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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7110",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Opioids - From Analgesic Use to Addiction",title:"Opioids",subtitle:"From Analgesic Use to Addiction",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Morphine and other opioids are potent analgesic drugs, but their use can lead to complications. Being familiar with the use of this kind of drug can make the difference between obtaining the expected benefit of applied therapy or magnifying the risks to intolerable levels for the patient. Therefore, it is essential for practitioners to achieve adequate training in the management of these drugs based on criteria endorsed by scientific evidence that allows the proper use of these drugs and guarantees the best professional practice every time. Written by expert authors in the field, the purpose of this book is to offer an overview of opioid drugs, from their therapeutic use to the consequences associated.",isbn:"978-1-83880-953-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-958-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-954-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73905",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"opioids-from-analgesic-use-to-addiction",numberOfPages:106,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"8bd70b93e5c8ff9ea766159555eb63da",bookSignature:"Pilar Almela Rojo",publishedDate:"June 10th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7110.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5371,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:7,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 23rd 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 31st 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 29th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 18th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 16th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"98258",title:"Dr.",name:"Pilar",middleName:null,surname:"Almela Rojo",slug:"pilar-almela-rojo",fullName:"Pilar Almela Rojo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/98258/images/system/98258.png",biography:"After completing her studies in Pharmacy at the University of Granada, Pilar Almela joined a PhD program in Experimental Biomedical Sciences at the University of Murcia in the Department of Pharmacology, under Professor Laorden’s supervision, where she studied different pathway involvement in the adaptive changes observed during morphine dependence. Her training was completed with stays at research centers in USA, France, United Kingdom and Spain.\nResults from her laboratory have given rise to numerous international publications. These findings can improve the knowledge of mechanisms involved in addiction and establish new prevention and treatment strategies.\nIn 2019, she became an Associate Professor at the Department of Pharmacology, focusing her current research on the design of new nanoparticulate systems for morphine administration.",institutionString:"University of Murcia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1197",title:"Pharmaceutical Drug",slug:"pharmaceutical-drug"}],chapters:[{id:"72068",title:"Introductory Chapter: Opioid Analgesics - History, Uses and Risks",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92401",slug:"introductory-chapter-opioid-analgesics-history-uses-and-risks",totalDownloads:872,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Pilar Almela",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72068",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72068",authors:[{id:"98258",title:"Dr.",name:"Pilar",surname:"Almela Rojo",slug:"pilar-almela-rojo",fullName:"Pilar Almela Rojo"}],corrections:null},{id:"66275",title:"A New Paradigm: Prevention of Central Sensitization in Pain Management through Minimizing Opioid Exposure",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85192",slug:"a-new-paradigm-prevention-of-central-sensitization-in-pain-management-through-minimizing-opioid-expo",totalDownloads:864,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Current exacerbations of chronic pain cannot be understood in isolation from how past incidents impact pain and its experience. Patients who frequent the Emergency Room or hospital for a pain crisis or intensification of their pain without new findings on X-rays or scans are often seen as ‘drug seekers.’ Yet, to the patient the pain is agonizing, and the suffering real. It is this type of patient that prompted an ongoing improvement project in our local hospital, our Multiple Visit Patient Complex Care Program. The goal was to determine the similarities between this type of ‘complex’ patient—who frequents the hospital despite no new radiographic change—and other patients. Understanding this ‘complex’ pattern in terms of central intractable pain can change the trajectory of treatment. Results of our program described here reveal that a better understanding of central pain and central sensitization can result in better patient care.",signatures:"Pamela Bolyanatz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66275",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66275",authors:[{id:"269060",title:"Mrs.",name:"Pamela",surname:"Bolyanatz",slug:"pamela-bolyanatz",fullName:"Pamela Bolyanatz"}],corrections:null},{id:"69169",title:"Other Uses of Morphine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85165",slug:"other-uses-of-morphine",totalDownloads:856,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Worldwide many different strong opioids and their formulations are available to control pain. Of which, morphine is considered as global opioid of choice and is widely used to control moderate to severe pain. The World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended morphine as one of the essential drug. Apart from analgesic use, research has proven its effectiveness for relief and treatment of various debilitating and distressing conditions like breathlessness, mucositis (oral and vaginal) and cough. However, its role in diarrhea and opioid substitution therapy (OST) is still nonconfirmatory. This chapter illustrates all available literature supporting effectiveness of morphine in above conditions and its impact on quality of life.",signatures:"Shrenik Ostwal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69169",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69169",authors:[{id:"267116",title:"Dr.",name:"Shrenik",surname:"Ostwal",slug:"shrenik-ostwal",fullName:"Shrenik Ostwal"}],corrections:null},{id:"70790",title:"Role of Glucocorticoid Receptor in the Relation between Stress and Opiate Addiction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90839",slug:"role-of-glucocorticoid-receptor-in-the-relation-between-stress-and-opiate-addiction",totalDownloads:693,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Stressful situations can result in relapse in dependent or abstinent causing reinstatement of drug-seeking. In fact, it has been suggested that activation of the brain stress system results in glucocorticoid release that affects the dopaminergic pathways. Also, the noradrenergic system innervates the extrahypothalamic BSS from the nucleus of tractus solitarius (NTS), resulting in a feedforward loop between the corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and noradrenaline (NA) crucial in drug addiction and relapses. Glucocorticoids interact with two receptors: mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) which bind to a GRE site located in tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), resulting in the upregulation of TH synthesis and, finally, increasing dopamine (DA) release in the nucleus accumbens. TH upregulation depends on the phosphorylation of serine 31 and/or serine 40. Previous research has shown that protein kinase C (PKC) activates extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway and in turn phosphorylates serine 31 in the NTS. Besides, cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) is regulated by PKA and PKC. The results shown after pretreating morphine-withdrawn rats with mifepristone and spironolactone (GR and MR antagonists, respectively) suggest that glucocorticoids have a prominent role in addiction because GR would activate ERK and CREB in the NTS, phosphorylating serine 31 and activating TH and indeed noradrenergic release in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN).",signatures:"Javier Navarro-Zaragoza, María Victoria Milanés and María Luisa Laorden",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70790",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70790",authors:[{id:"98255",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Luisa",surname:"Laorden",slug:"m.-luisa-laorden",fullName:"M. Luisa Laorden"},{id:"255965",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",surname:"Navarro-Zaragoza",slug:"javier-navarro-zaragoza",fullName:"Javier Navarro-Zaragoza"},{id:"314578",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Victoria",surname:"Milanés",slug:"m.-victoria-milanes",fullName:"M. Victoria Milanés"}],corrections:null},{id:"63223",title:"Corticotrophin-Releasing Factor (CRF) through CRF1 Receptor Facilitates the Expression of Morphine-Related Positive and Aversive Memory in Mice",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80504",slug:"corticotrophin-releasing-factor-crf-through-crf1-receptor-facilitates-the-expression-of-morphine-rel",totalDownloads:969,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Different studies have elucidated the mechanisms underlying the formation and expression of drug-related cue memories; corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF) plays a critical role in reward- and aversion-driven associative learning. In the present chapter, we have evaluated whether CP-154,526, a selective CRF1 receptor (CRF1R) antagonist, or genetic deletion of CRF1R (KO mice) have comparable effects on conditioned place preference (CPP) and conditioned place aversion (CPA) learning. We also investigated CP-154,526 effects on morphine-induced CPP activation of CRF, CREB phosphorylation, and thioredoxin (Trx1) expression in dentate gyrus (DG), a brain region involved in memory consolidation, and the role of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis in CPA expression and extinction. The CRF1R antagonist abolished the acquisition of morphine CPP, Trx-1 and BDNF increased expression, and pCREB/Trx-1 co-localization in the DG. The increase in adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) plasma levels observed after CPA expression was attenuated in CRF1R KO mice, suggesting a role of HPA axis in aversive memories. Altogether, these results suggest a critical role of CRF, through CRF1R, in molecular changes involved in memory formation and consolidation and may facilitate the development of effective treatments for opioid addiction.",signatures:"Pilar Almela, Juan A. García-Carmona, Elena Martínez-Laorden, María V. Milanés and María L. 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Luisa Laorden"},{id:"210633",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Antonio",surname:"García-Carmona",slug:"juan-antonio-garcia-carmona",fullName:"Juan Antonio García-Carmona"},{id:"210634",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",surname:"Martínez-Laorden",slug:"elena-martinez-laorden",fullName:"Elena Martínez-Laorden"},{id:"210635",title:"Prof.",name:"María Victoria",surname:"Milanés",slug:"maria-victoria-milanes",fullName:"María Victoria Milanés"}],corrections:null},{id:"65505",title:"Present and Future Pharmacological Treatments for Opioid Addiction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82443",slug:"present-and-future-pharmacological-treatments-for-opioid-addiction",totalDownloads:1118,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"When treating opioid addiction, multidisciplinary treatment is highly recommended, but pharmacotherapy plays a key role. Although the ideal goal is to achieve complete abstinence, an elevated percentage of opioid addicts requires maintenance substitution therapy. In the first section of this chapter, we will focus on the current pharmacological interventions to treat opioid addiction, such as methadone, buprenorphine, and naltrexone. Thanks to these medications, people are able to go back to their normal lives, by preventing withdrawal symptoms, reducing craving, and increasing their adherence to psychotherapy. In the second section, based on the evidence that addiction induces neuroadaptive changes in several neurotransmission systems, we focus on the wide range of possible pharmacological developments at the preclinical and clinical levels, which in recent years have increased considerably.",signatures:"Maria Carmen Blanco-Gandía, Sandra Montagud-Romero and Marta Rodríguez-Arias",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65505",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65505",authors:[{id:"101721",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",surname:"Rodriguez-Arias",slug:"marta-rodriguez-arias",fullName:"Marta Rodriguez-Arias"},{id:"260048",title:"Dr.",name:"M Carmen",surname:"Blanco-Gandia",slug:"m-carmen-blanco-gandia",fullName:"M Carmen Blanco-Gandia"},{id:"260049",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",surname:"Montagud-Romero",slug:"sandra-montagud-romero",fullName:"Sandra Montagud-Romero"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2509",title:"Recent Advances in Novel Drug Carrier Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"57c10c8e0b4bb01a815f2c42db01956e",slug:"recent-advances-in-novel-drug-carrier-systems",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2509.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5525",title:"Pain Relief",subtitle:"From Analgesics to Alternative Therapies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ffdba8a1f402fe1b279cf05e2fa0aae",slug:"pain-relief-from-analgesics-to-alternative-therapies",bookSignature:"Cecilia Maldonado",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5525.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73432",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",surname:"Maldonado",slug:"cecilia-maldonado",fullName:"Cecilia Maldonado"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9086",title:"Drug Repurposing",subtitle:"Hypothesis, Molecular Aspects and Therapeutic Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5b13e06123db7a16dcdae682eb47ac66",slug:"drug-repurposing-hypothesis-molecular-aspects-and-therapeutic-applications",bookSignature:"Farid A. 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The most part of known metalorganic compounds with Metal-carbon bond of σ-p type belongs to Lewis acid class. These compounds are the most effective catalysts of cationic polymerization of metalorganic monomers. Explanation of initiative action of such systems is very complicated because of their complex structure as well as contaminations in the reaction mixture.
Formation of active site is the main process in all initialization reactions (including metalorganic Lewis acid action). The process of interaction of vinyl monomers with metalorganic Lewis acid (MLA) consists of several equilibrium stages [1], such as formation of active charged particles and their counter ions and subsequent addition of the charged pair to the monomer. The initial equilibrium is usually slow process while the further attack of the monomer (initialization) is very fast and is comparable with the rate of the reaction of chain growth. Moreover, presence of the cationogenic contaminations in the reaction mixture causes a lot of confusion to chemistry of cationic processes. Now we can consider more or less confidently only two possible ways of initialization of polymerization of vinyl monomers by MLA: direct initialization and co-initialization [2-5].
During co-initialization the charged particles are formed as e result of bimolecular reaction or heterolytic decomposition of a molecule:
where SR – cationogen (H2O, HHal, R-Hal, etc.).
After injection of cationogen into the last stage the complexing between the monomer and MLA is completing; and initialization in this case consists in the cationogen attack on the complex:
The π-complex can cause the initialization if it is transformed to isomeric carbenium ion:
Such regrouping is possible if the electronic density of the double bond is small. Therefore, the heightened electronic density of the double bond of asymmetric substituted alkenes has to decrease significantly at interaction with MLA.
MLA can be divided into 2 types. The first type is presented by MLA of B and Al who has no d-electrons in the valence sphere of the central atom. The second one consists of compounds containing heavier atoms with d-electrons. Usage of MLA of the 2nd type makes possible formation of the π-complex from monomer and its further interaction due to overlapping of full d-orbitals of MLA and empty antibonding orbitals of vinyl monomer. Such interactions strengthen the complex and complicate transformation into the carbenium ions because of increasing the electron density of the double bond.
Thus, to start the initialization process it is usually necessary presence of cation donor. Role of MLA consists in assistance to cationogen to form the initiating particle by the way of complexing [6]. According to Ref. [7] MLA allows stabilizing and removing the anion; and initialization is caused by cationogen who is a principal initializer while MLA is only co-initializer.
A mechanism of initialization by alkylhalogenides is the most studied now. Role of R-Hal was cleared on the example of styrene polymerization because intermediate carbenium ion of styrene is rather stable [8]:
Efficiency of the initialization reaction (1.2) depends on stability of the carbenium ion and its availability. According to equation (1.1) the initialization has to be favored by R-Hal (or Ar-Hal) having low bond dissociation energies and low ionization potentials of alkyl groups [9,10] as well as by solvatation of the formed ions [11]. In the case of R-Hal producing primary or secondary carbonium ions (e.g., n-butylchloride or isopropylchloride) the direct reaction is not observed. If such very active ions can be formed they have to initiate styrene polymerization and produce comparatively stable styrene cations:
Tret-butylchloride forms rather stable tertiary carbonium cation. However, it is less stable as compared with styrene cation; that is why fast initialization takes place. In contrast, triphenylchloromethane forms very stable tret-cation which cannot cause styrene polymerization [9]. Thus, carbonium ion has to be less stable as compared with styrene cation, but not very unstable to exclude its formation from R-Hal and MLA.
Application of suitable R-Hal and Ar-Hal (together with MLA co-initiators) gives opportunity to control the initialization process [12,13]. In this case a type of alkylhalogenide influences structure of head group of the polymer:
Now it is known a great number of cationogens which can efficiently initiate cationic polymerization of vinyl monomers and ensure production of polymers with certain head group.
In the case of absence of cation donors (e.g., at high pure conditions) other mechanisms of initialization of polymerization of vinyl monomers may be realizes under the action of MLA. For example, if the monomer contains allyl hydrogen tearing off hydride-ion from the monomer may be one of possible ways of initialization [14]:
The formation of the metal-carbon bonds in the polymer can occur in various ways:
Direct conjunction of MLA to the double bond of monomer followed ejection of cationogen and the formation of complex counter ion [15]
The requirement of initiation according to the scheme 1 is a possibility of formation of cationogen at zwitterionic decay; according to scheme 2 – the presence of a polar solvent or electron-donating compounds such as ethers, thioethers, tertiary amines, etc. MLA easily adds such compounds forming a rather stable complexes [19]. Such complexes usually have a composition of 1:1. The NMR study of complexation of organoaluminum compounds with methylpyridine (D) in solutions of 1,2-dichloroethane and dichloromethane showed, that the solution may contain the following complex compounds [20]:
The presence in the solution structures of type A is also confirmed by determination of electrical conductivity.
By Wittig [21], one of the possible states of the MCL in the solutions are structures of
or
Such MLA ionization is characteristic not only for the individual MLA, but also for their mixtures. It was found that polymerization of butadiene in the presence of alkylaluminum-cobalt initiators is the most affective only in the presence of ion-pair Et2AI+EtCI3AI–. This ion pair is formed by mixing either AIEt2CI with AIEtCl2, or AlEt3 with AlCI3 [6]:
At present, the mechanism of the formation of MCL self-ionization ion pair is widespread [4, 23]. However, the equilibrium constant for the reaction
Is much lower than in the case of interaction of MLA with a suitable donor of cations. For example:
In this case a more stable carbonium ion is formed. Therefore, in order to a direct initiation we need to create conditions for guarantee the complete absence of cationogen impurities in the system. Only in this case MLA themselves can play a role of initiators.
Nevertheless, the polymerization of highly active monomers by initiation of the MCL self-ionization is possible. One of these monomers is a 9-vinylcarbazole (VC), it is very easy polymerizing for cationic mechanism [24−26]. Authors of Ref. [27] showed that the rate of chain growth in cationic polymerization of VC under the action of stable organic cations in more than 100 times higher than the corresponding value for vinyl ethers.
Authors [28] studied kinetics of polymerization of VC in toluene solution under the action of titanium tetrachloride by thermometric method [29-33] and found that the polymerization process begins with the formation of complex compounds TiCl4 with 1-6 solvent molecules forming the solvation shell. It was established that complex formation is accompanied by a large thermal effect, which is reflected in the curve recorded a sharp jump in temperature at the initial time of polymerization. Since the system contains monomer (VC) with a developed system of π-electrons, the latter one competes with toluene and partially displaces it from the solvation shell of TiCl4. As a result of new resolvation a complex compound of a rather complex structure is formed where the vinyl bond of the monomer is partially polarized. This facilitates the subsequent process of opening the double bond and leads to increasing reactivity of the monomer.
The active particle is formed by the further polarization of the monomer vinyl bond in the solvation shell of titanium tetrachloride. This is followed by the accession of the last one to the monomer double bond forming the corresponding ion (direct initiation). Direct connection TiCl4 to monomer is confirmed by data of X-ray fluorescence analysis of the polymer samples. Diffractogram shows that the polymer contains a small amount of titanium chloride as terminal groups (Fig. 1).
X-ray Fluorescence Spectrum of the sample Polyvinylcarbazole obtained under the action of TiCl4 in toluene solution
Concentration of active sites may increase during the slower stage; it causes S-shaped kinetic curves. The chain growth on contact or separated ionic pairs is the most probable mechanism of the polymerization in the studied system. It is confirmed by permanency of the chain growth constant depending on the initial concentration of the initiator.
Initialization of the monomer polymerization by the way of ionization of complex Lewis acids can be illustrated by oligomerization of dicyclopentadiene (DCPD) under the action of catalytic system TiCl4 : Et2AlCl [34–35]. This catalyst (similar to individual TiCl4 [30]) causes process of cationic polymerization of DCPD. Lower value of
In both cases dicyclopentadiene polymerization goes according to the following mechanism:
Firstly, active complex (solvated ion pair) is formed as a result of self-ionization of Lewis acids:
Also, we can suppose formation of π-complex (I) MLA with cyclopentadiene which is present at the system in small amount:
Then sandwich-complex is formed (II):
Complex equilibrium during initialization may be completed by regrouping the π-complex to σ-complex and isomer carbonium ion or by transformation of the sandwich-complex to semi-sandwich-complex (I):
Then the reaction is also completed by regrouping the π-complex to σ-complex and isomer carbonium ion. Further chain growth occurs using one of two unsaturated bonds of DCPD – norbornene or cyclopentene [36].
In the case of initiation of olygomerization of vinyltoluene by TiCl4 the active particle is formed due to further polarization of vinyl bond of the monomer in solvate shell of TiCl4. Finally it adds to the double bond forming the respective ions (direct initialization). The obtained carbocation transfers to indane dimer and oligomeric products. At room temperature of the reaction mixture the indane dimer finally decomposes into toluene and indanyl cation [37, 38]:
Then the cationic oligomerization of vinyltoluene takes place. In the case of use of catalytic system TiCl4 : Et2AlCl (1:1) oligomerization of vinyltoluene occurs under similar conditions and is characterized by the presence of counter-ion of more complex composition.
Initiation of the polymerization by complete or partial electron transfer from the monomer to the initiator is a special case of interaction of the initiator with the monomer. This process is usually accompanied by the formation of intermediate charge-transfer complexes (CTC):
The last scheme is the most universal and attracts increasing attention in the field of polymerization of the polar electron-donor monomers. The phenomenon of charge transfer is evident not only in initiating the polymerization of such monomers with organic electron acceptors, but also occurs at the interaction with typical cationic polymerization initiators such as Lewis acids (including MLA) and stable organic cations, which act as acceptors relative to the electron-donating monomers [39, 40]. For example, in Ref. [41] it was shown that the initiation of polymerization of 9-vinylcarbazole under the action of
Then dication 9-vinylcarbazole is formed; and it is responsible for the polymerization:
As MCL are very strong v-acceptors, their lowest molecular orbital is vacant v-valence orbitals of the metal atom. We can assume that stage of electron transfer from the monomer to a v-orbital of the MLA precedes the initiation process. Till now there is no adequate attention to the question of which kind of orbital electron-donating monomer delivers its electron acceptor. It is usually assumed that π-complex is formed as a result of this interaction [42, 43]. However, data concerning formation of π-complexes of vinyl monomers with MCL are practically absent, that is probably associated with their rapid transition to the σ-complexes, ionic and radical products.
In [44] VC polymerization was studied in the presence of Ph3C+AlEt2Cl2– in CHCl3 solution at 20 °С. Process kinetics was studied using the stopped flow method with the registration in the IR range [2, 45–47]. In this case, the active site of polymerization is a stable organic cation Ph3C+, which is formed from the reaction of equivalent amounts of Ph3CСl и AIEt2CI. However, counter-ion AlEt2Cl2–, in contrast with hexa-fluoro-arsenate, hexa-chloro-antimonate and the like inorganic counter-ions of low nucleophilicity [27, 41, 47–50], associates with the organic cation. It allows concluding that the most likely type of active sites are separated solvate-ion pairs or even complex between VC and the contact ion pair.
The first reaction order was observed until complete consumption of the monomer. It indicates the absence of the chain break reactions. Moreover, when new portion of the monomer is added the reaction rate is not changed. It indicates the presence of the “live chains” in this system [51–54]. The behavior of this system is similar to the system VC – DEAC – chloroform studied earlier [46]. However, kinetic correlations have some differences which mean other mechanism of the active site formation. Kinetic measurements revealed that the most probable polymerization mechanism in the studied system CHCl3…Ph3C+Et2AlCl2–…VC is the chain growth on contact or solvate-separated ion pairs. It is confirmed by permanency of the kP value depending on the initial concentration of the initiator as well as its similarity to the ones known from literature.
The absorption spectra of solutions in chloroform BK (1) AIEt2CI (2) and complex of BK–AIEt2CI (3)
For assessing reactivity of VC in the cationic polymerization the kinetics of its polymerization in solution under the action of diethylaluminum chloride was studied [46]. It was shown that the reaction is greatly influenced by the complexation among the monomer and initiator. In particular, this leads to the fact that the polymerization process in general is limited by the formation of active particles that are supposed to be dication of VC. Appearance of new charge-transfer band in the electronic spectrum of the products of their interaction is clear evidence of the formation of donor-acceptor complexes between AIEt2CI and VC (Fig. 1, curve 3).
Figure 2 shows that the spectra of the initial VC (curve 1) or AIEt2CI (curve 2) similar band is absent, and the observed charge-transfer band actually consists of two bands with maxima at λ = 584 and 614 nm. One of them, apparently, is associated with the transition of π-electron VC to the d-orbital AIEt2CI, and another one - with the transition of n-electron. The obtained data reveal that the interaction of VC with a molecule of the initiator in the initial phase of the formation of donor-acceptor complex of medium strength; and degree of charge transfer from donor to acceptor is 0.29 of electron charge. The resulting donor-acceptor complex between VC and AIEt2CI has λmax = 584 and 614 nm. It is close to the form shown in the literature for the complex value of λmax VC with tetra-cyano-ethylene (590 nm, [55]). The interaction between VC and AIEt2CI leads to the fact that the effective charge on the β-carbon atom of the vinyl group BK significantly decreases; the length of the vinyl connection increases and its order is reduced. This greatly facilitates the subsequent process of formation of the active particles.
Formation of VC cation-radical followed by merge of two these cation-radicals to the dication may be such process. In this case evidence of formation of the latter one is the appearance in the electron spectrum of products of interaction and VC AIEt2CI a band at λmax = 820 nm attributable to the long-wavelength absorption maximum dication VC (curve 3, Fig. 2). Authors [56] gave a value of λmax = 850 nm for the cation formed by the interaction of ethyl-carbazole with SnCl4. Further cationic polymerization of VC mechanism takes place.
In all cases the polymerization of VC under the action of DEAC occurred until complete consumption of the monomer and accompanied by formation of colored intermediate. This color did not disappear after complete monomer consumption.
Such polymerization character indicates the absence of the chain break reaction in the system. It is confirmed by the fact that after contact of the reaction mixture with moisture in air the color disappeared and did not appear after addition of new portion of the monomer. However, stopping the growth of the molar weight of the polymer at repeated addition of the monomer proofs availability of the chain transfer reactions in the system.
In some cases, the problem of donor site in the monomer molecule requires special study. For example, vinyl compounds containing a hetero atom in the structure (such as vinyl ethers, N-vinyl heterocyclic monomers, etc.) can function as both n-donors and π-donors, giving unshared electron pair of heteroatoms or electrons of the highest π-level for the intermolecular bond [57, 58]. It is largely dependent on the properties of an electron acceptor. When interacting with stronger acceptors (e.g., MCL metals of the third group of the Periodic table) sufficiently strong high polar nv-complexes are formed [59]:
This will undoubtedly influence the formation of active particles in the system.
Thus, the generation of primary cations can pass through a series of relatively slow equilibrium stages, especially in the case of polymerization of monomers containing hetero atoms in the structure with an unshared electron pair. So often the formation of active sites becomes the limiting stage of the polymerization process as a whole, exerting a strong influence on the rest of the process.
It is known that the influence of the reaction medium is a decisive factor, which determines the rate constants of individual stages of ionic polymerization [60]. We can distinguish two effects of medium influence: change of reactivity of the active sites and the stabilization of the formed ionized particles.
Process rate and reactivity of the active sites in various media will be determined by a number of factors: the influence of the polarity of the medium, co-catalytic action of solvents, specific solvation, and the formation of complexes with components of the reaction system. Experimental results show that the major factor is the polarity of the medium. It plays particularly noticeable role at the stage preceding the initiation and growth of the polymer chain. This is expected, since the processes occurring at the same time are due to the formation of intermediate active particles: free ions, contact and solvate-separated ion pairs, as well as other more complex aggregates:
Large dipole moment of the ion pairs leads to a strong interaction with polar molecules including molecules of polar solvents. Solvate separated ion pairs exist only in mediums where at least one of the ions in a free state is coordinated with solvent molecules. In the case of a slightly solvating solvents their function can be performed by the monomers, changing the dielectric constant of the medium, or other components that are directly involved in the polymerization. It results in a change in the kinetic order of reaction with respect to these components. This is explained by the fact that in media not providing the necessary solvation energy the ion pairs are stabilized by most polar or polarizable molecules from those ones presented in the system, i.e. monomer and initiator. They can be incorporated into the kinetic equation corresponding to the reaction, although they do not take direct part in it [8].
The existence of free ions in organic media because of their low stability is possible only under the following conditions [7]:
ionization equilibrium is shifted toward preferably a covalent bond, i.e. there is a rapid reverse stabilization of charge;
active formation of stabilized specific solvation of cations and anions with suitable solvents;
nucleophility of the counter-ion is strongly reduced by acceptors in solvents with the prevailing acceptor character (H2CCI2, 1,2-diloretan, etc.); and there is no exchange with the cation except its electrostatic compensation.
The last condition, which would correspond to an almost "naked" cation takes place only at a strong intramolecular stabilization by delocalization of the charge (exchange interaction with the aromatic rings with a high density of π-electron, oxo-carbonium acids, allyl cations). Otherwise inductive effect of the ion carbenes on adjacent carbon atoms is so strong that the isomerization and cleavage for example, β-H-atoms will go faster than the reaction of chain growth:
In such hard conditions the monomer itself is the strongest π-donor in the reaction system, which can reduce the high electrophilicity of carbonium ion. Therefore, the literature points to the special role the monomer solvation as a stabilizing factor for the active particles, helping them to implement the reaction growth [68].
Obviously, the ion pairs and free ions may have a different activity, and ion pairs are usually less active as compared with free ions. For example, for the polymerization of 9-vinylcarbazole in H2CCI2 solution under the
In real systems the situation is complicated by the fact that the reaction of chain growth can be represented as the competition of the monomer, solvent, and counter-ions around the electrophilic center [7]. The exchange interaction of solvent separated ion pair with the monomer leads to resolvation of the ion pair and its expansion in order to the counter-ion:
According to current ideas about the mechanism of chain growth in cationic polymerization at high electrophilicity of the cation (aliphatic vinyl monomers) and the high nucleophilicity of the counter-ion
Staphylococci have long history and association with mankind. From their presence in amniotic fluid, all through to adulthood, they were once regarded as harmless commensals with beneficial effects, e.g. by competing with pathogenic bacteria, but they are now implicated in life-threatening infections. Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) cause invasive infections in some vulnerable groups of patients, e.g. immunocompromised patients, preterm neonates and people with indwelling medical devices [1].
Most
The main aim of this chapter therefore is to highlight the current knowledge on prevalence, diagnosis and local susceptibility of staphylococci in different parts of the world.
\nThere are emerging facts on the role of staphylococci in central nervous system infections. In a multinational study performed with 2583 patients in 37 referral centers in 20 countries to understand the burden of community-acquired central nervous system infections between 2012 and 2014 [10], staphylococci and
The role of staphylococci in burns and skin infections is well documented. In a retrospective study of 123 patients hospitalized in the burn center of Marrakech over a period of 3 years (2013–2016), there were 103 infections per 1000 days of treatment in different infective sites (blood (18%), skin (69%), lungs (1%) and urinary tract (12%)) with the main infectious organisms being:
Staphylococci are frequently implicated in hospital-acquired bacteremia especially those associated with intravascular catheters and staphylococcal bacteremia and they are important cause of morbidity. A study that described the epidemiology of healthcare-associated bloodstream infections for 71,039 patients in 338 Polish hospitals between 2012 and 2015 found that the most frequently isolated microorganisms were staphylococci (45.6%) and most of them were coagulase-negative (64.4%) and usually caused catheter-related infections. Of 53
Immunocompromised patients are at higher risk of staphylococcal infections. In a study over a period of 1 year of
Staphylococci are frequently implicated in neonatal infections usually within 6 week after birth with diseased conditions such as skin lesions, pneumonia, bacteremia, meningitis. In an epidemiology study of neonatal infection from 2005 to 2014 in 30 UK neonatal units,
Otitis media is an inflammation of middle ear which may lead to hearing loss.
There is variable information on prevalence of MRSA in Africa. The prevalence was lower than 50% in most African countries and higher prevalence since 2000 has been observed in many African countries (except South Africa). In South Africa, the prevalence decreased between 2006 and 2011, while it varied between 23 and 44% for 2000–2007 in Botswana. It increased from 16 to 41% between 2002 and 2007 in Tunisia; in Libya, MRSA prevalence was 31% in 2007, while in Egypt and Algeria the prevalence was 45 and 52% between 2003 and 2005, respectively, while northern Nigerian had higher MRSA prevalence than the southern part with 55 and 39% prevalence in Ethiopia and Ivory Coast, respectively [22].
\nIn a review of 34 reports from 15 countries in Africa, CC5 is the predominant clonal complex in healthcare setting in Africa. Hospital-associated MRSA was identified in nine African countries with limited spread of European ST80-IV clone to Algeria, Egypt and Tunisia and lack of distinct difference between MRSA responsible for hospital and community infections. However, the community clones (ST8-IV and ST88-IV) were observed in the hospital and community settings in Madagascar, Angola, Príncipe, Cameroon, Ghana, Gabon, Nigeria and São Tomé [23].
\nThe overall prevalence of MRSA was 22.6% from 142
A significant decline in antibiotic resistance was observed in Northeastern Nigeria in contrast to the worldwide trend of increasing resistance rates as stated in a study involving changes in population structure of
Identification of staphylococci is supposed to be a simple straightforward procedure that involves culturing of clinical specimens or pure bacterial strains on Columbia agar, mannitol salt agar (MSA) or tryptic soy blood agar. If pure biochemical identification is to be used, then Gram-positive, nonmotile, non-spore-forming, facultative anaerobic cocci occurring mainly in clusters and catalase-positive strains are selected for further tests. Coagulase test will distinguish between
Rapid latex and hemagglutination assays allows presumptive identification of
There are commercial and automated systems for identification of staphylococci, e.g. Staphylococcus-specialized API Staph, Vitek 2, Rapidec Staph and ID32 Staph strips (bioMérieux) system, BBL Phoenix automated microbiology system, Crystal identification system’s Rapid Gram-Positive ID kit (BD, MD), Pos ID Panel family (Siemens, Deerfield, IL), Sherlock microbial identification system (MIDI, Newark, DE) and the Biolog systems (Biolog, Hayward, CA) [6].
\nThere are also several molecular approaches for identification of staphylococci. Conserved regions with species-specific sequences of universally occurring genes are amplified, for differentiation at the species level, e.g. 16S and 23S rRNA,
SCV strains grow on blood agar as pinpoint colonies and they are often nonreactive in normal biochemical tests because their laboratory detection could be affected by their altered metabolism and long generation time. Therefore, molecular methods, such as amplification of species-specific DNA targets or 16S rRNA partial sequencing, become the method of choice for their identification [35].
\nMicroarray-based diagnostics test may combine identification of staphylococci with detection of virulence factors and drug resistance in strains. In positive blood culture smears, a nucleic acid hybridization assay (
Identification of MRSA is primarily by cefoxitin disk screen test, the latex agglutination test for PBP2a or selective chromogenic agars [30]. Commercial tests are also available for identification of MRSA with combined detection of
In some institutions, there is active surveillance that uses rapid laboratory techniques to evaluate nasal swab specimens and routinely screen admitted patients, e.g. high-risk patients, patients with previous MRSA infection, vascular, orthopedic, or cardiac surgery patients for MRSA.
\nDue to lack of adequate resources, wrong identification of
One hundred and eight-five isolates that had been previously isolated from the nares of college students’ volunteers in Southern Nigeria were identified by various methods. Growth on MSA and slide coagulase tests was highly inaccurate for identification of
In another study by Ayeni and Odumosu [40], it was noted that some organisms are being wrongly identified as
We also studied 171 strains of CoNS which have been previously identified as
As a basic principle, empiric use of antimicrobials should be guided by local epidemiology and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern as well as the clinical state of the patient, with final therapy determined by culture and sensitivity data. Vancomycin is the drug of choice for the treatment of MRSA infections, while clindamycin is the commonly used antimicrobial for CA-MRSA infections. However, many strains are emerging with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin for
In an antibiotic susceptibility study, 75.9% sensitivity to rifampicin, 100% sensitivity to vancomycin and linezolid was reported in catheter-related bloodstream infections in 58 (20
In another study on molecular epidemiology of trimethoprim resistance in 598 human
Susceptibility of
Daptomycin and quinupristin/dalfopristin have been proposed as an alternative to glycopeptides in the treatment of MRSA infections, while the use of telithromycin is discouraged [44]. Also, all MRSAs were sensitive to amikacin, ciprofloxacin and chloramphenicol, while all methicillin-sensitive
Osteomyelitis occurs more frequently in children, causing pains, chills and fever. Osteomyelitis regularly involves prolonged systemic antibiotic use, and dalbavancin, linezolid and vancomycin were active against staphylococci implicated in bone and joint infections [45].
\nAll
Ayeni et al. [30] reported susceptible to fusidic acid, rifampicin clindamycin, vancomycin and linezolid, with observed high resistance to penicillin and trimethoprim in 185 staphylococci, which had been previously isolated from the nares of college students’ volunteers in Southern Nigeria. In another study by Ayeni et al. [31] where the current resistant pattern of
Another study in our group determined antimicrobial resistance of staphylococci isolated from urogenital tracts of humans with a presumptive diagnosis of urinary tract infection in 45 urogenital samples (endocervical swab, high vaginal swab and urine) from outpatients at Igbinedion University Teaching Hospital between April and May 2010. Ten isolates (22% of the total samples) of staphylococci were obtained. All the isolates were multidrug resistant with exhibited resistance to ≥5 antimicrobials and 100% resistance to ciprofloxacin, nitrofurantoin, augmentin, ampicillin and ceftriazone. All CoNS strains were susceptible to doxycycline, while
Ceftobiprole and ceftaroline are new cephalosporins active against
Other natural and beneficial bacteria have been found to be effective against staphylococci in vitro. This has been demonstrated in previous studies. The first discussion is on medicinal plants that have been proven over many generations to be effective against several infectious diseases. The plants from the genus
Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are beneficial bacteria with good antimicrobial activities against many pathogenic bacteria. We reported good inhibition of growth of uropathogenic
In a recently published co-culture study that we did with LAB and MRSA, the cell free supernatant of
Staphylococci are implicated in various infectious states in different parts of the world with high prevalence. However, characteristics growth on mannitol salt agar is insufficient to differentiate between
The author declares that there is no conflict of interest.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. 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Ortega-Villaizan and Veronica Chico",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9848.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"254101",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Del Mar",middleName:null,surname:"Ortega-Villaizan",slug:"maria-del-mar-ortega-villaizan",fullName:"Maria Del Mar Ortega-Villaizan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8959",title:"Innate Immunity in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cea4f56328f9d1ee0c6f1486a12afa23",slug:"innate-immunity-in-health-and-disease",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena and Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8959.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"287184",title:"Prof.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/287184/images/system/287184.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hridayesh Prakash is a fellow of the Royal Society of Biology, London. Currently, he is an associate professor at the Institute of Virology and Immunology, Amity University, NOIDA. He has expertise in innate immunity with a special interest in macrophage immunobiology, tumor immunology/immunotherapy, cell-based immunotherapies, pulmonary infection biology, and radiation biology. \n\nDr. Prakash conducts research to exploit various immunotherapeutics for managing persistent bacterial and viral Infections and gastric cancer. He is unraveling the therapeutic potential of M1 effector macrophages against solid tumors. He is also studying various mechanisms that certain pathogens like Helicobacter pylori, Chlamydia, and Mycobacteria are exploiting for polarizing M1 effector macrophages towards the M2 phenotype during chronic and persistent infections. Under this major objective, he is now validating the therapeutic impact of M1 effector macrophages for the control of persistent infection-driven cancer (adenocarcinoma) progression. \n\nDr. Prakash is also exploring the palliative potential of macrophages against autoimmunity and chronic inflammatory disorders like IBD, radio-pneumonitis, pulmonary fibrosis, and radiation syndrome.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Mullana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8798",title:"Cells of the Immune System",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4e8acf20a4e80bc7c97cb34d1672e53d",slug:"cells-of-the-immune-system",bookSignature:"Ota Fuchs and Seyyed Shamsadin Athari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8798.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36468",title:"Dr.",name:"Ota",middleName:null,surname:"Fuchs",slug:"ota-fuchs",fullName:"Ota Fuchs"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3396",title:"Current Trends in Atherogenesis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"914c59b8518185a41a0931cc0637c0bf",slug:"current-trends-in-atherogenesis",bookSignature:"Rita Rezzani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3396.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63457",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Rezzani",slug:"rita-rezzani",fullName:"Rita Rezzani"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:4,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"67756",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86600",title:"Neutrophil Function Impairment Is a Host Susceptibility Factor to Bacterial Infection in Diabetes",slug:"neutrophil-function-impairment-is-a-host-susceptibility-factor-to-bacterial-infection-in-diabetes",totalDownloads:1047,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Diabetes mellitus is a highly prevalent noncommunicable disease globally. One of the main complications of diabetes is the increased susceptibility to bacterial infection. Neutrophils play a crucial role in inflammatory response against bacterial infections, once they are the first cells recruited to the sites of injury. In diabetes, there is a failure in the neutrophil functions, including migration, ROS production, phagocytosis, and bacterial killing, which are associated with the high incidence of bacterial infections. Herein, we point out pieces of evidence revealing the primary molecular mechanisms involved with impairment of neutrophil functions in diabetes, with relationship with high susceptibility to bacterial infections.",book:{id:"8798",slug:"cells-of-the-immune-system",title:"Cells of the Immune System",fullTitle:"Cells of the Immune System"},signatures:"Daniella Insuela, Diego Coutinho, Marco Martins, Maximiliano Ferrero and Vinicius Carvalho",authors:[{id:"296748",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinicius",middleName:null,surname:"Carvalho",slug:"vinicius-carvalho",fullName:"Vinicius Carvalho"},{id:"303254",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniella",middleName:null,surname:"Insuela",slug:"daniella-insuela",fullName:"Daniella Insuela"},{id:"303255",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",middleName:null,surname:"Coutinho",slug:"diego-coutinho",fullName:"Diego Coutinho"},{id:"303256",title:"Dr.",name:"Maximiliano",middleName:null,surname:"Ferrero",slug:"maximiliano-ferrero",fullName:"Maximiliano Ferrero"},{id:"303257",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Aurelio",middleName:null,surname:"Martins",slug:"marco-aurelio-martins",fullName:"Marco Aurelio Martins"}]},{id:"42857",doi:"10.5772/53035",title:"Atherosclerosis and Current Anti-Oxidant Strategies for Atheroprotection",slug:"atherosclerosis-and-current-anti-oxidant-strategies-for-atheroprotection",totalDownloads:3122,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"3396",slug:"current-trends-in-atherogenesis",title:"Current Trends in Atherogenesis",fullTitle:"Current Trends in Atherogenesis"},signatures:"Luigi Fabrizio Rodella and Gaia Favero",authors:[{id:"118762",title:"Prof.",name:"Luigi Fabrizio",middleName:null,surname:"Rodella",slug:"luigi-fabrizio-rodella",fullName:"Luigi Fabrizio Rodella"},{id:"160911",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaia",middleName:null,surname:"Favero",slug:"gaia-favero",fullName:"Gaia Favero"}]},{id:"42907",doi:"10.5772/54636",title:"MicroRNAome of Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells: Potential for MicroRNA-Based Vascular Therapies",slug:"micrornaome-of-vascular-smooth-muscle-cells-potential-for-microrna-based-vascular-therapies",totalDownloads:1824,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"3396",slug:"current-trends-in-atherogenesis",title:"Current Trends in Atherogenesis",fullTitle:"Current Trends in Atherogenesis"},signatures:"Kasturi Ranganna, Omana P. Mathew, Shirlette G. Milton and Barbara E. Hayes",authors:[{id:"63103",title:"Dr.",name:"Katsuri",middleName:null,surname:"Ranganna",slug:"katsuri-ranganna",fullName:"Katsuri Ranganna"}]},{id:"71468",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91730",title:"Multiplex Technology for Biomarker Immunoassays",slug:"multiplex-technology-for-biomarker-immunoassays",totalDownloads:672,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The simultaneous measurement of different substances from a single sample is an emerging area for achieving efficient and high-throughput detection in several applications. Although immunoanalytical techniques are established and advantageous over alternative screening analytical platforms, one of the challenges for immunoassays is multiplexing. While ELISA is still commonly used to characterise a single analyte, laboratories and organisations are moving towards multiplex immunoassays. The validation of novel biomarkers and their amalgamation into multiplex immunoassays confers the prospects of simultaneous measurement of multiple analytes in a single sample, thereby minimising cost, time and sample. Therefore, the technological advancement in clinical sciences is helpful in the identification of analytes or biomarkers in test samples. However, the analytical bioanalysers are expensive and capable of detecting only a small amount or type of analytes. The simultaneous measurement of different substances from a single sample called multiplexing has become increasingly important for the quantification of pathological or toxicological samples. Although multiplex assays have many advantages over conventional assays, there are also problems that may cause apprehension among clinicians and researchers. Hence, many challenges still remain for these multiplexing systems which are at early stages of development.",book:{id:"8959",slug:"innate-immunity-in-health-and-disease",title:"Innate Immunity in Health and Disease",fullTitle:"Innate Immunity in Health and Disease"},signatures:"Haseeb Ahsan and Rizwan Ahmad",authors:[{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad"},{id:"412254",title:"Dr.",name:"Haseeb",middleName:null,surname:"Ahsan",slug:"haseeb-ahsan",fullName:"Haseeb Ahsan"}]},{id:"41447",doi:"10.5772/54726",title:"The Role of Cyclic 3’-5’ Adenosine Monophosphate (cAMP) in Differentiated and Trans-Differentiated Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells",slug:"the-role-of-cyclic-3-5-adenosine-monophosphate-camp-in-differentiated-and-trans-differentiated-vascu",totalDownloads:2272,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"3396",slug:"current-trends-in-atherogenesis",title:"Current Trends in Atherogenesis",fullTitle:"Current Trends in Atherogenesis"},signatures:"Martine Glorian and Isabelle Limon",authors:[{id:"161259",title:"Dr.",name:"Martine",middleName:null,surname:"Glorian",slug:"martine-glorian",fullName:"Martine Glorian"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70362",title:"Resident Memory T Cells",slug:"resident-memory-t-cells",totalDownloads:964,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Until recently, T cells were thought to remain in circulation until recruitment of the inflammation and only a small number of T cells remained in the peripheral tissues without inflammation. However, studies have found that a group of T cells settled in the tissues and remained there for a long time. Those cells are named as tissue-resident memory T cells (TRM). TRM cells are transcriptionally, phenotypically, and functionally distinct from other T cells, which recirculate between blood, secondary lymphoid organs, and non-lymphoid tissues. They undergo a distinct proliferation that discriminates them from circulating T cells and their main cell surface markers are CD69, CD103, and CD49a. Upon exposure to the same or similar diseases, TRM cells provide a first line of adaptive cellular defense against infection in peripheral non-lymphoid tissues, such as skin, lungs, digestive, and urogenital tracts. This approach forms the basis of a novel vaccination strategy called “prime and pull”, which ensures long-term local immunity. On the other hand, abnormal activated and malignant TRM may contribute to numerous human inflammatory diseases such as psoriasis and vitiligo. Here in this chapter, we aimed to emphasize TRM cell location, migration, phenotypic structure, maintenance, and diseases associated with TRM cells.",book:{id:"8798",slug:"cells-of-the-immune-system",title:"Cells of the Immune System",fullTitle:"Cells of the Immune System"},signatures:"Hasan Akbaba",authors:[{id:"260489",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Akbaba",slug:"hasan-akbaba",fullName:"Hasan Akbaba"}]},{id:"71769",title:"Immune Dysfunction during Enteric Protozoal Infection: The Current Trends",slug:"immune-dysfunction-during-enteric-protozoal-infection-the-current-trends",totalDownloads:792,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Enteric protozoa usually cause severe morbidity and mortality in humans. Protozoal infections contribute to the high burden of infectious diseases. Despite recent advances in the epidemiology, diagnostic tool, molecular biology, and treatment of protozoan illnesses, gaps in knowledge still exist; hence, protozoal infections require further research. We are describing here some important enteric protozoal infections along with the immune dysfunction produced by them. Genus- 1. Entamoeba; 2. Giardia; 3. Cryptosporidium; 4. Cyclospora; 5. Cystoisospora; 6. Dientamoeba; 7. Blastocystis; 8. Balantidium.",book:{id:"8959",slug:"innate-immunity-in-health-and-disease",title:"Innate Immunity in Health and Disease",fullTitle:"Innate Immunity in Health and Disease"},signatures:"Renu Kumari Yadav, Shalini Malhotra and Nandini Duggal",authors:[{id:"176430",title:"Dr.",name:"Shalini",middleName:null,surname:"Malhotra",slug:"shalini-malhotra",fullName:"Shalini Malhotra"},{id:"315666",title:"Dr.",name:"Renu",middleName:null,surname:"Kumari Yadav",slug:"renu-kumari-yadav",fullName:"Renu Kumari Yadav"}]},{id:"69233",title:"Innate Immune Defense in the Male Reproductive System and Male Fertility",slug:"innate-immune-defense-in-the-male-reproductive-system-and-male-fertility",totalDownloads:824,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"To protect the male germ cells from adverse immune reaction, the male reproductive system adopts special immune environment such as immunoprivileged status. The male genital organs can be infected by various microorganisms via hematogenous dissemination and ascending genitourinary tracts. To overcome the immunoprivileged status, the male genital organs also adopt their own innate defense against microbial infection. The tissue-specific cells in the male reproductive system are well equipped with innate immune machineries, including pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and their negatively regulatory system. PRR-initiated immune responses must be tightly regulated by the negative regulatory system for the maintenance of immune homeostasis. The immune homeostasis can be disrupted by unrestrictive innate immune response, which may lead to inflammatory conditions in the male genital tracts, an important etiological factor contributing to male infertility. This chapter describes the current understanding of the innate immune responses in the male reproductive system and their effects on male fertility.",book:{id:"8959",slug:"innate-immunity-in-health-and-disease",title:"Innate Immunity in Health and Disease",fullTitle:"Innate Immunity in Health and Disease"},signatures:"Fei Wang, Ran Chen and Daishu Han",authors:[{id:"295978",title:"Dr.",name:"Daishu",middleName:null,surname:"Han",slug:"daishu-han",fullName:"Daishu Han"},{id:"303373",title:"Dr.",name:"Fei",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"fei-wang",fullName:"Fei Wang"},{id:"309874",title:"Dr.",name:"Ran",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"ran-chen",fullName:"Ran Chen"}]},{id:"71781",title:"Innate Immunity and Autoimmune Diseases",slug:"innate-immunity-and-autoimmune-diseases",totalDownloads:819,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The innate immune response is responsible for the initial defense against invading pathogens and signs of damage; in turn, it activates the adaptive immune response to result in highly specific and lasting immunity, mediated by the clonal expansion of antigen-specific B and T lymphocytes. Inflammation is the acute response to infection and tissue damage to limit aggression to the body. It is a complex reaction of vascularized tissues to infection, toxin exposure or cell injury that includes extravasation of plasma proteins and leukocytes. Paradoxically, uncontrolled and prolonged inflammation can result in secondary damage and the development of immune pathology in the host. The components of the innate immune system have recently been studied as responsible mechanisms in various chronic diseases such as diabetes mellitus, atherosclerosis, asthma and allergies, among others. Autoimmune disease is an attack on auto tissues by the adaptation of the immune system. In general, such diseases are characterized by autoantibodies and/or autoreactive lymphocytes directed at antigens against themselves. The innate immune system is often considered an effector of self-reactive lymphocytes, but also provides protection. Studies in mice with specific gene-directed mutations show that defects in innate immune system proteins may predispose to the development of a systemic lupus erythematosus-like syndrome (lupus) characterized by autoantibodies against double-stranded DNA (ds DNA) or nuclear components. This seems to be due to a failure in the removal of apoptotic cells or nuclear waste. These observations imply that the innate immune system has a general protective role against autoimmune disease. For example, in systemic diseases such as lupus, innate immunity is important in the elimination of nuclear antigens and, therefore, in the improvement of tolerance to B lymphocytes. Alternatively, in specific organ disorders such as type diabetes 1 o Crohn’s disease, the innate immune system can be protective by eliminating pathogens that trigger or exacerbate the disease or regulate the presentation of antigens for T lymphocytes. Discuss various disease models in which the innate immune system could provide a protective role, deficiencies in the regulation of B lymphocyte signaling through the antigen/receptor or in the clearance of lupus antigens, (dsDNA and nuclear proteins), can lead to a disease similar to lupus. The repertoire of B cells seems to be very biased toward self-activity, as, possibly, that of the T-cell. This tendency toward self-activity is not surprising because B and T cells are positively selected against highly conserved autoantigens.",book:{id:"8959",slug:"innate-immunity-in-health-and-disease",title:"Innate Immunity in Health and Disease",fullTitle:"Innate Immunity in Health and Disease"},signatures:"Marcela Catalina Fandiño Vargas",authors:[{id:"312253",title:"M.D.",name:"Marcela Catalina",middleName:null,surname:"Fandiño Vargas",slug:"marcela-catalina-fandino-vargas",fullName:"Marcela Catalina Fandiño Vargas"}]},{id:"69097",title:"Assessment of Immune Reconstitution Following Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation",slug:"assessment-of-immune-reconstitution-following-hematopoietic-stem-cell-transplantation",totalDownloads:1019,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) is a potential curative treatment for both congenital and hematological malignancies. Immune reconstitution after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is implicated in successful transplant outcomes such as overall survival and relapse-free survival. The reconstitution of immune cell subsets after HSCT occurs in different phases at different time points encompassing pre-engraftment, engraftment, and post-engraftment. The recovery of innate cellular immunity with the appearance of monocytes, dendritic cells, and natural killer cells in peripheral blood correlates with initiation of cellular engraftment. The cellular adaptive immunity is characterized by both thymic-independent expansion of T cells infused with graft and thymus-dependent expansion of naïve T cells derived from donor stem cells. The humoral immunity consists of B-cell reconstitution, which consists primarily of transitional and naïve subsets with the recovery of memory B cells that occur much later. In this review, we highlight the factors affecting immune reconstitution, the reconstitution of innate and adaptive immunity, techniques to assess immune reconstitution, and ways to enhance it.",book:{id:"8798",slug:"cells-of-the-immune-system",title:"Cells of the Immune System",fullTitle:"Cells of the Immune System"},signatures:"Meenakshi Singh, Selma Z. D’Silva and Abhishweta Saxena",authors:[{id:"217471",title:"Dr.",name:"Selma",middleName:null,surname:"D\\'Silva",slug:"selma-d'silva",fullName:"Selma D\\'Silva"},{id:"267032",title:"Dr.",name:"Meenakshi",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"meenakshi-singh",fullName:"Meenakshi Singh"},{id:"310438",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhishweta",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"abhishweta-saxena",fullName:"Abhishweta Saxena"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1034",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tThis book series will offer a comprehensive overview of recent research trends as well as clinical applications within different specialties of dentistry. Topics will include overviews of the health of the oral cavity, from prevention and care to different treatments for the rehabilitation of problems that may affect the organs and/or tissues present. The different areas of dentistry will be explored, with the aim of disseminating knowledge and providing readers with new tools for the comprehensive treatment of their patients with greater safety and with current techniques. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This series of books will focus on various aspects of the properties and results obtained by the various treatments available, whether preventive or curative.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 4th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},subseries:[{id:"1",title:"Oral Health",keywords:"Oral Health, Dental Care, Diagnosis, Diagnostic Imaging, Early Diagnosis, Oral Cancer, Conservative Treatment, Epidemiology, Comprehensive Dental Care, Complementary Therapies, Holistic Health",scope:"\r\n\tThis topic aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the latest trends in Oral Health based on recent scientific evidence. Subjects will include an overview of oral diseases and infections, systemic diseases affecting the oral cavity, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, as well as current clinical recommendations for the management of oral, dental, and periodontal diseases.
",annualVolume:11397,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"267724",title:"Prof.",name:"Febronia",middleName:null,surname:"Kahabuka",fullName:"Febronia Kahabuka",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZpJQAW/Profile_Picture_2022-06-27T12:00:42.JPG",institutionString:"Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, Tanzania",institution:{name:"Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Tanzania"}}},{id:"70530",title:"Dr.",name:"Márcio",middleName:"Campos",surname:"Oliveira",fullName:"Márcio Oliveira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRm0AQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-08-01T12:34:46.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Feira de Santana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",keywords:"Osseointegration, Hard Tissue, Peri-implant Soft Tissue, Restorative Materials, Prosthesis Design, Prosthesis, Patient Satisfaction, Rehabilitation",scope:"