) | \n086–0.90 | \n0.86–0.90 | \n0.84 | \n0.912 | \n0.850 | \n0.940 | \n0.874 | \n
3 | \nViscosity @ 40°C (mm2/s) | \n1.9–6.0 | \n3.5–5.0 | \n2.64 | \n5.06 | \n4.32 | \n4.8 | \n5.21 | \n
4 | \nCetane number | \n>47 | \n>51 | \n53.3 | \n46.5 | \n55 | \n50 | \n50 | \n
5 | \nFlash point (°C) | \n100–170 | \n>120 | \n71 | \n145 | \n167 | \n135 | \n100 | \n
6 | \nAcid value (mg KOH/g) | \n<0.5 | \n<0.5 | \n0.0 | \n0.14 | \n0.24 | \n0.4 | \n0.43 | \n
7 | \nOxidation stability @ 110°C | \n3.0 | \n>6.0 | \n— | \n6.76 | \n10.3 | \n3.2 | \n— | \n
8 | \nOil yield (L/ha) | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n58,000 | \n5950 | \n1892 | \n2590 | \n
Comparison between the fuel properties of algae oil and the petroleum diesel [51].
S/N is serial number.
This is one of the cheapest vegetable oils with an average price of US $514 per ton. It is composed of predominantly unsaturated fatty acids with lower pour point, making it suitable for biodiesel production [64]. The characteristics of biodiesel from tea seed oil share some resemblances with those from vegetable oil, but it has lower pour point of −5 °C and is less viscous than biodiesel from palm oil, cotton seed oil and peanut oil [1, 64, 66]. Like in algae biodiesel, the application of tea seed oil biodiesel in internal consumption engine requires more fuel consumption and causes high emissions of CO and CO2. To solve these problems, hydrogen is usually added to the petroleum diesel and biodiesel blends, thereby improving the performance characteristics of the engine. This gain is possible since there is absence of carbon atoms in the chemical structure. But, the disadvantage is increased NOx emission [65].
\nThis sludge is a residue from the secondary/biological section of wastewater treatment plant and composed predominantly of microorganisms [67]. It is being investigated as a feedstock for biodiesel production probably due to its availability, lipid content and possibility of obtaining it without any cost implication [5, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72]. The lipid/oil content is relatively low and various researchers have investigated the potential of increasing the yield using different methods to ensure its adaptability as a substrate for biodiesel production. Notable among them are Edeh et al., who using the combination of subcritical water technology and optimization increased the lipid yield from 7.4 (wt./wt.)% to 41.0 (wt./wt.)% [28]. The predominant fatty acid in activated sludge is palmitic acid [27]. Researchers have shown that activated sludge can be used as a feedstock for biodiesel production. But, due to low yield of 3–6 wt%, (dry cell weight), which is below the minimum of 10 wt.% (dry cell weight) required for biodiesel to have an economic advantage over the conventional petroleum diesel, this feedstock is still unattractive [60, 73, 74]. Another problem is variation in the composition of fatty acids, which depends on the source and composition of wastewater and season of collection, which affect the quality and yield of the biodiesel [5, 75].
\nOther non-edible oils used in the production of biodiesel are presented in Table 6.
\nS/N | \nSource | \nCharacteristics | \nYield (wt.%) | \nFatty acid composition | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | \nKaranja | \nGrown in Southeast Asia, flowers 3–4 years after planting while matures 4–7 years later, a single tree yields 9–90 kg of seeds | \n25–40 | \nOleic (44.5–71.3%), linoleic (10.8–18.3%) and stearic acids (2.4–8.9%) | \n[76, 77, 78, 79] | \n
2. | \nMahua | \nGrown in Indian forest, produces 20–200 kg of seeds annually per tree depending on maturity, starts to bear seeds after 10 years of planting and continues up to 60 years | \n35–50 | \nOleic (41–51%), stearic (20.0–25.1%), palmitic acid (16.0–28.2%) and linoleic acids (8.9–18.3%) | \n[51, 80, 81, 82] | \n
3. | \nCotton | \nGrown for cotton fiber in China, United States and Europe, the seeds contain non-glycerides such as gossypol, phospholipids, sterols, resins, carbohydrates and related pigments | \n17–25 | \nLinoleic (55.2–55.5%), palmitic (11.67–20.1%) and oleic acids (19.2–23.26%) | \n[83, 84, 85] | \n
4. | \nNeem | \nCan grow in different kinds of soils such as saline, clay, dry, shallow, alkaline and stony in Asian countries including India, Malaysia and Indonesia. It matures after 15 years and has a life span of 150–200 years | \n20–30 | \nLinoleic (6–16%), oleic (25–54%) and stearic (9–24%) acids | \n[17, 51, 85, 86, 87] | \n
5. | \nTobacco | \nGrown in countries such as Turkey, Macedonia and North America for leaf collection | \n35–49 | \nLinoleic acid (69.49–75.58%) | \n[88, 89, 90, 91] | \n
6. | \nRubber | \nForest-based tree largely grown in Malaysia, India, Thailand and Indonesia | \n50–60 | \nLinoleic (39.6–40.5%), oleic (17–24.6%) and linolenic acid (16.3–26%) | \n[20, 92, 93, 94] | \n
7. | \nJatropha | \nGrown in arid, semi-arid and tropical regions, such as United States, Brazil, Bolivia and Mexico. Produces seeds after 12 months of planting, attain optimum productivity by 5 years and has a life span of up to 30 years | \n20–60 | \nLinoleic (31.4–43.2%), oleic acid (34.3–44.7%), stearic (7.1–7.4%) and palmitic (13.6–15.1%) acids | \n[95, 96, 97, 98] | \n
Non-edible oils from the seeds of their respective trees used for biodiesel production.
These properties depend on the fatty acid and chemical composition of the non-edible oils. The fuel properties of biodiesel can be measured by using different standards including ASTM D6751 and EN 14214. The most essential properties used in assessing the suitability of biodiesel as fuel include density, flash point, cloud point, pour point, calorific value and cetane point (see Table 7). The standards for measuring each property are presented in Table 8 [99].
\nNon-edible oil | \nDensity at 40°C (kg/m3) | \nViscosity at 40°C (mm2/s) | \nFlash point (°C) | \nCloud point (°C) | \nPour point (°C) | \nCetane number | \nCalorific value (MJ/kg) | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Karanja ( | \n876–890 | \n4.37–9.60 | \n163–187 | \n13–15 | \n−3 to 5.1 | \n52–58 | \n36–38 | \n[15, 77, 99, 100, 101] | \n
Polanga ( | \n888.6–910 | \n4–5.34 | \n151–170 | \n13.2–14 | \n4.3 | \n57.3 | \n39.25–41.3 | \n[15, 102] | \n
Mahua ( | \n904–916 | \n3.98–5.8 | \n127–129 | \n3–5 | \n1–6 | \n51–52 | \n39.4–39.91 | \n[15, 103, 104, 105, 106] | \n
Rubber seed oil ( | \n860–881 | \n5.81–5.96 | \n130–140 | \n4–5 | \n–8 | \n37–49 | \n36.5–41.07 | \n[92, 107, 108, 109] | \n
Cotton seed | \n874–911 | \n4–4.9 | \n210–243 | \n1.7 | \n−10 to −15 | \n41.2–59.5 | \n39.5–40.1 | \n[110, 111, 112] | \n
Jojoba oil ( | \n863–866 | \n19.2–25.4 | \n61–75 | \n6–16 | \n−6 to 6 | \n63.5 | \n42.76–47.38 | \n[113, 114, 115, 116] | \n
Tobacco oil ( | \n860–888.5 | \n3.5–4.23 | \n152–165.4 | \n— | \n−12 | \n49–51.6 | \n38.43–39.81 | \n[89, 90, 117] | \n
Neem (Azadirachta) | \n912–965 | \n20.5–48.5 | \n34 | \n— | \n— | \n51 | \n33.7–39.5 | \n[87, 110, 118, 119] | \n
Linseed oil ( | \n865–950 | \n16.2–36.6 | \n108 | \n1.7 | \n−4 to −18 | \n28–35 | \n37.7–39.8 | \n[110, 120, 121] | \n
Jatropha ( | \n864–880 | \n3.7–5.8 | \n163–238 | \n— | \n5 | \n46–55 | \n38.5–42 | \n[122, 123] | \n
Diesel | \n816–840 | \n2.5–5.7 | \n50–98 | \n−10 to −5 | \n−20 to 5 | \n45–55 | \n42–45.9 | \n[124, 125, 126] | \n
Properties of diesel fuel and those of biodiesel produced from non-edible oils.
S/N | \nProperty | \nCharacteristics | \nStandard | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
1. | \nDensity | \nHigher than the diesel | \nASTM D1298 and EN ISO 3675 | \n[127] | \n
2. | \nKinematic viscosity | \nHigh viscosity causes poor fuel flow resulting in delayed combustion | \nASTM D445 and EN ISO 3104 | \n[128] | \n
3. | \nFlash point | \nMeasures the flammability hazard of a substance. At flash point, if the source of ignition is removed, vapor ceases to burn | \nASTM D93 and EN ISO 3697 | \n[127] | \n
4. | \nCetane number (CN) | \nMeasures the ignition quality of fuel in a power diesel engine. Higher CN causes shorter ignition delay. Biodiesel has higher CN due to its longer fatty acid carbon chains | \nASTM D613 and EN ISO 5165 | \n[127] | \n
5. | \nCloud point (CP) | \nHigher CP than diesel | \nASTM D2500 | \n[129, 130] | \n
6. | \nPour point (PP) | \nHigher PP than diesel | \nASTM D97 | \n[129, 130] | \n
7. | \nCalorific value (HHV)* | \nMeasures the heat content of a fuel. Biodiesel has lower calorific value than diesel due to its higher oxygen content | \nASTM D2015 | \n[107, 131, 132] | \n
Standards for measuring properties of biodiesel [98].
In most cases oils are extracted from the oil-bearing biomass, for example oil seeds prior to use in biodiesel production. The methods used in oil extraction include solvent extraction, critical fluid extraction, mechanical extraction, enzymatic oil extraction, microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE). They are discussed below:
\nThis extraction method utilizes organic solvents extract lipid/oil from the oil-bearing biomass. The organic solvents used include: hexane, chloroform, ethyl ether, petroleum ether, toluene, methanol, ethanol and acetone [5]. The solvents can also be combined together depending on their polarity to achieve higher yield of oil, for instance, chloroform and methanol, hexane and ethanol, dichloromethane and methanol [23, 133]. The properties that influence the selection of a particular solvent for oil extraction are polarity, volatility, non-miscibility with water, safety, boiling point, environmental factors, absence of toxic or reactive impurities, ability to form two phases with for easy separation, capacity to extract a large range of lipid classes and cost of the solvent [134, 135].
\nThe solvent extraction methods used in the laboratory include Soxhlet, Folch, and Bligh and Dyer methods. Soxhlet method is preferred due to the following advantages: it is easy to use, does not require filtration and inexpensive, and it ensures higher oil extraction, supports simultaneous and parallel extraction. Despite these advantages, its demerits include requirement of high volume of solvents, health and environmental risks, long extraction time, potential to thermally degrade sample and difficulty to automate due to selectivity issues [136]. The Soxhlet extraction is influenced by the following factors: temperature, sample preparation, extraction time, high solvent-to-sample ratio, type and the volume of solvent [137].
\nSoxhlet extraction is carried out by heating the distillation/boiling flask containing the organic solvent to its boiling point (see Figure 3). The vapor produced passes through the tube to the condenser where it is condensed and the liquid formed trickles down to the thimble containing the sample. The soluble part of the sample is dissolved by this liquid and the process continues until the liquid marked is reached. The solubilized sample is aspirated to the distillation/boiling flask and the process continues until the predetermined number of cycle or extraction time is attained [138].
\nSoxhlet apparatus.
This method was developed by Folch et al. [139]. The method utilizes a combination of organic solvents: chloroform and methanol in a ratio of 2:1 (v/v) for lipid/oil extraction. It is usually used for extracting and quantifying total lipids [140].
\nThis method has some similarities with the Folch method in terms of the solvent system and function. The method uses combined chloroform and methanol in a ratio of 1:2 (v/v) in converse to the Folch method to extract lipid/oil from samples. With this ratio, the Bligh and Dyer method is more economical than the Folch method [140].
\nThis involves the use of supercritical or subcritical fluids in oil extraction. These are discussed below:
\nThese are fluids with critical temperature and pressure above their critical points. For example, above the critical point of CO2 (31.1°C and 7.38 MPa) and that of water (374°C and 22.1 MPa), supercritical fluids exist [141, 142]. Supercritical fluids usually have high density, which increases their solubilization, and low viscosity, which enhances their mass transfer rate [143]. SCFs have the advantages of low operating cost; high product quality; ability to combine some operation units into one and to selectively extract certain lipids at different operating conditions of temperature, pressure, and time. The advantage of this is a reduction in cost and extraction time [143, 144]. The disadvantage of SCFs is that they required the use of high-pressure vessels which are usually expensive. A brief discussion on supercritical CO2 and supercritical water is presented below.
\nThis lipid extraction method uses CO2 as the supercritical fluid probably because it is cheap, non-toxic, non-explosive and non-flammable and possesses high purity and low critical temperature [141, 143]. The low critical temperature makes it the most suitable method for the extraction of thermal labile substances such as lipid/oil as the original properties of the materials are protected [143]. Supercritical CO2 is usually used to extract non-polar lipids but due to the introduction of co-solvents such as methanol, ethanol and water, it could recover polar lipids [143]. For instance, Hanif et al. increased the yield of phospholipid fatty acids (PLFAs) from 0.5 to 7.28 nmol/mg using methanol (10%, v/v) as a co-solvent [145].
\nWater is used as a supercritical fluid here. Supercritical water possesses liquid and gaseous properties including diffusivity, density and heat transfer, which can be manipulated through temperature and pressure to achieve an efficient extraction. For instance, a low-density supercritical water can be used to extract non-polar substances, and due to low dissolution it will not be effective in extracting ionic substances. At high temperature, it can dissolve organic substances, gases and salts due to its decrease in dielectric constant [146]. Supercritical water extraction has been used by Gungoren et al. for oil recovery and products distribution from sewage sludge at temperatures between 350 and 450°C and pressures of between 21.5 and 30 MPa [147].
\nSubcritical water as shown in Figure 4 is water at temperatures between its boiling point (Tb), 100°C and its critical point of 374°C with pressure sufficient to maintain water in the liquid state. Within this temperature range, water behaves like organic solvents due to decrease in its dielectric constant. At low temperature, subcritical water can extract both polar and ionic substances while at temperatures close to the critical temperature, extraction of non-polar substances is possible by the interaction with these substances and reduction in the binding forces [148, 149, 150]. Subcritical water has been demonstrated to be useful in decontaminating soil, removing polyhydroxyalkanoates (PAH), hydrocarbons and metals and extracting variety of natural products [151]. It has also been used to increase the lipid yield of activated sludge [34, 35].
\nPhase diagram.
This method uses the right enzymes in extracting oil from the oil-bearing biomass and it is environmentally friendly as there is no emission of volatile organic matter [2]. The disadvantages include: relatively high cost of enzyme production, prolonged incubation periods and requirement of de-emulsification during the downstream processing (DSP) [151, 152]. Some of these problems such as high cost of enzyme production can be minimized using enzyme immobilization, which helps to reduce enzyme losses, although, could reduce reaction rate due to steric hindrance. While others like de-emulsification during DSP can be made easier through the use of affinity chromatography and perfusion chromatography [2].
\nOil is extracted using a manual ram press or an engine-driven screw press. With the manual ram press extracting up to 60–65% and engine-driven press recovering 68–80% of the oil content of the feedstocks, respectively. Usually, the oil extract undergoes filtration and degumming as a way of obtaining a more refined oil. Mechanical extraction is inefficient in extracting oil from seeds, which it was not designed for, although, this problem can be solved by using pretreatment methods such as cooking of the seeds and using at least double passes in the screw press. This could give rise to up to 91% yield of oil [2, 151].
\nThis extraction method uses microwave oven in the extraction process. It has been utilized in extracting values from plant materials [153]. The method requires transferring heat through direct contact to the polar solvent and/to the target substance. This can be controlled through ionic conduction and dipole rotation, which occurs simultaneously. Comparing MAE with the conventional extraction method, the latter requires longer time and resources while the former supports high yield of extraction with lesser volume of solvents and controllable heating process [154]. MAE also emits smaller amount of CO2 and consumes lesser quantity of energy compared to the conventional extraction methods. The disadvantages are that the process is accompanied with the presence of solid residue, which limits heat and mass transfer, and the extraction using non-polar solvents or extracting non-polar substances is greatly affected [2, 151].
\nThis involves submerging the feedstocks usually of plant origin in a polar solvent (e.g. water) or non-polar solvent (e.g. ethanol) and subjecting the resulting mixture to an ultrasonic vibration. The vibration is made up of sound waves at the range of 18 kHz–100 MHz. This sound wave in the solvent enhances the biomass (flowers, seeds, leaves, etc.) solubilization resulting in the release of values such as oils entrapped within them, thereby increasing yield of the valuable materials. UAE has a very fast extraction rate and high efficiency, but could denature the structure of the extracted substance, for example, oil due to prolonged exposure to ultrasound. Also, it requires the use of large volume of solvent and repetition of the process in order to achieve an efficient extraction. This thus impacts on the operating cost of the entire process [155, 156, 157].
\nAccording to Rezania et al., there are four commonly used methods for biodiesel production [1]. These are explained below:
\nThis involves preheating of vegetable oil or animal fat at a temperature of 300–1300°C in the presence of catalyst and absence of oxygen [2]. This may result in product possessing desirable properties such as low viscosity, high cetane number, low amount of sulfur and water content, and standard corrosion values [158].
\nThese are clear, thermodynamically stable, isotropic liquid mixtures of oil, water, surfactant, mostly in combination of cosurfactant [159]. This method using ethanol has been used with soybean as feedstock to produce biodiesel with similar properties as No. 2 diesel. These properties include cetane number and viscosity [81, 151].
\nThis is also known as dilution and it is simplest and oldest method used in biodiesel production. It involves the blending of preheated vegetable oil or animal fats with the conventional petroleum diesel in a ratio of 10–40% (w/w) [160].
\nThis involves the reaction between triglyceride from vegetable oil or animal fat with alcohol usually methanol in the presence of catalyst such as acidic, basic or enzymatic catalyst [161]. When methanol is used, the reaction is called methanolysis while it is called ethanolysis if ethanol is used as the alcohol. The schematic diagram representing the processes involved in biodiesel production via transesterification is shown in Figure 5. Transesterification of triglyceride to biodiesel (alkyl ester) and glycerol as the by-product is illustrated in Figure 6. The reaction mechanism involves the conversion of triglyceride (TG) to diglyceride (DG) followed by monoglyceride (MG) and then to a free glyceride. Each step is catalyzed by alkoxide, for instance methoxide when methanol is used as the alcohol [163]. The reaction mechanism is presented in Figure 7.
\nFlowchart of biodiesel (FAME) production through transesterification [
Production of biodiesel through a transesterification of triglyceride [
Reaction mechanism (chain reaction) of the transesterification of triglyceride to biodiesel (fatty acid methyl acid-FAME) [
Similarly, esterification as a method of producing biodiesel involves a reaction between fatty acid and alcohol in the presence of catalyst (see Figure 8).
\nEsterification of free fatty acid to methyl ester and water [
Both transesterification and esterification can occur simultaneously in the same process. This is most suitable for feedstocks with high free fatty acid and water content. The feedstock is firstly esterified using the acidic catalyst before transesterification by the alkali catalyst [2]. The performance of these reactions is measured in terms of yield.
\nTransesterification is the most commonly used method in biodiesel production probably due to its simplicity and low cost [165]. It can be carried out in situ using the oil-bearing biomass or ex situ directly with the oil extracted from the biomass-bearing oil. Some researchers have demonstrated the application of in situ transesterification of oil-bearing biomass to biodiesel. For instance, Mondala et al. investigated the production of biodiesel from municipal primary and secondary sludge (activated sludge) through in situ transesterification reaction [154]. On the other hand, numerous works have been conducted using lipid extracted from oil-bearing biomass (ex situ) to produce biodiesel. For example, Siddiquee and Rohani worked on the production of biodiesel via the methanolysis of lipids extracted from the primary and secondary sludge [133].
\nThese include catalysts type, reactor type, temperature, agitation speed, solvent type, alcohol-to-oil ratio, residence time and nature of feedstock (water content, quantity of free fatty acid and esterifiable substances present in the feedstock) [133]. The catalyst type and nature of the feedstock are the most influential factors as they determine the cost of the production of biodiesel [11]. High free fatty acid and water content can cause low yield of biodiesel production due to soap formation via saponification reaction [166, 167].
\nResearchers have posited that biodiesel is currently not competitive with the conventional petroleum diesel due to higher production cost despite numerous advantages [168]. This can be influenced by the type of raw materials, selling price of the by-product, labour and operation cost, catalyst and the reaction type [1]. The average production cost for biodiesel and diesel fuel is $0.50 and $0.35 per liter, respectively [169]. The price for producing biodiesel can be estimated using Eq. (1)\n
\nThe cost of biodiesel production can be reduced by increasing yield using improved technologies, reducing capital investment cost and reducing the raw materials cost [168, 170, 171, 172, 173].
\nThis involves the use of cheaper feedstocks including wastes from oils, fats and non-edible crops in order to reduce the unit cost of producing biodiesel [28, 174]. The major drawbacks to using these feedstocks are high free fatty acid (FFA) and water content with the capacity to reduce the yield and quality of the biodiesel [9, 12, 22, 175]. The effect of this can be reduced by using multiple chemical processes with the tendency to increase the overall production cost [176]. For instance, using alkali to catalyze the transesterification reaction may require feedstock pretreatment, product separation and purification, thereby rendering the entire process uneconomical due to additional cost incurred [177]. However, acid catalysts are most suitable for the conversion of WCO with high FFA and water content to biodiesel. But, the disadvantages of this are that the reaction is very slow, requires more alcohol and large volume of reactor, and the acid used may corrode equipment, causing them to break down [178]. The use of acid catalyst may also increase the production cost. Some of these problems may be solved using supercritical fluid. The process does not need catalyst, it is faster and may require large volume of alcohol, high temperature and pressure giving rise to a considerable cost implication [179, 180].
\nThe use of cheap and low-cost feedstock may affect the quality of the biodiesel, although, this can be improved. For example, poor cold properties can be improved using additives, although not without some cost implications. Despite the potential of cheap and low-cost feedstock to reduce the production cost of biodiesel, due to high level of impurity, it may require pretreatment prior to use, product purification due to poor quality and, thus, have some cost implications.
\nTechnologies used in biodiesel production to a large extent impact the cost of production. Some of these technologies require more unit operations than the other, which influences energy utilization and number of equipment [181]. For instance, the use of catalytic distillation (CD) process is more economical than conventional reactor as capital and production costs are reduced. This is possible due to reduction in the number of equipment, for example plug flow reactor and flash separation units, which are essential when using the conventional reactors are not needed [182].
\nAlkali catalyst technologies are preferred for producing biodiesel, especially heterogeneous catalyst technology using neat vegetable oil. The reason being that it requires less unit operation and number of equipment. It is also faster and cheaper and can easily be recovered. An example of such catalysts is calcium oxide [181, 183, 184, 185]. For use with high free fatty acid and water content feedstocks, alkali catalyst will cause such problems such as soap formation, which reduces the yield of biodiesel (Figure 9). The soap can gel at room temperature causing the production of semisolid mass instead of biodiesel and can cause difficulty in purifying glycerol [186]. Thus, when considering waste oils such as waste cooking oil with high free fatty acid and water content, acid catalyst technologies are the best option with the aim of reducing the overall production cost. The cost can be reduced because acid catalysts are less corrosive, easy to separate, can be reused and do not require additional washing steps. This will help to produce high-quality products in terms of biodiesel and glycerols [187, 188].
\nSoap formation during the transesterification of triglyceride to produce biodiesel.
Alternatively, enzyme and supercritical technologies can be used to process feedstock with high free fatty acid and water content to biodiesel, although they are more expensive than acid-catalysed technologies [173, 189]. Enzyme-catalysed transesterification is a slow process and takes longer time, and the soluble enzymes are not reusable except if immobilized enzyme is used. These disadvantages impact negatively on the cost of production [190]. On the other hand, supercritical technologies do not require the use of catalyst and encourage the production of by-product glycerol with high purity [192].
\nGenerally, technologies like feedstock and catalyst influence the overall cost of biodiesel production (Table 9).
\nProduction technology type | \nCapacity | \nFeedstock | \nProduction cost $/ton | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
KOH-catalyzed transesterification with methanol | \n8000 ton/yr | \nWaste cooking oil | \n868,60 | \n[173] | \n
H2SO4 | \nWaste cooking oil | \n750,38 | \n||
Lipase (Novozym-435) | \nWaste cooking oil | \n1047,97 | \n||
Alkali catalyst process | \nBatch process with a production capacity of 1000 tons | \nPalm oil | \n1166,67 | \n[191] | \n
Soluble lipase catalyst process | \nPalm oil | \n7821,37 | \n||
Immobilzed lipase catalyst process | \nPalm oil | \n2414,63 | \n||
Homogeneous H2SO4 | \nContinuous reactor operating at 30°C | \nMicroalgae oil | \n620 | \n[182] | \n
Homogeneous H2SO4 | \nMicroalgae oil | \n580 | \n||
Homogeneous KOH catalyst and hot water purification process | \nBatch process with a production capacity of 1452 | \nWaste cooking oil | \n921 | \n[193] | \n
Homogeneous KOH catalyst and vacuum FAME distillation process | \nWaste cooking oil | \n984 | \n||
Heterogeneous CaO catalyst and hot water purification process | \n\n | Waste cooking oil | \n911 | \n|
Heterogeneous CaO catalyst and vacuum FAME distillation process | \n\n | Waste cooking oil | \n969 | \n|
Homogeneous KOH catalyst and hot water purification process | \nBatch mode with a production capacity of 7260 tons/year | \nWaste cooking oil | \n598 | \n[193] | \n
Homogeneous KOH catalyst and vacuum FAME distillation process | \n\n | Waste cooking oil | \n641 | \n|
Heterogeneous CaO catalyst and hot water purification process | \nWaste cooking oil | \n584 | \n||
Heterogeneous CaO catalyst and vacuum FAME distillation process | \nWaste cooking oil | \n622 | \n
Dependence of biodiesel production cost on technologies [168].
The effect of alternative catalysts in the production of biodiesel can been seen in the reduction of production cost as supported by some of their characteristics such as being inexpensive, reusability and high catalytic potential. Examples of such catalysts are obtained from shells from egg, coconut, mussel, scallop and crustacean [183, 190, 194, 195, 196].
\nGenerally, catalysts used in catalysing the transesterification reaction leading to the production of biodiesel may be either homogeneous or heterogeneous. The choice of which to use is dependent on the free fatty acid and water content composition of the feedstock. Usually, heterogeneous catalysts unlike homogeneous catalysts are used to catalyse reactions involving feedstock with high free fatty acid and water content as they can be reused, require less products separation and purification steps, and possess the capacity to enable the production of pure by-products such as glycerol. Although, these advantages have some cost implications, heterogenous catalysts remain the best choice for biodiesel production unit cost reduction [168, 187, 197].
\nThis is a measure of the amount of profit that can be obtained from an investment in biodiesel production. The profit is usually calculated from the difference between the income obtained from the sales of the products and the expenses incurred. Profitability of biodiesel can be determined using such economic parameters as net present value, break-even price of biodiesel, after-tax internal rate of return, gross margin [168].
\nThese include income variables such as biodiesel and glycerol and outcome variables, which are feedstock, catalyst, alcohol and washing water. Studies have shown that the major market variable that influences the profitability of biodiesel production is the cost of feedstock due to large quantity required, and others are selling price of biodiesel and glycerol, while outcome variables such as catalyst and washing water have less effect because less quantities are required [162, 198, 199].
\nThis is another factor affecting the profitability of biodiesel production. The higher the production scale, the lower the unit production cost of biodiesel, see Figure 10. This can be seen from the work of Van Kasteren et al. who compared three biodiesel production processes via supercritical method [201]. The results obtained show increase in profitability of biodiesel at high production scale compared to low production scale. The result was corroborated by the study conducted by You et al. on the effect of production scales 8000, 30,000 and 100,000 annually on the feasibility of biodiesel production from food grade soybean oil using NaOH-catalyzed transesterification [202]. This conclusion was reached as production scale of 100,000 gave higher net annual profit after taxes (NNP) and after-tax of return (ARR), and lower biodiesel break-even price (BBP) compared to other production scales.
\nEffect of plant capacity/production scale on unit production cost [
Commercial quantity of biodiesel is currently being produced from edible vegetable oils with the global production capacity envisaged to reach 12 billion gallons by 2020 and countries such as Brazil, United States of America, Malaysia, Argentina, Netherlands, Spain, Philippines, Belgium, Indonesia and Germany meeting more than 80% of the world demand. The problem with this type of biodiesel includes poor storage, oxidation stability, high feedstock cost, low heating value and higher NOx emission. The implication of these is that biodiesel is not competitive with the conventional petroleum diesel.
\nResearchers have suggested the utilization of non-edible oils as a way of minimizing cost since feedstocks consume up to 80% in biodiesel production. But, the problem with this is the presence of high free fatty acid (FFA) and water content, which reduces the yield and quality of the biodiesel. This can be reduced through the use of multiple chemical processes, although there is a tendency to increase the overall production cost.
\nGenerally, the cost of biodiesel production is influenced by factors such as raw materials, technologies and catalyst. The raw material and catalyst cost can be reduced using alternatives to these factors while improved technologies could help to minimize the production cost.
\nThe profitability of biodiesel can be determined using economic parameters such as net present value, break-even price of biodiesel, after tax internal rate of returns, and gross margin. These parameters are influenced by market variables and production scale.
\nIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
\nAmerican Society of Testing Materials
\nwaste cooking oil
\ncetane number
\ncloud point
\npour point
\nhigh heating value
\nmicrowave-assisted extraction
\nultrasound-assisted extraction
\nsupercritical fluid
\nphospholipid fatty acids
\npolyhydroxyalkanoate
\nboiling point
\ncritical temperature
\ncritical pressure
\ndownstream processing
\nfatty acid methyl ester
\ntriglyceride
\ndiglyceride
\nmonoglyceride
\nfree fatty acid
\ncatalytic distillation
\nnet annual profit after taxes
\nafter-tax of return
\nbiodiesel break-even price
\nlignocellulosic biomass
\nSince the 1980s, researchers have been working on polymeric drug delivery systems [1, 2, 3, 4]. Several of the frontier scientific fields are the hunt for novel medication delivery mechanisms and novel action mechanisms. These include multidisciplinary research techniques that aim to make significant improvements in therapeutic efficacy and bioavailability just at point of medication administration [5, 6]. One or more traditional medication delivery mechanisms are combined with engineering technologies in a drug delivery system. The technologies allow for precise targeting of the place in the body where a medicine has been delivered and/or the pace at which it has been released.
Short half-lives, low bioavailability, and physicochemical instability are all common limitations of biopharmaceutical therapies. Physiological instability is characterized by changes in the highly organized structure of proteins, which can result in undesired events including denaturation, aggregation, and precipitation. The chemical instability of pharmaceuticals is exacerbated by processes including such oxidation, deamidation, hydrolysis, and racemization. Stimulus-responsive polymers provide a pharmaceutical delivery mechanism for delivering pharmaceuticals at a regulated pace and in a durable and physiologically functional state. Research in stimuli-responsive polymers has grown over the years, and a lot of effort has gone into designing eco-friendly macromolecules that may be molded into novel smart polymers [7]. A composition or platform that allows the administration of a medicinal chemical into the body is known as just polymeric drug carriers. By regulating the pace, duration, and location of medication distribution in the system, it increases its effectiveness and safety. There in previous two decades, delivery of drugs has progressed significantly, but regulating medication entrance into the system, particularly the brain, has remained a tough challenge. Recent development in investigations of nano-drug delivery system distribution across the blood-brain membrane via carrier-mediated carriage is starting to give a reasonable basis for directing medication delivery to the brain. Natural materials such as amino acids, hexose, peptides, monocarboxylate, and stem cells are transported over the blood-brain membrane via ingestion transporters [8, 9, 10]. In the type of biomaterials with liposomes, polymers in reservoir-containing drug delivery applications have made tremendous development. Additional applications of the polymers include diffusion-based drug delivery systems and solvent-triggered/activated drug delivery systems. Drugs are dissolved in a non-swellable solution or a completely inflated matrix that does not breakdown throughout their engagement period in diffusion-based drug delivery applications. Whenever subjected to an aquatic media, solvent triggered materials such as hydrogels expand and release the medication. They are naturally hydrophilic. Because of their well-engineered polymeric by the changes in the underlying reasons of the biological function, biocompatible polymers provide a safe pathway for medication transport. Biodegradable polymers disintegrate owing to the breakage of covalent bonds among them, whereas bioerodible polymers cause degradation of the polymer owing to the dissolving of connecting strands without causing any changes in the molecule’s chemical properties. Aqueous soluble, safe, as well as non-immunogenic polymers are being used as therapeutic carriers. They act in the background to reduce medication breakdown and increase circulation time. Another crucial consideration is the drug’s appropriate elimination. If indeed the polymer is non-degradable, it really should be avoided accumulating in the body, and if it is biodegradable, the fragmented elements should be safe and not cause an immune reaction. Polymers that resemble important biological respond to environmental stimuli such as changes in pH or thermal by altering features such as solubility, hydrophobic/hydrophilic equilibrium, biomolecule (pharmaceutical component) releases, as well as configuration [11, 12].
The polymeric medicinal delivery compositions are classified into several classes, such as, biodegradable (chemically-controlled), diffusion-controlled, externally-responsive systems (e.g., temperature pH,) [13], solvent-actuated [14] and nanosized polymeic delivery platform that accomplish in three prime technologies [15]: (i) PEGylation [16, 17], (ii) active targeting of certain cells and organs [18, 19, 20] and (iii) Increased permeability and retaining allows for passive targeting effect [20, 21]. The more sophisticated polymeric therapeutic delivery technologies are indeed being anticipated as multidimensional fully – featured systems that will enable instantly improved pharmacokinetics, decreased toxicity, faster targeting, as well as a programmable drug release pattern. Furthermore, greater appropriate therapy might be provided by combination treatment, which involves the simultaneous administration of 2 or more medicaments/diagnostics substances [22, 23, 24]. In reaction to a modest external/internal stimulation, a stimuli-reactive or smart polymer changes its physical characteristics abruptly. Although minor changes take place in subjected to external/internal stimuli stimulus until a crucial limit is found, and they have the potential to revert to their original form when the stimulus is withdrawn, those polymers are indeed known as smart polymers [25, 26, 27]. The uniqueness of these polymers resides in their unpredictable reaction, which is initiated by a really tiny stimulus and results in enormous structural changes. Different triggers responsible for modulating the release of the drug using innovative polymeric drug delivery compositions are depicted in Figure 1. Modifications in physical state, structure, solubility, solvent interactions, aqueous soluble and lipid soluble equilibrium, and conductance are all reversible transitions. The introduction of oppositely charged polymers or a pH change to neutralize charged groups, as well as variations in the water-loving/lipid-loving balance or hydrogen bonding owing to temperature differences, are the driving factors underlying such transitions. Fewer dosage periodicities, simplicity of preparation, preservation of optimal therapeutic level at a single dose, longer delivery of integrated medication, decreased adverse effects, and increased stability are all advantages of innovative polymer-based medicaments delivery systems [28, 29, 30].
Stimuli and materials that respond to them.
A dynamic polymeric material can respond in a variety of ways. The breakdown and development of numerous secondary interactions such as hydrogen bonding, van der Waals forces, hydrophobic forces, and electrostatic interaction [31, 32] restrict the responsiveness of such a polymeric solution induced by physicochemical stimuli. Fundamental processes including acid-base reaction, reduction, oxidation, and hydrolysis of components linked to the polymer chain are examples of chemical processes. Destruction of a polymeric structure owing to irreversible bond breaking in response to external stimuli is one example of the significant conformational shift in the polymer backbone. Biodegradability and biocompatibility; sustained-release characteristics; drug-loading potential; the dearth of deleterious characteristics including systemic toxicity, carcinogenic effects, immunogenicity, and reproductive toxicity; as well as outstanding stability characteristics are all important characteristics of a smart polymer.
These are polymeric frameworks that are susceptible to thermal fluctuations. These polymers exhibit a gel-to-gel shift as temperature dependent, and can be used to deliver medicinal compounds in vivo. This sort of system seems to have a crucial temperature of the solution (usually in aqua) where the polymer and solution phases shift according to respective content. The solubility of several polymers varies dramatically as a result of ambient temperature. This characteristic was used to create aqueous solutions of these polymeric materials that go through a sol-gel changeover when the temperature varies. A maximum crucial solution temperature (MaxCST) exists for thermally sensitive polymer blends that display one component above a specific temperature with phase separation underneath it (MaxCST). Polymeric solutions that seem to be monophasic under a certain temperature but biphasic beyond that temperature are said to have a minimum crucial solution temperature (MinCST) [33, 34]. The MinCST seems to be the temperature where a polymer solution divides into two portions (anisotropic and isotropic states), abundant and deficient in the polymer. Such solution also is monophasic under a certain temperature but biphasic beyond that degree. The enthalpy parameter, which is connected to hydrogen bonding here between polymer and the water molecules, is accountable for polymer breakdown underneath the MinCST. When temperatures are raised just above MinCST, the entropy component (lipophilic contacts) takes precedence, resulting in polymer deposition. Among the most biocompatible polymers with MinCST characteristics includes poly (ethylene oxide). Nevertheless, based on the molecular mass, the MinCST transition of poly (ethylene oxide) aqueous solutions happens at ambient temperature, spanning between 100° C to 150° C. At minimum temperatures than just the poly (ethylene oxide) MinCST, a polymer with ethylene oxide components and hydrophilic sections (e.g. ethanol) would show phase changes. When a linear polymer with small sufficient Ethylene oxide sections is utilized to avoid micelle production, the precipitating from the aqueous phase can be thought about as a rapid MinCST changeover. Furthermore, in the lack of intermolecular and intramolecular hydrogen bonding, a continuous alternation of ethylene oxide-ethylene monomer copolymer pattern throughout the polymer would result in a MinCST defined either by lipophilic/hydrophilic equilibrium.
Poly(N-alkylacrylamide)s, Poloxamers, Poly(N-vinylcaprolactam)s, Chitosan, poly (ethylene oxide)- poly (propyleneoxide)- poly (ethylene oxide), Cellulose, xyloglucan, etc. are instances of thermally sensitive polymers (lactic acid) – tri blocks of poly (ethylene glycol). Poly (N-isopropyl acrylamide) and Poly (N-alkyl substituted acrylamides) with an annealing temperature of 32° C as well as poly (Nvinylalkylamides) like poly (N-vinyliso-butyramide) with just an annealing temperature of 39° C are perhaps the most extensively utilized thermally sensitive polymers [7, 35].
The occurrence of a minimum crucial solution temperature (MinCST) above which the polymer turns aqueous insoluble is generally the source of thermally-responsive smart polymeric solubility. This is characteristic of polymers that create hydrogen bonds with aqua, and it also has a wide spectrum of biological possibilities, including cell mapping, smart medication delivery, DNA sequencing, and so on. The chemical makeup of the monomers is varied throughout this strategy to regulate the polymer thermal sensitivity in aqua. To accomplish this, a variety of polymers centered on ethyleneoxide/ethylene monomer were developed and produced via multiple condensation processes of polyfunctional ethyleneoxide/ethylene monomer oligomers. The cloud point reflects the hydrophobicity/hydrophobicity balance continuously and may be customized in the spectrum of 7–70°C by adjusting the composition and polymer type.
The lack of organic solvents is an important benefit of such compositions. The shrinking in the volume that emits a considerable quantity of an encapsulating medication has been linked to the strong initial bursting impact of such approaches. The solubility behavior of polymer grafted onto the silicon surface is identical. The solubility cloud levels of grafting polymers are similar to those of bulk polymer solutions, according to binding energy studies.
Thermally responsive smart polymers’ dynamic solubility is generated by variations in the lipophilic/hydrophilic balance of the electron-deficient polymer, which are triggered by rising temperature or ionic intensity. Because of hydrogen bonds between aqueous molecules, electron-deficient polymers are soluble in aqua. The efficacy of hydrogen bonding decreases even as the temperature goes up. Whenever the effectiveness of hydrogen bonding is inadequate for macromolecule immersion, a polymer phase transition occurs. A phase transition occurs whenever the temperature of the water solution of innovative polymers is raised beyond a particularly critical point. There is a formation of an aqueous phase with almost minimal polymer and a polymer richer phase. The temperature at which a phase transformation occurs is determined by the amount of polymer present as well as the molecular mass of a polymer [35, 36].
pH-Adaptive polymers are a class of stimuli-sensitive polymers that may alter their structural and physical properties in reaction to variations in solution pH, including surface properties, chain conformation, solubility, and arrangement. The phrase “pH-reactive polymers” refers to polymers containing ionizable basic or acidic groups where ionization is affected by the pH of the solution. In the latest days, the topic of pH-reactive polymers has grown in popularity, with scientific research being published year after year. As either a result, pH-sensitive polymer systems are extremely helpful in a broad array of applications, including gene delivery, drug administration, surfaces, membranes receptors, and chromatography [37, 38, 39].
Polymers that respond to pH might be linear, branching, or networked. According to their architectures, polymers may have varied sensitivities to solution circumstances and variable self-assembly tendencies. A pH shift, for instance, might result in the (de)protonation of functional moiety in the polymeric chain. It can produce flocculation, strand collapse-extension, including deposition in homopolymers in certain situations. It also might produce self-assembly in the forms of micelles, unimers, gels, vesicles, swelling, and deswelling, among other things. Surface active behaviors are demonstrated by pH alteration in block (co)polymers, branching (co)polymers, and starry (co)polymers with pH-sensitive block(s). Furthermore, pH changes cause (de)swelling in hydrogel as well as dendrimer-like formations. Surfaces altered with polymers allow for the creation of ionic interfaces with thin/thick layers as a result of pH changes. Figure 2 depicts the variations in polymers of various topologies caused by pH changes.
Polymers that respond to pH in a variety of ways.
pH Adaptive polymers are polyelectrolytes with weakly basic or acidic moieties in their architecture that receive or liberate protons in reaction to variations in the pH of the surroundings. Polymers containing acidic or basic groups, such as carboxyl, pyridine, sulfonic, phosphate, and tertiary amines, are commonly referred to as pH adaptive polymers because of ionization of the molecules with pH variation causes a structural change. Their pH sensibility or ionization allows us to modify its self-assembly behavior, wettability phase segregation, polyelectrolyte character, and other properties, in complement to their biotechnological uses. It is feasible to make a polymer with a pKa ranging from 1 to 14. pH Reactive polymers having basic monomers behave like cationic polymers in acidic conditions, whereas polymers having acidic monomers behave like anionic polymers in basic conditions. Depending on the requirements, a few of these two types or a combination of the two with the appropriate composition is necessary. Natural polymers, as well as manmade polymers, have indeed been thoroughly investigated. Biopolymers are by far the most widely investigated because of their richness in ecology, rapid degradation, bio-compatibility, their potential to be modified. Polypeptides such as poly(histidine), poly(L-glutamic acid), and poly(aspartic acid) can be used to synthesize pH-reactive polymers. Such polymers are biodegradable and biocompatible, just like biopolymers. These biopolymers are quite significant among pH-sensitive polymers [38, 40, 41].
These really are polymeric frameworks that are thermal and pH-sensitive, but they are created by combining ionizable with lipophilic (inverse thermo-sensitive) moiety in a straightforward way [42]. Chitosan, acrylic acid, N,Ndimethylaminoethylmethacrylate, and other polymers that really are thermal and pH-responsive are instances. This is accomplished mostly by copolymerizing monomers with all these molecules, integrating thermally responsive polymers with polyelectrolytes, or developing novel monomers that adapt to both stimulation concurrently [43, 44].
Glucose-sensitive polymers can imitate typical internal insulin production, reducing diabetes problems and allowing for regulated delivery of the bioactive chemical. These really are sugar responsive and exhibit a wide range of responses to glucose. Although their applicability for both glucose monitoring and insulin administration, such polymers have gotten a lot of interest. Despite these benefits, the main drawbacks are the quick reaction time as well as the possibility of non-biocompatibility. The following techniques have been used to build glucose-sensitive polymeric-based formulations: enzymatic oxidation of glucose using glucose oxidase, glucose binding using lectin, or reversible covalent bond creation using phenylboronic acid molecules. Glucose responsiveness is caused by the polymer’s reaction to the by-products produced either by oxidation (enzymatic) of glucose. Glucose oxidase (GOx) is oxidized to form glucose to produce gluconic acid with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Within the instance of poly (acrylicacid) coupled with GOx mechanism, for instance, when blood glucose levels rise, conversion of glucose to gluconic acid, causing a drop in pH enabling hydrogenation of PAA carboxylate groups, allowing insulin to be released more quickly. Because its release profile closely resembles that of internal insulin, this approach is gaining popularity [45, 46].
Another technique makes use of lectin’s specific carbohydrate-binding characteristics to create a glucose-responsive system. Lectins are bifunctional proteins, and their glucose-biding function allows them to produce a variety of glucose-sensitive materials. The responses of these mechanisms were unique to glucose and mannose, with no reaction to certain other sugars. Concanavalin A is a 4 binding-site lectin that has been widely employed in insulin-containing medication delivery. The insulin component is chemically changed by inserting functional moieties (or glucose molecule) and afterward connected to a transporter or support via particular interactions that can only be disrupted by the glucose it in this sort of system. Concanavalin A competitive binding characteristic to glucose as well as glycosylated insulin is exploited in the glycosylated insulin-Concanavalin A combination. The bioactive unbound glucose moieties cause glycosylated Concanavalin A-insulin complex to be displaced inside the surrounding structures. The production of single-substituted glucosyl terminal PEG with insulin complex was also described in other investigations. The G-PEG–insulin complex was covalently coupled to Concanavalin A, which was connected to a PEG–poly(vinylpyrrolidone-co-acrylic acid) framework, and when the levels of sugar grew, the competitive attachment of glucose to Con A caused the G-PEG insulin complex to be displaced and released (Figure 3) [47].
Polymers that respond to glucose in a variety of ways.
Photo-sensitive polymeric materials are useful in that they could transport bioactive substances in reaction to light, including drug release happening nearly instantly and with excellent precision due to photo-induced restructuring in nano-carriers [48]. Three primary strategies were used to do this: This non-invasive form of drug administration reacts to the lighting of a certain wavelength and depends on either a single or multiple on-off drug release patterns [49]: (1) photo-generated change of hydrophobic nature to hydrophilic nature, (2) photo splitting reaction, and (3) photo-induced warming. Whilst also electromagnetic radiations with wavelengths in the range from 250 to 380 nm (ultraviolet region) and 700–900 nm (near-infrared region) are being used to stimulate photo-sensitive responses, light with wavelengths greater than 900 nm is inappropriate for delivery of drugs to certain parts of the human body, including the posterior section of the ocular system, because it cannot permeate the ocular soft tissue. Despite the fact that various polymers have been explored for ocular administration, several have been ruled out owing to chromophore intolerance and tissue destruction from photostimulation [50]. In order to establish an osmolality of a gel system, UV-responsiveness polymeric materials have been used in the eye to trigger an ionization process in the exposed to UV light, culminating in drug release through an inflow of solvent [51]. In another study, Viger et al. [52] used light thermally release of drugs to show the liberation of aqueous nano-platforms from watered poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) micro-particulate system. Whenever moisture was subjected to NIR light with a wavelength of 980 nm, the photo-energy was quickly converted into thermal energy. The PLGA changed to a rubbery condition as a result of the warming, allowing the Nile red or Nile blue to be released from the micro-particulate system more easily. When compared with untreated particulates, the substantial release was achieved, which was also shown in vitro [52].
At the minimum one aqueous soluble area, at minimum one biodegradable part, as well as at least minimum of two free radical polymerizable portions are included in the macromers. Free radical activators polymerize macromers in presence of UV irradiation, visible light stimulation, or heat energy. Poly (vinyl alcohol), PEG, polysaccharides like hyaluronan, or peptides like albumin can make up the core aqueous soluble area. Polymers consisting of polyglycolic acid, polylactic acid, poly(anhydrides), polylactones, and poly(amino acids), may be used in the biodegradable zones. Acrylates, methacrylates, diacrylates, and other physiologically acceptable polymerizable units are favored polymerizable areas. Ethyl eosin, camphorquinone, and acetophenone analogs, are examples of promoters that can be employed to generate free radicals [53].
Some fundamental guidelines should be followed while synthesizing enzyme-sensitive polymers with biomedical utilization. Enzymes must work in certain settings (e.g., an aquatic milieu having multiple ions with a pH of 7.4 or mildly basic or acid), while enzyme-sensitive polymers must withstand these circumstances. Apart from the availability of a substrate/substrate-mimic molecule for such focused enzyme to respond, the focused enzymes’ operations must cause a variation in the polymers’ characteristics for the particular activities to occur. The activity of the enzyme and the reaction of the final substance can be performed concurrently or in a step-by-step manner. For instance, proteins were used as a crosslinking agent in the DNA nanoparticles, and proteases quickly degrade the protein, destroying the nanoparticles [54]. In some other cases, enzymatic dissociation of a protective moiety causes peptides generated from amyloid to fold, reorganize, and self-assemble forming fibrillar clumps [55].
In live organisms, enzymes govern the bond generation and breakage, substrate oxidation/reduction, as well as isomerization processes, with the first two chemical reactions being exploited in the development of enzyme-sensitive materials. The bond breakage process has been utilized to cleave protein as well as ester bonds with polymers and/or tiny moiety, which really is important in controlled medication delivery with implant biodegradation. The kinase/phosphatase combination, which catalyzes the dephosphorylation/phosphorylation events here on substrates, might be employed to build reversibly sensitive materials through enzymatic bond creation and breaking.
Chitosan, alginate, dextran, polyethylene glycol, polyacrylamide, and polyethylene oxide have all been investigated as polymer matrices for the creation of enzyme-sensitive systems (butyl methacrylate) (Figure 4) [56, 57, 58].
Polymers that respond to enzymes in a variety of ways.
Redox polymeric materials can be separated into reduction reactive systems and oxidation reactive processes depending on the nature of a reductive stimulus. Disulfide and diselenide connections are typically seen in the reduction reactive system, which will be disrupted by considerable growth in the cost of nearby reducing molecules such as GSH. Direct production of disulfide coupling and bridging with a disulphide-containing crosslinking agent are basically two strategies for incorporating disulfide coupling in the process. By live or regulated polymerization, disulfide could be incorporated into the polymer as the oligomer (e.g. Reversible addition-cleavage crosslinking polymerization and atomic transfer radical polymerization) [59]. The thiol-disulfide interchange process, which is commonly utilized to create reduction reactive prodrugs including genetic transporters, is another viable method with gentler circumstances (e.g. at room temperature) than the controlled/living polymerization [60]. To stop the drug leaking, polymeric micelles comprising substances can indeed be crosslinked with covalently crosslinking agents (using bis(2,2′-hydroxyethyl)disulfide, dithiodipropionic acid, and their derived products) and afterward the disulfide conduits split to discharge the substances after the micelles meet the goal [61]. Since the bond-breaking energies of the C-Se (244 kJ mol1) and Se-Se (172 kJ mol1) bond formation are lesser than those from the C-S (272 kJ mol1) and S-S (251 kJ mol1) bond formation, replacing the disulfide interconnection with the diselenide connection is a simple approach to strengthen the responsiveness of the redox-sensitive system. However, diselenide link insertion into a polymeric matrix is more difficult than disulfide link formation, and more research into effective synthetic techniques is needed (Table 1) [62].
Responsiveness | Merits | Constraints |
---|---|---|
Thermal | Introduction of active moieties is simple. Manufacturing and composition are easy. | Issues with injectability during application criteria. Weak mechanical sturdiness, biocompatibility problems, and thermolablile medicine instabilities. |
pH | Drugs that are thermolabile will benefit from this. | There is a scarcity of data about toxicity. Mechanical strength is low. |
Light | Managing the trigger procedure is simple. Controlling the stimuli with precision. | Gel has a poor mechanical strength, which increases the risk of noncovalently bound chromophores seeping off. |
Electric field | Variations in electrical charge cause pulsative releasing. | Unpredictable behaviors to light. Implantation via surgery is necessary. External stimulus delivery necessitates the use of extra equipment. Perfecting the size of electric charge is challenging. |
Ultrasound | Protein release that can be controlled. | Regulating the release using specialized equipment. Non-biodegradable delivery systems necessitate surgical implantation. |
Mechanical abrasion | Possibility of obtaining medication release | Managing the release pattern is difficult. |
Several smart polymeric drug delivery technologies are available [7].
The reactive oxygen system, the result of aerobic metabolism, is what activates oxidation reactive systems. Oxidation reactive materials include sulfur-based compounds. To accomplish the lipophilic-hydrophilic shift, reactive oxygen moiety can oxidize poly(propylene sulfide) (PPS) to generate sulphoxide [63]. The comparatively higher stability of sulfur in sulfur-containing substances is a fundamental restriction, and the reaction to reactive oxygen may not be as sensitive. The addition of selenium to the polymeric materials, which will be more sensitive than sulfur, improves the susceptibility of the reaction to reactive oxygen [64]. Owing to its own oxidation responsiveness, ferrocene-containing polymeric materials are another prominent family of oxidation reactive polymers [65, 66]. Ferrocene can be inserted in the framework, side chain, and terminal unit of the polymeric materials. Developing themes such as boronic ester moieties, oligoproline, and tetrathiafulvalene have been studied for the development of new oxidation-sensitive polymeric substances to broaden the uses [67, 68].
The majority of bio-sensitive systems, notably those used in cancer therapy, rely on regulated medication release. While significant advancements in chemotherapy have resulted in the development of a number of novel medications for treating cancer that has significantly improved patients’ prognoses and standard of living, a key obstacle remains the treatments’ lack of compassion for neoplastic cells [69]. The treatment impact of the anticancer treatment is harmed by the possibility of a deadly systemic adverse effect and the development of resistant strains [70]. Continued improvement of chemotherapy necessitates adequate drug release at the tumor site as well as the avoidance of drug-carrier endosomal sequestration, and the development of suitable stimulus-sensitive systems has shown tremendous promise in both areas. This is attributable to the fact that tumor tissues’ milieu can produce a variety of natural signals. For instance, tumor cells contain moderate acidity, significant GSH (glutathione) levels, as well as a top-level of hyaluronidase [71], therefore pH-, redox-, and enzyme sensitive drug carriers, as well as their combinations (to optimize the release of drug efficiency), have been extensively studied. Blood serum albumin (HSA)-coatedMnO2 nanomaterial’s as an adaptive transporter of cis-platinum is a fresh example. The MnO2 combines with internal H2O2 just at tumor site to produce O2 in vivo, overcoming medicaments resistance caused by local hypoxic, while the nanoparticles disintegrate in an acidic medium, releasing cis-platinum [72]. In another layout, the water-soluble rhodamine B was covalently conjugated to the PDMAEMA (Poly((2-dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) and via disulphide bond formation with the lipophilic coumarin 102 physiologically encapsulated inside the nanogel, and the hydrophilic rhodamine B has been covalently linked to the PDMAEMA via disulfide bond formation with the lipophilic coumarin 102. The nano gel is swollen in an acidic medium and shrinks at increased temperature to liberate the coumarin 102, whereas decreasing DL-dithiothreitol cleaves the disulfide bridges to liberate the aqueous cargo medication [73]. The development of bio-sensitive drug carriers for controlled release has exploded in the past few decades, and additional improvements in release effectiveness have resulted in dual and numerous systems that can carry several medicines for programmable site-specific delivery of drugs. Pharmaceutical loading, persistence in a microenvironment, tumor-targetability, effective absorption of cancerous cells, and controlled intracellular release of the drug are among the fundamental difficulties in the delivery of drugs addressed by the many configurations of the bio-sensitive delivery mechanism. Even though there are a lot of good studies, most of it makes a specialty of the difficulties and still in the concept-proofing phase [74]. The challenges are associated with most existing bio-sensitive drug delivery mechanisms, such as poor drug loading efficiency, biodegradability, as well as the ability to remain circulatory and concentrate in the target organs, must be overcome in order to convert the study into practical practice (e.g. tumor). In contrast, more research into the subatomic scale in vivo behavior of bio-sensitive systems, as well as the influence of systemic physiological parameters on the release of the drug, is needed [74].
Designing microfluidic technologies for biochemical applications has proven to be a difficult task, and a properly working valve is a critical component in these technologies. Traditional micro-actuators are somewhat sophisticated components that needed additional electricity to operate. The use of sensitive smart polymer composites to govern flow eradicates this need for external power, output control, and complicated fabrication ploys, allowing them to be integrated within microfluidics streams and dwindle or perk up in response to an external stimulus, causing streams to open or close. Photo triggered polymerization inside the stream of a microfluidic chip that may be employed as a gate for changing; transmission, measuring, and closing of a PCR reaction vessel produced monolithic plugging PNiPAAm complexes using 5% methylenebisacrylamide. Because of their simple construction of sensors, the kinetic studies of the volume phase change process as a feature of gel structure and shape, the capacity of the sensors to thwart and supplant the transition between two fluids, anisotropic bulging of a polymer, as well as the ability to adapt to changing stimuli, responsive smart polymeric materials are the structural elements for microfluidic devices. Thermally sensitive smart polymeric materials have also been utilized to create “smart” affinities beads which can be transiently mounted on microfluidic walls of the channel just above MinCST in order to acquire the target biomaterials via its friendliness component. Proteomic functionalities, such as pre-concentration and isolation of soluble proteins on an embedded fluidics device, have been enabled by this technology. Many efforts were made to emulate live creatures’ effective transition of chemical energy to mechanical energy. The bio-inspired actuators might be employed in future ‘soft’ technologies that are based on biological concepts rather than mechanical ones. Because bio-inspired actuators can tolerate extremely hostile conditions, they can also be utilized to pick up extremely small items in watery solutions. By contorting a barrier that subsequently occludes an opening, a system built on pH-sensitive smart polymeric discs of polymethacrylic acid-triethylene glycol dimethacrylate (PMAA-EG) has indeed been utilized to control medication delivery. The electronegative interpenetrating matrix (IPM) made of PVA with PNiPAAm was studied in aquatic NaCl solution for its moisture content and carrying behavior with electromagnetic current, with the goal of using it in bio-inspired sensors and devices that respond quickly to exterior electric fields. The immobilized smart polymer’s prompted manipulation of interfacial characteristics at the solid-liquid interface has benefits in the development of microfluidics bio-analytical systems since they supply the actuation pressure necessary for both valving and dispensing functionalities in micro-dispensing gadgets [75, 76, 77].
Biomedicine research involves advancing our understanding of biology and the processes behind physiological activity and disorders. As a result, in addition to illness therapy, one of the most significant goals is diagnostics, wherein bio-sensitive materials have shown promising potential in detecting low concentrations of biochemical, proteins, and genes that act as sickness-specific indicators. Those indicators are typically tested using high-cost chromatography techniques like high-performance liquid chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, but using stimuli-sensitive systems, easy, rapid, precise, and low-cost detection procedures may be established.
For instance, metallic nanoparticles with a size of 4 nm may greatly boost T1 distinction in magnetic resonance imaging; however, their aggregation led in T2 contrasting augmentation owing to in uniform magnetic field around the aggregates. As a result, IONs like these have been employed as a T2 contrast media to diagnose liver disorders. They are, nevertheless, unsuitable for the identification of smaller hepatocellular carcinomas that requires a good detection to improve the individuals’ average five-year rate of survival [78]. The fall in pH dispersed the aggregation of the functional metallic nanoparticles when they were treated using i-Motif DNAs that really can convert from unistranded to fused quadruple-helical structure in an acidic medium. Because acidification of the tumor encouraged the breakdown of the metallic nanoparticles aggregates and shifted the MRI signal between T2 to T1 augmentation to better the differentiation between hepatocyte and tiny hepatocytic carcinoma tissues, tiny hepatocytic carcinoma may be diagnosed with these bifunctional metallic nanoparticles [79]. pH-sensitive surfaces made comprised of nanoparticles with just an amino group having a silane layer are another intriguing instance. In an acidic medium, the amino groups are protonated, making the surfaces highly hydrophilic, whereas in a highly alkaline, the surfaces become really hydrophobic. The amount of glucose in the mouth and pee may be reliably determined in one second using this surface via measuring the contact area of the liquid specimen, which is dependent on the created gluconic acid following adding glucose oxidase to the specimen [80]. This non-invasive, economic approach of fast glucose measurement is useful for overcoming the drawbacks of standard intrusive diagnosis of diabetes, including such discomfort and infection hazard. While contemporary research has demonstrated the stimuli-sensitive system’s potential and performance in preclinical testing for diagnostic uses, the majority of the built systems do not fulfill the standards for clinical usage. This is owing to the large variety of chemicals found in real specimens collected from individuals with varying situations (e.g., various diets, ethnicities, and lifestyles), which considerably affects the measurement’s specificity and stability [81]. Aside from identifying biochemical levels, constant monitoring and distribution centres in human, both of which are challenging to perform, may be required. As a result, motivated monitoring technologies are still in the early stages of development, and more investigation is necessary before they can be used in clinical illness treatment.
Creating actuators including such valves and levers out of the material, which could be utilized as blood artery implants, is one potential application. To modulate blood flow, the artery might be enlarged or constricted, also utilizing internal biochemical impulses. The valves would’ve been placed into the blood channels of the heart, or prosthetic muscular implants may be created [82].
Hydrophilic polymers must be employed to construct the liquid ophthalmic delivery mechanism since they may serve as a useful viscosity altering or boosting agent. In the ophthalmic mucoadhesive delivery method, polysaccharides are often employed. Hyaluronic acid, methylcellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, chitosan, gellan gum, carrageenan, xanthan gum, and guar gum are some of its variants. Chitosan is a polysaccharide polymer made up of polysaccharides. It is appropriate for usage in medication compositions due to its biodegradability, low toxicity, and biocompatibility [83]. Polyvinylpyrrolidone, poloxamer, and polyvinyl alcohol are among additional non-ionic polymers utilized for mucoadhesive characteristics [84].
The medications as well as the polymer have a physiologically labile connection. Paclitaxel [poly(L-glutamic acid)] is a chemotherapeutic medication employed to treat cancers of the ovary, breast, as well as lung. Phase III studies have been conducted on it. Among its 2’hydroxyl unit and the carboxylic acid of poly(L-glutamic acid), it possesses an ester bond [83]. To improve its efficacy as an antitumor targeted drug delivery, Poly (amidoamine) and PEG is covalently attached with the chemotherapy medication Paclitaxel. Both improve the solubility of the substance. In an in vitro investigation of mankind ovarian cancer cells, it was discovered that PEG-based conjugates lowered paclitaxel activity by 25-fold, but the Poly (amidoamine)]-G4 dendrimer increased its efficacy by more than ten times [12]. The medication 5-fluorouracil induces cell death. Some researchers created PLA nanospheres as an encapsulating reagent for 5-fluorouracil [12].
Smart polymeric materials may be chemically attached to bio-substances or physically combined with them to create a vast variety of polymeric materials and bio-molecular systems that really can adapt to physiological and chemical stimuli. Oligosaccharides, Polypeptides, glucose and polysaccharides, solitary as well as double-sided oligonucleotides, DNA plasmid, basic lipids and ligands, phospholipids, as well as synthesized medicine compounds are examples of bio-substances that can be polymer linked. Smart polymeric materials and sensitive surfaces that cope with environmental stimuli are made with these materials. Smart polymers with size-specific switches for turning proteins on and off were also studied. When a sensible polymer chain is connected to a protein complex that is further away from active site, the expanded polymer chain shields the active-locations, preventing bigger molecules from attaching. These polymers operate as a molecular gatekeeper, limiting the types of molecules that really can attach to proteins depending on their size [85].
The manufacture of insulin administration devices for the management of diabetic individuals is a prime utilization of smart polymeric materials. Several technologies have been used to give precise amounts of insulin at precisely the right moment, and all of them include a glucose sensor, sometimes known as a “biosensor,” incorporated into the mechanism. The word ‘biosensor’ refers to sensing devices that are used to detect the number of chemicals and other biologically relevant analytes. mGlucose oxidase (GluOx) is primarily employed in glucose monitoring and enables the use of various pH-sensitive smart polymeric materials for regulated insulin administration [86, 87].
Tissue culture techniques have leveraged the shift in surface characteristics of thermally sensitive smart polymeric materials from hydrophilic well above threshold temperature to hydrophobic underneath it. Human cells are grown on hydrophobic solid culture plates and are normally separated from them using a protease therapy that causes the cells to be damaged. Because of the close connectivity among cells and cells, this allows for a high level of effectiveness whenever transplanted into individuals. The intensity of each molecule’s reaction to variations in stimuli is a combination of single monomer unit modifications that are weak on their own, and these modest reactions combine to generate a force that drives biochemical mechanisms. Likewise, the chromatographic matrix has been modified using surfaces with thermally responsive hydrophobic/hydrophilic qualities. For protein-rich selectivity with minimal non-specific couplings, thermally responsive size-exclusion chromatography is utilized. Smart polymeric mats are distinguished by their non-linear behavior [88, 89]. A minor stimulus can cause a substantial change in structure and characteristics (Table 2). Once that shift happens, the polymer exhibits a predictable all-or-nothing reaction with full homogeneity throughout [96].
Stimuli | Drug | Polymer | Uses | Goal/outcome of the research |
---|---|---|---|---|
Thermal responsive | Exenatide | PLGA–PEG–PLGA | Diabetic type 2 treatment | To create an injectable composition with a long-acting effect [90]. |
Leuprolide | Polybenzofulvene | For treatment of tumors | External warmth is used to preserve the oligopeptide medication and modulate the release rate [91]. | |
pH responsive | Ketoprofen | Poly(acrylamide)-g-carrageenan and sodium alginate | Targeted distribution to the colon | Whenever the ph of the sample was changed from acidic to basic, ketoprofen release rose considerably [92]. |
Dauxorubicin and paclitaxel | Poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly (propylene glycol)-poly(ethylene glycol) | Survival time is extended as compared to single-drug treatment. | The rate of release can be enhanced by lowering the pH of the external surroundings from acidic to basic [93]. | |
Glucose responsive | Insulin-Con A complex | Methacrylate derivatives of dextran and concanavellin | Insulin delivery that is self-controlled | The findings showed that insulin release was bidirectional in reaction to varying glucose level, and also that the insulin produced was effective [94]. |
Sulphonamide | N,N(dimethylacrylamide) and sulfadimethoxine monomer | Glucose-responsive hydrogel made of sulphonamide | In such a buffered salt solution at pH 7.4, the gelatin displayed bidirectional expansion as a result of glucose content from 0 and 300 mg/dL [95]. | |
Enzyme responsive | Amyloid | Chitosan | The amyloid-derived proteins are rearranged as a result of this. | In live organisms, enzymes govern binding and breakage, substrates oxidation / reduction, including isomerization processes, with the first two chemical reactions being exploited in the development of enzyme responsive substances [57]. |
Photo responsive | Cross linked hyalouronic acid hydrogel | Trisodium salt of copper chlorophyllin | The enzymatic reaction is what drives the prospective application of visible light-responsive hydrogels for temporal delivery of drugs. | Photosensitive compounds including such chromophores are used to make visible light-sensitive hydrogels [94]. |
Several uses of advanced drug delivery systems.
The topic of stimuli-sensitive polymeric materials is quickly evolving, with evidence of its pharmacokinetic and therapeutic usefulness in the delivery of drugs. Stimuli-sensitive polymeric materials, which constitute an adaptive delivery strategy, have been proven to effectively respond in the required manner to the associated stimuli and are interesting prospects as a specific drug delivery option. Despite the fact that most of these polymeric’ multifunctionality qualities enable for a variety of health uses, stimuli sensitive polymeric substances have limited therapeutic potential due to cytocompatibility and toxicity concerns. The enormous progress and different benefits and prospects of stimuli-sensitive polymeric materials have been highlighted in this chapter. Despite the various options that are already available, additional research into healthier and much more biocompatible delivery mechanisms has still been needed.
Not applicable.
All the information in the manuscript has been referred from the included references and is available upon request from the corresponding author.
The authors declare no competing interest.
I declare that this work was done by the author named in this article. PS conceived, designed the study, carried out the literature collection of the data, writing, and corrected the manuscript. PS, MT, and VJ read and approved the final manuscript.
MaxCST | Maximum crucial solution temperature |
MinCST | Minimum crucial solution temperature |
GOx | Glucose oxidase |
PEG | Polyethylene Glycol |
PPS | poly(propylene sulphide) |
GSH | Glutathione |
PDMAEMA | (Poly((2-dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) |
PMAA-EG | Polymethacrylic acid-triethylene glycol dimethacrylate |
IPM | Interpenetrating matrix |
Authors are listed below with their open access chapters linked via author name:
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\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
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\\n\\nAbdul Latif Ahmad 2016-18
\\n\\nKhalil Amine 2017, 2018
\\n\\nEwan Birney 2015-18
\\n\\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
\\n\\nGang Chen 2016-18
\\n\\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
\\n\\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
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\\n\\nLiming Dai 2015-18
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\\n\\nVincenzo Fogliano 2017, 2018
\\n\\nRon de Graaf 2014-18
\\n\\nHarald Haas 2017, 2018
\\n\\nFrancisco Herrera 2017, 2018
\\n\\nJaakko Kangasjärvi 2015-18
\\n\\nHamid Reza Karimi 2016-18
\\n\\nJunji Kido 2014-18
\\n\\nJose Luiszamorano 2015-18
\\n\\nYiqi Luo 2016-18
\\n\\nJoachim Maier 2014-18
\\n\\nAndrea Natale 2017, 2018
\\n\\nAlberto Mantovani 2014-18
\\n\\nMarjan Mernik 2017, 2018
\\n\\nSandra Orchard 2014, 2016-18
\\n\\nMohamed Oukka 2016-18
\\n\\nBiswajeet Pradhan 2016-18
\\n\\nDirk Raes 2017, 2018
\\n\\nUlrike Ravens-Sieberer 2016-18
\\n\\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\\n\\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\\n\\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nFei Wei 2016-18
\\n\\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\\n\\nQi Xie 2016-18
\\n\\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'New for 2018 (alphabetically by surname).
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
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\n\nAbdul Latif Ahmad 2016-18
\n\nKhalil Amine 2017, 2018
\n\nEwan Birney 2015-18
\n\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
\n\nGang Chen 2016-18
\n\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
\n\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
\n\nMyung-Haing Cho 2016, 2018
\n\nMark Connors 2015-18
\n\nCyrus Cooper 2017, 2018
\n\nLiming Dai 2015-18
\n\nWeihua Deng 2017, 2018
\n\nVincenzo Fogliano 2017, 2018
\n\nRon de Graaf 2014-18
\n\nHarald Haas 2017, 2018
\n\nFrancisco Herrera 2017, 2018
\n\nJaakko Kangasjärvi 2015-18
\n\nHamid Reza Karimi 2016-18
\n\nJunji Kido 2014-18
\n\nJose Luiszamorano 2015-18
\n\nYiqi Luo 2016-18
\n\nJoachim Maier 2014-18
\n\nAndrea Natale 2017, 2018
\n\nAlberto Mantovani 2014-18
\n\nMarjan Mernik 2017, 2018
\n\nSandra Orchard 2014, 2016-18
\n\nMohamed Oukka 2016-18
\n\nBiswajeet Pradhan 2016-18
\n\nDirk Raes 2017, 2018
\n\nUlrike Ravens-Sieberer 2016-18
\n\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\n\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\n\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\n\nFei Wei 2016-18
\n\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\n\nQi Xie 2016-18
\n\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\n\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
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Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Serrano",slug:"maria-jose-hernandez-serrano",fullName:"Maria Jose Hernández-Serrano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10191",title:"Health and Academic Achievement",subtitle:"New Findings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ee3f57e3911318305ac5c2eef39f8ab",slug:"health-and-academic-achievement-new-findings",bookSignature:"Blandina Bernal-Morales",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10191.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"174721",title:"Dr.",name:"Blandina",middleName:null,surname:"Bernal-Morales",slug:"blandina-bernal-morales",fullName:"Blandina Bernal-Morales"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to 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Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:34,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"59705",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74943",title:"Augmented Reality Trends in Education between 2016 and 2017 Years",slug:"augmented-reality-trends-in-education-between-2016-and-2017-years",totalDownloads:2464,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"The aim of this chapter is to review literature regarding using augmented reality (AR) in education articles published in between 2016 and 2017 years. The literature source was Web of Science and SSCI, SCI-EXPANDED, A&HCI, CPCI-S, CPCI-SSH, and ESCI indexes. Fifty-two articles were reviewed; however, 14 of them were not been included in the study. As a result, 38 articles were examined. Level of education, field of education, and material types of AR used in education and reported educational advantages of AR have been investigated. All articles are categorized according to target groups, which are early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, high school education, graduate education, and others. AR technology has been mostly carried out in primary and graduate education. “Science education” is the most explored field of education. Mobile applications and marker-based materials on paper have been mostly preferred. The major advantages indicated in the articles are “Learning/Academic Achievement,” “Motivation,” and “Attitude”.",book:{id:"6543",slug:"state-of-the-art-virtual-reality-and-augmented-reality-knowhow",title:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow",fullTitle:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow"},signatures:"Rabia M. Yilmaz",authors:[{id:"225838",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabia",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"rabia-yilmaz",fullName:"Rabia Yilmaz"}]},{id:"63639",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81086",title:"Cooperative Learning: The Foundation for Active Learning",slug:"cooperative-learning-the-foundation-for-active-learning",totalDownloads:3417,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"The role of instructors is evolving from the presenter of information to the designer of active learning processes, environments, and experiences that maximize student engagement. The more active a lesson, the more students tend to engage intellectually and emotionally in the learning activities. Cooperative learning is the foundation on which many of the active learning procedures are based. Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning. Most of the active learning procedures, such as problem-based learning, team-learning, collaborative learning, and PALS, require that students work cooperatively in small groups to achieve joint learning goals. Cooperative learning is based on two theories: Structure-Process-Outcome theory and Social Interdependence theory. Four types of cooperative learning have been derived: formal cooperative learning, informal cooperative learning, cooperative base groups, and constructive controversy. There is considerable research confirming the effectiveness of cooperative learning. To be cooperative, however, five basic elements must be structured into the situation: positive interdependence, individual accountability, promotive interaction, social skills, and group processing.",book:{id:"6929",slug:"active-learning-beyond-the-future",title:"Active Learning",fullTitle:"Active Learning - Beyond the Future"},signatures:"David W. Johnson and Roger T. Johnson",authors:[{id:"259976",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Johnson",slug:"david-johnson",fullName:"David Johnson"},{id:"263004",title:"Dr.",name:"Roger",middleName:null,surname:"Johnson",slug:"roger-johnson",fullName:"Roger Johnson"}]},{id:"59468",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74344",title:"Virtual and Augmented Reality: New Frontiers for Clinical Psychology",slug:"virtual-and-augmented-reality-new-frontiers-for-clinical-psychology",totalDownloads:2337,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"In the last decades, the applied approach for the use of virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) on clinical and health psychology has grown exponentially. These technologies have been used to treat several mental disorders, for example, phobias, stress-related disorders, depression, eating disorders, and chronic pain. The importance of VR/AR for the mental health field comes from three main concepts: (1) VR/AR as an imaginal technology, people can feel “as if they are” in a reality that does not exist in external world; (2) VR/AR as an embodied technology, the experience to feel user’s body inside the virtual environment; and (3) VR/AR as connectivity technology, the “end of geography’. In this chapter, we explore the opportunities provided by VR/AR as technologies to improve people’s quality of life and to discuss new frontiers for their application in mental health and psychological well-being promotion.",book:{id:"6543",slug:"state-of-the-art-virtual-reality-and-augmented-reality-knowhow",title:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow",fullTitle:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow"},signatures:"Sara Ventura, Rosa M. Baños and Cristina Botella",authors:[{id:"106036",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Baños",slug:"rosa-maria-banos",fullName:"Rosa Maria Baños"},{id:"227763",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura",slug:"sara-ventura",fullName:"Sara Ventura"},{id:"229056",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Botella",slug:"cristina-botella",fullName:"Cristina Botella"}]},{id:"58060",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72341",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8743,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"64583",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81714",title:"Evaluating a Course for Teaching Advanced Programming Concepts with Scratch to Preservice Kindergarten Teachers: A Case Study in Greece",slug:"evaluating-a-course-for-teaching-advanced-programming-concepts-with-scratch-to-preservice-kindergart",totalDownloads:1408,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Coding is a new literacy for the twenty-first century, and as a literacy, coding enables new ways of thinking and new ways of communicating and expressing ideas, as well as new ways of civic participation. A growing number of countries, in Europe and beyond, have established clear policies and frameworks for introducing computational thinking (CT) and computer programming to young children. In this chapter, we discuss a game-based approach to coding education for preservice kindergarten teachers using Scratch. The aim of using Scratch was to excite students’ interest and familiarize them with the basics of programming in an open-ended, project-based, and personally meaningful environment for a semester course in the Department of Preschool Education in the University of Crete. For 13 weeks, students were introduced to the main Scratch concepts and, afterward, were asked to prepare their projects. For the projects, they were required to design their own interactive stories to teach certain concepts about mathematics or physical science to preschool-age students. The results we obtained were more satisfactory than expected and, in some regards, encouraging if one considers the fact that the research participants had no prior experiences with computational thinking.",book:{id:"6936",slug:"early-childhood-education",title:"Early Childhood Education",fullTitle:"Early Childhood Education"},signatures:"Stamatios Papadakis and Michail Kalogiannakis",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58060",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8743,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"61746",title:"Facilitation of Teachers’ Professional Development through Principals’ Instructional Supervision and Teachers’ Knowledge- Management Behaviors",slug:"facilitation-of-teachers-professional-development-through-principals-instructional-supervision-and-t",totalDownloads:3349,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"With the rise of global competition and the focus on teacher quality, teacher professional development is becoming increasingly crucial, and the stress and challenges for principals are more severe than ever. Teachers can improve their professional abilities through principals’ instructional supervision and their own knowledge-management (KM) behaviors to benefit students. Thus, this chapter analyzes the relationship among principals’ instructional supervision, teachers’ KM, and teachers’ professional development. The author believes that principals’ instructional supervision and effective KM can facilitate the professional development of teachers. The author also believes the readers can know the relationships among them, and teachers’ professional development can be improved through principal’s instructional supervision and teachers’ KM behaviors.",book:{id:"6674",slug:"contemporary-pedagogies-in-teacher-education-and-development",title:"Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development",fullTitle:"Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development"},signatures:"Chien-Chin Chen",authors:[{id:"232569",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Chien Chih",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chien-chih-chen",fullName:"Chien Chih Chen"}]},{id:"75908",title:"From the Classroom into Virtual Learning Environments: Essential Knowledge, Competences, Skills and Pedagogical Strategies for the 21st Century Teacher Education in Kenya",slug:"from-the-classroom-into-virtual-learning-environments-essential-knowledge-competences-skills-and-ped",totalDownloads:501,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"As teachers in Kenya begin to migrate from the classroom to virtual learning spaces following COVID 19 pandemic, there is pressing need to realign Teacher Education to requisite Knowledge, competences, skills, and attitudes that will support online teaching. This chapter explores these needs using a combination of lived experiences and literature review that captured a meta-analysis of research trends on e-learning. While trends in Teacher Education indicate progression towards adoption of technology, there are disparities between the theory and practice. Evidence from recent research and reports; and the recollected experiences confirmed knowledge, competence, skills and pedagogical gaps in the implementation of online learning, that have been exacerbated by COVID-19. The researcher recommends that teacher education should sensitize and train teacher trainees on how to access, analyze and use new knowledge emerging with technology; they also should be coached on how learners learn with technology and on fundamentals of the communication process. Particularly the course on educational technology, should focus on how to create and manage online courses. The 5-stage E-Moderator Model and Universal Design for Learning (UDL) are recommended as effective pedagogical scaffold for online teaching.",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Catherine Adhiambo Amimo",authors:[{id:"333482",title:"Dr.",name:"Catherine Adhiambo",middleName:null,surname:"Amimo",slug:"catherine-adhiambo-amimo",fullName:"Catherine Adhiambo Amimo"}]},{id:"75224",title:"Decoding the Digital Gap in Teacher Education: Three Perspectives across the Globe",slug:"decoding-the-digital-gap-in-teacher-education-three-perspectives-across-the-globe",totalDownloads:552,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Educational use of technology is regularly assessed, and results often show a gap between educational policies and what is actually practiced. This chapter will help clarify how teacher educators experience the changing educational contexts due to the digital revolution, how their meaning-making shifts, and how outside forces influence those processes. The results are based on comparative international studies. Central for this study is practitioners’ professional digital competence, their attitudes towards digital technology and the use of digital technology in education. We found that the influence and contribution of digital practice is carried out quite differently across the globe. Our research questions were: How do practitioners experience teaching in a rapidly changing context? How do attitudes change due to top-down governing of education? and What motivates teacher educators to implement digital technology?",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Steinar Thorvaldsen and Siri Sollied Madsen",authors:[{id:"332624",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Siri Sollied",middleName:null,surname:"Madsen",slug:"siri-sollied-madsen",fullName:"Siri Sollied Madsen"},{id:"332626",title:"Prof.",name:"Steinar",middleName:null,surname:"Thorvaldsen",slug:"steinar-thorvaldsen",fullName:"Steinar Thorvaldsen"}]},{id:"75416",title:"Self-Study Research: Challenges and Opportunities in Teacher Education",slug:"self-study-research-challenges-and-opportunities-in-teacher-education",totalDownloads:724,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This article aims to describe what self-study research is, why self-study can be a good approach to teacher educators’ professional development and improvements in practice and highlight some challenges and opportunities in this research approach. In addition, the article will shed light on some methodological aspects related to self-study. Self-study refers to teacher educators who in an intentionally and systematically way examine their practice to improve it, based on a deeper understanding of practice, as well as the context practice takes place. In the article, I argue that engaging in self-study is a learning and development process and an approach to developing personal professionalism, collective professionalism and improvements in practice.",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Kåre Hauge",authors:[{id:"332053",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Kåre",middleName:null,surname:"Hauge",slug:"kare-hauge",fullName:"Kåre Hauge"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"265",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81937",title:"Socialization Experiences among Undergraduate Students in Higher Learning Institutions (HLI)",slug:"socialization-experiences-among-undergraduate-students-in-higher-learning-institutions-hli-",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99007",abstract:"This work portrays the problems of socialization among undergraduate students in higher learning institutions. The socialization processes in higher learning institution are significant for the successful navigation of students in the academic programs and university environment in preparing the next generation of professional practitioners and scholars. But the undergraduate student socialization experiences of students at university environment are overlooked. To navigate in the higher learning institutions, students should be socialized effectively to the normative contexts of the higher learning institutions. The normative contexts of the higher learning institutions are generally categorized into social and academic contexts, because these context academic and social context integration have been linked to student retention and success. Social integration involves interpersonal relationships, support, interactions with others, and a sense of belonging at a university, which stems from extracurricular activities, informal dealings with peer groups, and interactions with faculty and staff, whereas academic integration is described through grade performance and intellectual development that reflects an ability to meet the standards of the academic system; intellectual development involves a student valuing their education as a process of development in which they gain knowledge and ideas. Students’ background is also the contributing factor for students’ socialization in the University.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Mulusew Birhanu Ayalew"},{id:"80280",title:"Adoption of Online Learning during the Covid19 Pandemic Lockdown by Universities in Garowe",slug:"adoption-of-online-learning-during-the-covid19-pandemic-lockdown-by-universities-in-garowe",totalDownloads:88,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99941",abstract:"In response to the Covid-19 outbreak the world closed and therefore countries like Somalia have not been exceptional. The government of Somalia and all higher education institutions adopted crisis intervention measures on implementation of blended learning approaches like online teaching and learning. In this chapter we explore the process and challenges of adopting online learning in response to the world wide lockdown due to the pandemic. Given that this was an abrupt requirement, the survey was interested in finding out whether universities adopted and adapted easily. Researchers compared findings from previous studies and theoretical inclinations on online learning. Results indicate that the adoption of online learning among universities in Garowe was as a matter of crisis management whereby administration, lecturers and students were all not ready and had no prior grounding in this pedagogical learning platform. Just like previous studies online learning implementers have continued to encounter several challenges like intermittent internet network, cost of gadgets and facilities, inadequate skills of both the instructors and students, aspects of communication and satisfaction from stakeholders. With the research survey in Garowe, results show that this is still pervading and therefore need for more rigorous contextualised research on this subject.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Tumwebaze Alicon Auf and Omer Abdi Hamdi"},{id:"78597",title:"Public-Private Participation in Funding University Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Nigerian Case-Study for Sustainable Development",slug:"public-private-participation-in-funding-university-education-in-sub-saharan-africa-a-nigerian-case-s",totalDownloads:134,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99940",abstract:"The developing countries in Africa still cannot withstand the pressure of the highly competitive global education market. Together with the large numbers of people who make a living in various innovative companies, these countries have solved key contemporary issues affecting global education. For this reason, it is necessary to actively respond to current technological innovation and educational challenges and to eliminate new technology graduates who can effectively interact with students through the responsive expansion of education and training. Expansion of education can produce effective expansion that promotes educational development, but due to budget constraints, most African governments cannot successfully and sustainably implement such educational programs. This is difficult. However, public-private partnership efforts provide a way out of this financial dilemma. The Sub-Saharan Africa initiative has achieved important educational objectives, such as: ensuring relevance for quality; secure funding for sustainability and establish resource mobilization partnerships and connections; and promote international cooperation. This discussion is relevant to the basic conditions for a successful public-private partnership with educational institutions and extended education and sheds light on the impact, lessons, and challenges. The public is increasingly concerned about the importance of higher education in the 21st century. This chapter explores some of the key functions of an innovative education system that supports the development of education in Nigeria and enhances people’s ability to use information. Nigeria’s education system re-emphasizes the importance of public and private universities, but the country does not have a sustainable education system and well-equipped educational institutions to support people’s ability to use information, learning, education, and research activities.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Lawrence Jones-Esan"},{id:"79197",title:"University Teachers’ Conceptions of What University Is: Implications for the Future of Higher Education",slug:"university-teachers-conceptions-of-what-university-is-implications-for-the-future-of-higher-educatio",totalDownloads:107,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100813",abstract:"This chapter presents the perception of university teachers about the university, the most recent changes and how they have influenced their activity. The phenomenographic study was conducted with 10 university teachers, nine females and one male with more than 15 years of professional activity. The perception of the university emerges, in the teachers’ voice, focused on the description of its mission, namely as a context for the production and diffusion of knowledge to society, as a space for creative and critical thinking about the world, as an interdisciplinary space and as a system focused on teaching and research. It also includes characteristics related to its structure and functioning, such as the level of hierarchization, bureaucratization, competitiveness, dehumanization and bibliometrics overvaluation. Regarding the perceived changes, they are related to the structural reforms resulting from the Bologna Process, diverse student populations, research and internationalization, new technologies, institutional cooperation, bureaucratization and relationship with the community. Teachers also revealed some dissatisfaction in the way they are experiencing university life due to the overwork resulting from the multiple tasks required in the four activity strands (teaching, research, management and extension) with an impact on quality and innovation, but in line with what the institution demands.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Elisa Chaleta"},{id:"78595",title:"Globalization and Education: Trends towards Sustainability",slug:"globalization-and-education-trends-towards-sustainability",totalDownloads:58,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99974",abstract:"Higher Education Institutions (IES) have a very relevant role in the path towards sustainability. The problem of the implementation of curricular sustainability is the disparity of solutions that can be adopted depending on the political and economic situation of each country. The study of a practical case in the south of Honduras allows the student to approach key decisions in a real scenario to bring improvements to a very disadvantaged population, lacking basic services, such as water and electricity, under the premise of sustainability, facing aspects as relevant such as sustainable mobility, water resources management, energy and construction models, in a context where globalization and technological innovation play a very important role. It is essential to know in depth the real context where structural changes will be applied to understand that there is no single reality, that actions are built adapting to specific situations and that the effectiveness of the measures that can be adopted to establish models that prioritize that part of sustainability that best weighs the balance between the environment, society and the economy for each case.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Maria Olga Bernaldo and Gonzalo Fernandez-Sanchez"},{id:"79255",title:"Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in Africa Embracing the “New Normal” for Knowledge Production and Innovation: Barriers, Realities, and Possibilities",slug:"higher-education-institutions-heis-in-africa-embracing-the-new-normal-for-knowledge-production-and-i",totalDownloads:128,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101063",abstract:"If Africa is to remain relevant and competitive in today’s knowledge-based economy, it has to rely on higher education institutions (HEIs) as centers of excellence for knowledge production. HEIs nurture and sustain the production of highly-skilled individuals to support Africa’s growing economies. Among all possible ways, this could be achievable through strategic curricula innovation driven by emerging mobile technologies. Consequently, Africa’s HEIs need to embrace the ‘New Normal’ by optimizing online teaching and learning in their pursuit to expand information and communications technology (ICT) literacy as a means to increase students’ opportunities in higher education (HE). However, Africa’s ability to embrace the ‘New Normal’ has been marred by inadequate ICT infrastructures, low connectivity, unreliable power supply, and national budget constraints that may undermine Africa’s HEIs’ potential to augment knowledge production and innovation.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Christopher B. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. Kleczyk, Karin Hayes and Rajesh Mehta",slug:"evaluating-similarities-and-differences-between-machine-learning-and-traditional-statistical-modelin",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:29,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79345",title:"Application of Jump Diffusion Models in Insurance Claim Estimation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99853",signatures:"Leonard Mushunje, Chiedza Elvina Mashiri, Edina Chandiwana and Maxwell Mashasha",slug:"application-of-jump-diffusion-models-in-insurance-claim-estimation-1",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7723",title:"Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:"Applications in Medicine and Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7723.jpg",slug:"artificial-intelligence-applications-in-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 31st 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"a3852659e727f95c98c740ed98146011",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Artificial Intelligence - Applications in Medicine and Biology",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"38",type:"subseries",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713"},editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",slug:"meng-chuan-ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",slug:"olga-anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"80964",title:"Upper Airway Expansion in Disabled Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102830",signatures:"David Andrade, Joana Andrade, Maria-João Palha, Cristina Areias, Paula Macedo, Ana Norton, Miguel Palha, Lurdes Morais, Dóris Rocha Ruiz and Sônia Groisman",slug:"upper-airway-expansion-in-disabled-children",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"80839",title:"Herbs and Oral Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103715",signatures:"Zuhair S. 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