Division of active solders by the melting temperature [10].
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Creation of a sound bond of ceramic materials mutually or in combination with metal depends on the fact that whether a close contact to atomic distance is formed on the but surface and whether ceramic material is wetted with the metallic solder. Wetting the ceramics with a metallic solder is an essential precondition for soldered joint formation.
\nSeveral ways may be used for ensuring the wettability of a ceramic material. For example, the deposition of solderable coating on ceramic material is often employed.
\nHowever, more modern methods seem to be the application of solders which are alloyed with some active metal such as Ti, In, Si, Al, Mg and/or lanthanides, which exert a strong chemical affinity to oxygen.
\nThe first group comprises the active solders based on Sn or Sn-Ag, which may contain from 1.5 to 4 wt.% Ti. Another group of solders, which may wet the ceramic material, consists of solders alloyed with a small amount of lanthanides, for example, La, Ce and so on. The content of lanthanides usually varies from 0.5 to 2 wt.%. The last group are the solders containing indium in the amount from 20 to 100 wt.%. However, solving the mentioned issue still involves the requirement to ensure a joint that should resist the effects of residual stresses formed owing to different coefficients of thermal expansivity of metal and ceramics, which usually exerts much lower expansivity. This condition is most essential from the viewpoint of ensuring the reliability of ceramics/metal joints [1].
\nThe biggest issue in the fabrication of joints of ceramic and non-metallic materials with metals consists in the fact that the commercial solders generally do not wet the ceramic materials. Poor wettability of ceramics is caused by the non-metallic character of bond, which is mostly ionic or covalent, in contrary to metallic materials with different structure of energy levels of electrons.
\nThe following methods are mostly used to ensure the wettability:
\nMetallizing of ceramics (e.g. metallic deposit of Mo-Mn paste, physical vapour deposition (PVD) and chemical vapour deposition (CVD) processes).
Application of an active brazing alloy and/or solder alloyed with active elements (Ti, Zr, Hf).
All the mentioned technologies are applicable for soldering the ceramics/metal combinations. Regarding the versatility of technology, its ease end economic efficiency, there is increasing tendency to apply the soldering with an active solder. Soldering of metallized ceramics requires several additional operations, when compared to the application of active solders [2].
\nMetallizing of ceramics eliminates the issues connected with its wettability. Regarding the selection of metallizing, it is necessary to know at what working temperature the soldered part will be servicing. Then, either solder and/or brazing alloy will be used. The desirable metallic layer may be obtained:
\nBy burning-in of metallic solution either of heat-resistant metals such as Mo, Mn, W or precious metals such as Ag, Au, Pt and so on.
By physical and chemical deposition, with a thin coatings, for example, of Au, Ag and Ni are created.
The classical method of metallizing Al2O3 ceramics is shown in Figure 1. A powder deposit (70% Mo, 17.5% Mn, 3.5% titanium hydride, 9% kaolin) is applied onto ceramics surface, followed by sintering at 1200–1400°C/10 min in humid hydrogen. If a silver brazing alloy (e.g. Ag72Cu) is used for brazing, then the sintered surface must be coated with nickel, to allow the brazing operation in vacuum. Optimum thickness of metallizing is 0.02 mm. Deviations from this value may affect the strength of soldered/brazed joint. The paste is deposited on the soldered surface by a brush and on/or by silk-screen printing. The layers formed by this process ensure at certain conditions a good reliability, however, paid by high power demands and necessity of costly equipment and extensive safety precautions at their preparation [4].
\nSchematic representation of vacuum brazing of metal and ceramics, metallized (with Ag72Cu brazing alloy) in comparison with non-metallized substrate (brazing with active Ag72CuTi brazing alloy) [3].
Chemical reactions between the Al2O3 substrate and molybdenum-manganese suspension allow joint formation. In case of this method, the reactions take place in the following manner:
\nAt sintering the metallic suspension with Mn in humid hydrogen, the manganese oxide is formed by the reaction [5]:
The formed oxide then react with Al2O3, forming thus the manganese-aluminium spinel as the product of reaction [5]:
The methods for the formation of metallic layers and ceramic or glass substrates may be divided into several groups. The layers are obtained by chemical deposition from solutions of appropriate metal salts (e.g. Ni, Ag, etc.) by the aid of chemical agents, such as formaldehyde, hypophosphite, glucose and so on, with eventual heat treatment of the segregated coating. These layers are used in cases when small areas are metallized, eventually a motive composed of individual narrow conductive tracks, which are not mechanically loaded. Soldering of such layers requires the application of solders containing Sn, In, Cd and so on, with a low melting point (max. 200°C) and a minimum dwell time on soldering temperature [6].
\nOther known methods comprise the physical deposition by vacuum evaporation and sputtering of metallic layers as shown in Figure 2. These processes employ a high vacuum and temperatures within the range from 200 to 500°C. In case of these methods, the coating particles are deposited rather in physical manner, not by the aid of chemical reactions, as in the case of CVD (chemical vapour deposition) processes.
\nMain physical deposition methods applied for metallizing of ceramics [7]: a, evaporation; b, diode sputtering; c, magnetron sputtering.
The thickness of evaporated or sputtered layers varies in the order of nm to μm. To prevent the de-alloying (de-wetting) of the metallic layer to the molten solder, the multiple deposition of system consisting of several metals, for example, Cr/Ni-Ag, Ni-Ag and Cr- Ni/V-Ag, is used.
\nTo ensure a good spreadability of solder over the entire surface, the final layer is often formed by evaporation or sputtering of Au or Ag, which is dissolved in the used solder and will thus create suitable conditions for a good wettability of entire surface by the solder. Chemical reaction of the deposited layer with the material of ceramic substrate does not occur in both mentioned deposition methods. The bond between the layer and ceramics is mostly of adhesion character [2]. The solderable coatings for ensuring the wettability of poorly wettable surfaces are mostly employed in the electrotechnics and electronics. The advantage of well-solderable metal coatings consists in the fact that the soldering process can be accomplished in very short soldering times. The used coatings are either meltable or soluble (Figure 3). The soluble coating may consist of one metal or of several metal layers deposited subsequently on the substrate. The meltable coating is formed by the deposition of the lead- and/or lead-free layer of soldering alloy on the substrate surface.
\nBasic division of solderable coatings [7].
The system of dissolvable solderable coating in electronics mostly consists of an adhesion layer (Cr, Ni, Ti, Al), a diffusion barrier (Ni, Cr) and a solderable layer (Ag, Au, Cu, Ni), whereas its composition depends on the substrate material and parameters and conditions of soldering. For preserving a good solderability, for example tinning with pure tin, metallizing with Sn-Pb solders, gold and/or silver plating used to be applied until now. However, the application of lead-free soldering necessitates the new approaches also in the field of surface finishing, especially in printed circuits and also outlets of electronic components. The meltable coatings must be selected without lead content, regarding thus the environmental viewpoint. The coatings composed of SnBi and SnCu, eventually coating of pure tin, start to be more favourable nowadays [8].
\nA coating composed of a system of Cr/Ni-7%V/Ag layers, prepared by PVD sputtering, was approved experimentally. The chromium layer has the adhesion function, Ni-V is the diffusion barrier and Ag layer ensures a good wettability and spreadability in a short time as shown in Figure 4 [8].
\nDistribution of metallic layers on a substrate [8].
The SnIn52 solder with a melting point of 120°C was proposed for soldering. The soldering temperature was selected just by 10°C higher than its melting point with a minimum dwell time, needed for a proper spreading of the solder.
\nThe wettability of ceramic material may be improved by reducing the interphase stress on the ceramics/substrate interface, by solder alloyed with an active element (mainly Ti, Zr or Hf is mostly mentioned in the literature) with a high affinity to oxygen, which reacts with ceramics during the soldering process, whereby bonds on the interatomic level are formed. The basic chemical reaction between Ti and oxidic ceramics has a general form [16]:
\nTitanium can bond considerable amount of oxygen in ceramics of oxidic type. Therefore, several oxides can be formed, for example, between the AgCuTi solder and Al2O3 ceramics: TiO, Ti2O3, Ti3O5, Ti4O7 and TiO2. The reaction product formed on the contact area at individual types of oxidic and non-oxidic ceramics is several μm in thickness and depends on the soldering conditions and solder type. The reaction product alters the surface energy of ceramics and allows its wetting by the solder [17]. Higher concentration of active element may in some cases increase the joint brittleness; therefore, its amount must be limited. The foreign sources refer the maximum limit to 4 wt. % Ti in an eutectic solder-type Ag72Cu. Chemical changes occurring on the ceramics-active solder interface are very complex since the concentration gradients are formed [1].
\nThe process of soldering ceramics with metal is significantly simplified by the application of active solders. Soldering ceramics with an active solder is also more economically efficient, since the multi-stage metallizing processes with demanding inter-operational annealing are unnecessary [9].
\nThe active solders, similar as the commercial solders, are classified by the melting temperature to solders, brazing alloys and high-temperature solders. The difference is seen just in the case of active solders, which may be further divided into high-temperature solders and the mechanically activated solders. Due to reaction capability of an active element, the soldering temperature for high-temperature activated active solders must be higher than 780°C (at the application of active Ti). Nevertheless, the active solders are molten at the temperature around 220°C. The division of active solders and their chemical base is given in Table 1.
\nActive solders | \nApplication temperature | \nChemical composition | \n
---|---|---|
Active solders | \nFrom cryogenic temperatures up to about 150°C | \nSn, In and Pb based, for high-temperature activation (e.g. Sn95Ag5Ti3) | \n
Sn and In based, for mechanical activation (e.g. SnAg6Ti4Ce) | \n||
Active brazing alloys | \nup to 350°C | \nAg, Cu and Au based (Ag72CuTi1,5) | \n
High-temperature active solders | \nup to 900°C | \nNi, Co, Pd and Pt based (e.g. Ni70Hf30) | \n
Division of active solders by the melting temperature [10].
The brittle materials as vitreous glass (SiO2), silicon, graphite and so on can be soldered with active solders. Base metal of active solders is mostly tin, lead or indium and the alloys created on their basis. However, the lead-containing solders are not suitable for soldering in vacuum, since considerable evaporation of lead and also furnace contamination occurs. When soldering with lead, a through-flow atmosphere with pure argon, eventually helium with overpressure attaining 0.1–0.2 MPa, should be used [11].
\nThe solders used in joint assembly are capable to compensate the stresses resulting from different thermal expansivity, owing to their plastic straining by the shear or creep mechanism. In this way, the most significant reduction of residual stresses at preserved joint simplicity may be achieved. The presence of an active element ensures a good wettability of soldered parts.
\nThe active solders can be used for soldering unusual combinations of metallic materials (e.g. CrNi steel, Mo, W, Ti, Cr, etc.) and non-metallic materials, mostly of brittle character (vitreous glass, sapphire, carbon, silicon and also almost all types of ceramics) [11]. Such joints are applied mainly in electronics and electrotechnics, where lower strength and thermal resistance of the joint are sufficient. For example, the soldering of glass in lasers and spectroscopes, creation of electric connections with graphite, connecting the heat exchangers to ceramic electronic substrate of Al2O3, or AlN [12]. The solders also allow fabricating the vacuum-tight joints in vacuum and cryogenic technology, where the application of indium-based solder was well approved [11].
\nGreat attention is paid to issues of soldering with active solders, especially for the electronic applications. However, there are still many issues, regarding the achievement of the desired utility properties of joints, to be solved.
\nAs already mentioned, the active solders may be further divided according to the way of active element activation in the solder to the solders destined for:
\nhigh-temperature activation,
mechanical activation.
The active brazing alloys for high-temperature activation based on Ag and Ag-Cu, designated as CB 2, CB 4, CB 5 and CB 6, are supplied by Umicore-BrazeTec GmbH, Germany. The brazing alloy designated as CB 10, with composition AgCu25Ti10, and the alloy designated as CB 11, with composition AgTi10, are supplied in the form of brazing paste. The working temperature of these brazing alloys is 850–1050°C. The solders for ultrasonic activation, designated as CERASOLZER, are supplied by the Japanese company KURODA ELECTRIC.
\nThe solders for mechanical (ultrasonic) activation, designated as S-Bond, are supplied by the Euromat, GmbH, Germany. It concerns, for example, the solders type S-bond 140 (based on Bi-Sn-Ag-Ti), S-bond 220 (based on Sn-Ag-Ti), S-bond 400 (based on Zn-Al-Ag) and so on. The soldering temperature for the S-bond 140 solder is from 150 to 160°C, for the S-bond 220 solder it is 240–260°C and for the S-bond 400 solder the soldering temperature is 420–430°C. It was proved experimentally, that the S-bond 220 (SnAg6Ti4Ce) solder has wetted the Al2O3 ceramics with the wetting angle of 62°, when applied at a temperature of 860°C in vacuum of 10-2 Pa. This experiment was performed in cooperation with the Institute of Materials and Machine Mechanics at the Slovak Academy of Sciences in Bratislava.
\nIt is a process being performed at high temperature (850–950°C), mostly in vacuum furnace with the shielding atmosphere of argon as shown in Figure 5. It was found out experimentally that at activation with Ti-active element, the lowest temperature at which wetting of Al2O3 ceramics may be achieved is 780°C. However, wetting depends also on the content of Ti-active element in the solder [7].
\nScheme of soldering with high-temperature activation in vacuum [14].
With increasing soldering temperature (activation temperature), the wetting of ceramic material is enhanced by high-temperature activation but, in contrary, if a ceramic material is soldered in combination with metallic material, the degradation of base metal by erosion may occur.
\nThe mechanically activated solders allow wetting the metallic and non-metallic materials at considerably lower temperature than in the case of high-temperature activation. Moreover, there is no need to solder in vacuum and/or in the shielding atmosphere. In dependence on soldering alloy type, this temperature may vary from 150 to 430°C, thus in the temperature range of soldering with solders, which are based on Bi-Sn, Sn-Ag or Zn-Al, as already mentioned. This unique capability is allowed by a slight addition of the following metals: lanthanum, cerium, yttrium and samarium (lanthanides), which occur in the soldering alloy matrix. These metals at the same time create a protective barrier for the active metal (Ti) as shown in Figure 6 [13]. Mechanical activation can be performed by
\nScheme of soldering with mechanical activation in air without flux—S-Bond process [14].
intrusions
vibrations (50–60 Hz)
ultrasound (20 60 kHz)
friction (different processes)—Figure 7.
Scheme of different ways of mechanical activation of solder by friction [14].
The wettability is qualitatively assessed by the wetting angle Θ and adhesion work Wad [15]. It is defined as the capability of molten solder to adhere to a clean surface of material joined at a certain temperature [16]. Wetting of surfaces is at the same time the primary precondition for joint formation. Wetting is realized either by Van der Waals bond and/or by chemical bonding. Thus, two basic types of wetting may be distinguished [15]:
\nWetting without chemical reaction in the soldered material-solder interface.
Wetting, where chemical reaction in the solder-soldered material interface takes place, whereby also the formation of reaction products (new phases) occurs.
The equations describing wetting of liquid droplet on a solid material surface were derived on the basis of physical and chemical principles. The droplet during wetting takes such a shape, at which the energy of solder-material-atmosphere (vacuum) system is minimum, and thus the interatomic forces may be exerted [16]. The basic Young’s equation for a weak reaction system may then result from the facts mentioned [17]:
\nwhere γSV is the surface energy between the material surface and atmosphere, γSL is the surface energy between the material surface and solder, γLV is the surface energy between the solder and atmosphere and Θ is the wetting angle.
\nThe magnitude of wetting angle is the qualitative criterion of wetting. Figure 8 shows two basic cases which may occur at material wetting with a liquid solder.
\nScheme of wetting for a weak reaction system. (a) Solder does not wet the material; (b) solder wets the material.
As obvious from Figure 8, the solder does not wet the material for which the value of wetting angle Θ > 90° (γSL < γSV). If the value Θ < 90°, the solder wets the material. By the equation of wetting (4), the driving force of process is the (γSV < γSL) difference. By the magnitude of wetting angle, we distinguish different degrees of wetting—Table 2 [16].
\nWetting degrees | \nContact angle | \n
---|---|
Excellent (full) | \nΘ = 0° | \n
Very good | \nΘ < 20° | \n
Good | \n20°< Θ< 90° | \n
Poor | \nΘ > 90° | \n
Assessment of wetting.
Lowering the contact angle of wetting and increasing the value of adhesive work at a defined solid substrate may be affected by the selection of a suitable solder. However, for wetting ceramic materials, it is necessary to use an active solder, that is, the solder containing the element chemically active towards ceramics (Ti, Zr or Hf). Such an element is chemically bond with some component of ceramics, so improving its wettability and thus also the joint strength [15]. Scheme of wetting for the system with reaction on the interface is shown in Figure 9. In such a case, Young’s equation according to Ref. [18] attains the following form:
\nScheme of wetting for the system with reaction on the interface [18].
where γSV is the surface energy between the material surface and atmosphere, γLV is the surface energy between the solder and atmosphere, γRL is the surface energy between the solder and reaction layer, γSR is the surface energy between the reaction layer and material, Θ is the wetting angle, Ω is the gram atomic volume, t is the thickness of reaction layer and ΔG is the change in free energy per one mole of reaction product.
\nThe residual stresses in soldered joint of two materials with different coefficients of thermal expansivity belong to one of the most serious issues for ensuring the reliable joints of ceramics/metal. Ceramic materials exert in general lower coefficients of thermal expansivity and are not capable of plastic strain. On the contrary, the metals exert much higher coefficients of thermal expansivity and are in certain extent capable of plastic strain. These are the main reasons for the formation of residual stressed during cooling down of ceramics/metal joints, which must be compensated.
\nReducing the level of residual stresses may be more or less attained in the following ways [7]:
\nBy the selection of suitable material couples. Application of joined materials with similar coefficients of thermal expansivity is not a practical solution in most cases, since the joined materials are mostly selected on the basis of other desired properties and not on the basis of their thermal expansivity.
Soldering temperature. By selection of a suitable solder (regarding thermal resistance of the joint), reduced soldering temperature may be achieved.
Shape of joint and thickness of the materials joined. A simple type of joint should be selected, attaining thus the compressive loading in ceramic material. It should be taken into account that the ceramic materials do not exert constant value of strength limit. This is in practice exerted in such a way that during loading of ceramics a crack may be formed without any strain.
Size of clearance between the soldered parts. In soldering-combined materials, it is required that the joint clearance should be generally greater than in the case when soldering the same materials (Figure 10). It is recommended to select the clearance value within s = 0.2–0.5 mm [19].
Application of interlayer. If allowed by the design solution of the joint, the reduction of residual stresses can be attained also by the application of an interlayer, where material is selected on the basis of elastic, plastic and thermal properties. At the application of interlayer with a small coefficient of thermal expansivity, close to that of ceramics (W, Mo), lower stresses are formed in the ceramics. In the case of application of interlayer with a low yield point (Ni, Cu, Al), the level of stresses is reduced due to their relaxation by the slip mechanism. At the application of a composite interlayer (e.g. cermet-sintered interlayer composed of ceramic and metallic powders) with gradual transition from metal expansivity to expansivity of ceramics, the creation of gradient of physical properties is considered as shown in Figure 11. In interlayer selection, it is also necessary to consider the interactions with the molten solder: segregation, formation of brittle structures on the interface and dilution in the solder.
Application of solder. At the application of metal solders in the joint assembly, these are capable to compensate the stresses resulting from different thermal expansivity by their plastic straining via the slip or creep mechanism. In this way, the most significant reduction of residual stresses at preserved joint simplicity may be attained [2].
Complex interlayer [20].
Reduction of residual stresses in contact zone by application of plastic metallic interlayer: a, joint without interlayer; b, joint with interlayer [21].
The indium-based solders, for example, type 100In or the solders type In-Sn with a higher indium content, are characteristic with their unique soldering properties. These solders allow to wet a wide range of metallic, non-metallic and ceramic materials, for example non-metallics such as glass, glazed ceramics, mica, mullite, quartz, fibre optic glass, lead glass, liquid crystal glass, metallized glass, optical glass, pyrex, quartz glass, sapphire, silica, silica glass, soda lime glass, and various metallic oxides [22]. During soldering process performed with high-indium solders in air, the indium suboxides are formed, which react with the surface oxides on the soldered substrate at the formation of a strong bond between the substrate and solder. An example of soldering the ITO ceramics (In2O3/SnO2) presents the study [23], which deals with the application of soldering alloy type Sn-In-Ag-Ti at ultrasonic soldering of ITO ceramics. It was found that the Sn-In-Ag-Ti solder reacts with the surface of ITO substrate, whereby the wettability of materials joined and bond formation was ensured.
\nThe goal of the next research within the study [24] consisted of soldering metallic (Cu, Ni, Al, Ti, AISI 316 steel) and ceramic materials (Al2O3, SiC) by the aid of solders with a high content of indium at power ultrasound application. The solders with composition 100In (5N purity) and 70In30Sn (4N5 purity) were used in experiments. The UT equipment with a frequency of 40 kHz and an output power of 400 W with 2 μm amplitude was used for experiments. The scheme and description of this equipment is shown in Figure 12. Soldering temperature was 20°C above the liquidus of the solder tested. The dwell time at soldering temperature was 30 s and the time of ultrasound action on the soldered joint was 5 s. Heating of specimens was ensured by the hot-plate method with temperature control via a thermocouple type NiCr/NiSi. The shear strength of metallic and ceramic substrates was assessed. The test specimens of substrates were prepared in the form of disks with a diameter of Ø 15 mm and 1.5–2 mm in thickness. The test specimen is shown in Figure 13. The procedure of specimen preparation is shown in Figure 14. The shear gap was selected to 0.1 mm, which corresponds to 2% from the sheared diameter of the roll formed of the solder. Uniform testing rate was 0.5 mm/min.
\nScheme of ultrasonic device used for soldering.
Fabricated test specimen.
Specimen layout at its preparation for the shear test.
The 100In and 70In30Sn solders with a high indium content wetted all studied metallic (Cu, Al, Ni, Ti and AISI 316 steel) and ceramic materials (SiC and Al2O3) at the application of power ultrasound with the frequency of 40 kHz. For comparison, the 100Sn solder wetted all metallic materials but it did not wet the ceramic materials in spite of ultrasound assistance. The 100Sn solder cannot be used for soldering ceramic and non-metallic materials.
\nThe results of mechanical tests of soldered joints fabricated by the use of 100In solder are given in Figure 15. The highest shear strength of 12.5–54 MPa is achieved at the soldering of metals. The lowest shear strength was observed with aluminium and the highest with copper. Considerably lower shear strength values are achieved at the application of 100In solder on the ceramic materials, varying from 3.5 to 6 MPa. Higher strength was attained with Al2O3 ceramics and lower with SiC ceramics.
\nShear strength of joints fabricated with solder type 100In.
At comparison of the results of shear strength attained with 100In and 70In30Sn solders (Figure 16), it was found that with the solder containing tin higher strength values are achieved, both on the metallic and ceramic materials. This is caused by the fact that the matrix of 70In30Sn solder exerts the eutectic structure [25, 26]; therefore, it offers also higher mechanical resistance, when compared to pure indium solder. At the In content of 70 wt. %, the solder preserves also suitable wetting properties and sufficient interaction with the surface of ceramic material. The shear strength achieved on metallic materials ranged from 23 to 71.5 MPa. It was the highest on copper and lowest again on Al. On the ceramic materials, it was 6 and 7 MPa as shown in Figure 16.
\nShear strength of joints fabricated with solder type In70Sn30.
The fractured surfaces on metallic materials remained always covered with a uniform layer of solder after shear test. In case of ceramic materials, the fractured surface remained covered with a solder layer in most cases. Partial separation of solder from the ceramic substrate was observed approximately with 40% of all specimens. The fracture mostly initiated in the solder and was of ductile character. The failure took place in shear mechanism (Figure 17). The motion of shearing tool is clearly visible on the fracture morphology.
\nFracture area of joint on the substrate of Al2O3.
The research [27] was aimed at direct soldering Al2O3 ceramics with a copper substrate by the application of Sn2La solder. It was studied whether the Sn-based solder alloyed with La can wet the Al2O3 ceramics and create thus a strong bond. The possibility to substitute La with Ti in active tin solders was also studied. For this reason, the analyses for revealing the mechanism of bond formation were performed, and the shear strength of the joints was measured. Lanthanum, as a metal with high affinity to oxygen, was applied as an active element. Soldering was performed at a low temperature in air with the application of power ultrasound. The ultrasonic equipment type Hanuz UT2 with the parameters given in Table 3 was employed for soldering. An ultrasonic transducer was used for solder activation, which uses an oscillating piezoelectric system and a titanium tool with an outlet diameter of Ø 3 mm. The scheme of soldering with ultrasound assistance is documented in Figure 18. Soldering takes place through the layer of molten solder. The titanium tool, sonotrode, is thus not in a direct contact with the ceramic substrate. The soldering temperature was selected to 290°C, which is 20°C above the liquidus temperature of the solder.
\nUltrasound power | \n[W] | \n400 | \n
---|---|---|
Working frequency | \n[kHz] | \n40 | \n
Amplitude | \n[μm] | \n2 | \n
Soldering temperature | \n[°C] | \n290 | \n
Time of UT activation | \n[s] | \n5 | \n
Parameters and conditions of soldering.
Ultrasonic soldering.
Soldering procedure runs in such a manner that a layer of solder is deposited on the substrate heated at soldering temperature. The liquid solder is then subjected to active ultrasound without the application of shielding atmosphere, thus in air during the time of 5 s. After ultrasonic activation, the redundant layer of molten solder and formed oxides are removed from the substrate surface. Both substrates are prepared in the same way. The substrates with the deposited solder layer are put on each other in such a manner to create contact with the molten phase. They are then centred and the desired joint is formed by a slight compression of this assembly. Graphical representation of this procedure is shown in Figure 19.
\nProcedure of joint fabrication by ultrasonic soldering.
A uniform distribution of La phases in tin matrix may be seen in the microstructure of Sn2La solder shown in Figure 20. No La was observed in the matrix of the studied solder. This fact was verified by the energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) analysis.
\nMicrostructure of Sn2La solder.
Comparison of microstructures of Al2O3/SiC and Cu/Cu-soldered joints from the optical microscopy is shown in Figure 21.
\nAs shown, much of lanthanum is oxidized in air during ultrasonic process. The lanthanum particles are distributed to the interface with ceramic material during ultrasonic activation as shown in Figures 22 and 23, and they are then combined with oxides on the surface of ceramic material. The concentration line of La in Figure 22 proves increased La concentration on the interface with Al2O3 ceramics. A uniform, continuous layer of La oxides on the interface with ceramic material can be seen in Figure 23, which ensures the bond formation. The thickness of this layer is around 1.5 µm. In spite of this layer, the solder is more or less bonded to the ceramic substrate. The bond with ceramic material is of adhesion character. The formation of new intermetallic phases was not observed. This also causes lower shear strength of the bond with ceramic materials. The mechanism of bond formation is schematically outlined in Figure 24.
\nComparing the microstructure of Sn2La solder after UT soldering at the same parameters and conditions of soldering.
Concentration profiles of Al, Sn, La and O elements on the interface of Al2O3 ceramics/Sn2La solder.
Planar EDX analysis of soldered interface of Sn2La/Al2O3.
Mechanism of bond formation at UT activation of SnLa2 solder.
The research was primarily oriented to soldering ceramic substrate of Al2O3 and a copper substrate. The experiments carried out in the study of shear strength of soldered joints were extended to other metallic materials (Al, Ni, Ti and CrNi steel) and SiC ceramics in order to show broader applicability of Sn2La solder.
\nMeasurement was performed on four specimens of each material. The results of average shear strength of joints are documented in Figure 25. The lowest shear strength was observed on Al2O3 ceramics (7.5 MPa). Little higher strength of 13.5 MPa was observed on SiC ceramics. The highest strength, when regarding the metallic materials, was achieved with Al and Ni. The strength on copper substrate was 26.0 MPa.
\nResults of measurements of shear strength in joints fabricated with Sn2La solder.
The Sn2La solder has shown relatively great differences in shear strength on the metallic and ceramic materials. It can be generally said that the shear strength of joints in metallic materials is almost three times higher than in the case of ceramic materials.
\nFrom the results of analysis of transition zone of soldered joints, it may be concluded that the bond with metallic material is of metallurgical-diffusion character. The bond with a ceramic material, namely Al2O3 (at soldering with solder containing La), is of adhesion character.
\nThe aim of research [28] was to study the solderability of Al2O3 ceramics, silicon and copper at the application of solder type Sn-Ag-Ti activated by ultrasound. The interactions between solder, ceramic and silicon substrates were analysed. The shear strength of fabricated soldered joints was measured.
\nThe Sn3.5Ag4Ti (Ce, Ga) solder was used for soldering. Soldered joints were fabricated with the application of mechanical activation by power ultrasound. Heating was realized by a hot-plate method. The soldering temperature was 280°C. The dwell time at soldering temperature was 30 s and the time of ultrasound acting was 5 s. The test specimens were prepared of Al2O3 ceramics, silicon as non-metallic material and Cu as metallic material.
\nThe microstructure of solder type Sn-Ag-Ti is documented in Figure 26. It consists of tin matrix. The tin matrix contains unevenly distributed constituents of intermetallic Ti-Sn phases and fine needles of silver phase, Ag3Sn, uniformly distributed along the tin grains. The presence of Ag3Sn phase was proved by X-ray diffractometer (XRD) analysis.
\nMicrostructure of Sn-Ag-Ti solder (a) in polished condition, (b) after etching of tin matrix.
XRD analysis revealed also the Ti-Sn phases. Actually identified were the Ti6Sn5 and Ti2Sn3 phases, where Ti6Sn5 phase was mostly represented. The formation of individual titanium phases depends on manufacturing the temperature of the solder, the amount of titanium added to solder and also the way of Ti addition to solder during its manufacture.
\nThe microstructure of Sn-Ag-Ti solder/Al2O3 ceramics is documented in Figure 27. A pronounced transition zone, reaction layer with an average thickness of 2.6 μm, is formed in the interface.
\nA detailed view of reaction layer in Al2O3/Sn-Ag-Ti interface.
The energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) analysis of chemical composition has revealed that the reaction layer (Figure 28) contains 5.35 wt.% Al; 37.33 wt.% Ti; 2.84 wt.% Ag and 54.48 wt.% Sn. The linear course of concentration of individual elements is documented in Figure 26.
\nInterface of the soldered joint of Al2O3/Sn-Ag-Ti solder.
During soldering process, the titanium from solder is distributed to the interface with ceramic material, where a reaction layer is formed, which ensures the wettability of Al2O3 ceramics. An oxidation-reduction reaction takes place between the active solder and ceramic material at the formation of reaction products, which allow the wetting of ceramics by an active solder (Figure 28).
\nThe interface of Si/Sn-Ag-Ti solder joint can be seen in Figure 29. The Ag3Sn phase is segregated along the grain boundaries of tin matrix of the solder. This phase increases the strength of soldering alloy type Sn-Ag-Ti. Also, the formation of a pronounced reaction layer, 1–2 µm in thickness, may be seen in Figure 29. The formation of this layer in the consequence of interactions is between the active element (Ti) and the surface of silicon substrate. Titanium is segregated to interface with silicon during the soldering process. The products of interaction ensure the wetting of silicon and bond formation. The diffusion mechanism takes place there. The ultrasound exerts two effects in this case, namely it speeds up the Ti diffusion and disrupts the substrate surface by the cavitation erosion.
\nReaction layer on Si/Sn-Ag-Ti solder interface.
The formation and composition of reaction layer may be well observed on the planar distribution of elements attained by EDX analysis. Figure 30 shows the map of elements in the interface of soldered joint. In Figure 30, we may also see the segregation of Ti on Si/Sn-Ag-Ti interface; 28 wt. % Ti was observed in the reaction zone, while the balance consisted of silicon.
\nMap of Si, Ag, Sn and Ti elements in the interface of Si/Sn-Ag-Ti joint.
In case of solder type Sn-Ag-Ti, the main role in bond formation with Cu substrate is played by tin. The Cu3Sn, Cu6Sn5 phases were identified in the solder/Cu substrate interface in all cases, which are growing in the direction from the phase interface to solder matrix. The Cu3Sn phase is closer to Cu substrate and the Cu6Sn5 phase is in contact with Sn-Ag-Ti solder. Massive transition phases of Cu6Sn5 were formed, up to 12 µm in width. The Cu6Sn5 phase has an elongated acicular shape as shown in Figure 31.
\nAnalysed microstructure in interface of Cu/Sn-Ag-Ti solder joint.
The research of this study was primary oriented to soldering of ceramic Al2O3 substrate, silicon substrate and copper substrate. However, the experiments performed in the study of shear strength of soldered joints were extended to other metallic materials (Al, Ni, Ti and CrNi steel type AISI 316) and SiC ceramics in order to approve wider applicability of Sn-Ag-Ti solder.
\nThe measurement was performed on four specimens of each material. The results of average shear strength are documented in Figure 32. The lowest shear strength was observed with silicon, 23.0 MPa. Higher strength, attaining 33.0 MPa, was observed with Al2O3, whereas with copper the shear strength attained even 35.1 MPa.
\nThe shear strength of joints fabricated with Sn-Ag-Ti solder.
The Sn-Ag-Ti solder exerted small differences in shear strength on metallic and ceramic materials. It may be generally said that the shear strength of joints in metallic materials is comparable with the shear strength attained on ceramic materials.
\nThe contribution was prepared with the support of APVV–0023–12: Research of new soldering alloys for fluxless soldering with application of beam technologies and ultrasound, and VEGA 1/0089/17 project: Research of new alloys for direct soldering of metallic and ceramic materials.
\nThe Japanese Islands are mainly composed of the Eurasian (EUR) and the North American (NA) plates, and a number of small islands are on the Philippine Sea (PHS) and the Pacific (PAC) plates (Figure 1). The PHS and PAC oceanic plates are subducting beneath the EUR and the NA plates. A number of earthquakes occurred both at the plate interfaces and within the plates.
\nName of plates and location.
After the Kobe earthquake in January 1995, the Japanese government enacted the Special Measure Law on Earthquake Disaster Prevention in July 1995. This was to promote a comprehensive national policy on earthquake disaster prevention. Based on this goal, the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience (NIED) contracted the deployment of the nationwide high-sensitivity seismograph network (Hi-net) [1] since NIED had already accumulated the experience for the Tokyo metropolitan deep borehole array and operated the Kanto-Tokai seismic network since 1979. NIED operates the Hi-net with approximately 800 stations since 2000 [2] and the full range seismograph network (F-net) [3] with approximately 70 stations composed of broadband seismographs since 1994 [4]. The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), the national universities, and other institutes operate other seismic networks with a total of approximately 600 stations for the detection of microseismicity. NIED operates ocean-bottom seismic stations beneath the Sagami Bay, while the JMA operates offshore the Tokai and Boso regions. The Earthquake Research Institute, University of Tokyo, operates the network offshore Sanriku, and the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) operates offshore Kushiro and Muroto networks. JAMSTEC started the construction of the Dense Oceanfloor Network System for Earthquakes and Tsunamis (DONET) [5] off Kii and Muroto Peninsulas near the Nankai Trough in 2010, and they started operation networks offshore Kii (in 2014) and Muroto (in 2016) Peninsulas. NIED deployed the Seafloor Observation Network for Earthquakes and Tsunamis along the Japan Trench (S-net) [6] after the 2011 offshore Tohoku Earthquake (the Tohoku-oki event), which began operating in 2016 [7, 8]. DONET was transferred to NIED from April 2016. NIED started the operation of Monitoring of Waves on Land and Seafloor (MOWLAS) composed of Hi-net, F-net, S-net, DONET, strong-motion seismograph networks (K-NET and KiK-net) [9], and Volcano Observation Network (V-net) [10].
\nNIED S-net and DONET teams manually pick the arrival time data at the oceanic seismic stations after NIED Hi-net team has determined the hypocenters using the land stations. We confirm the difference of shallow hypocenters between the determination by only NIED Hi-net and that by NIED Hi-net and NIED S-net. Stars in Figure 2 show the hypocenters at depths shallower than 20 km beneath the PAC plate determined by NIED Hi-net from September 11, 2017, to the end of 2018. The shallow hypocenters near the main island tend to remain shallow; however, hypocenters more than 200 km off the coast shifted significantly deeper to 40–80 km depth when including the S-net arrival time data (Figure 2). Deep events determined by NIED Hi-net on the east side of a longitude of 144°E are also shifted shallower. This suggests that it is important to include the S-net data for reliable hypocenter locations of offshore events.
\nComparison of hypocenters determined by the NIED (a) Hi-net and (b) Hi-net and S-net. Stars denote hypocenters determined at depths shallower than 20 km by only Hi-net in (a) and redetermined by Hi-net and S-net in (b).
Three-dimensional (3D) seismic velocity structure beneath the whole Japanese Islands has been studied using the vast data of seismic stations within the Japanese Islands maintained by NIED, JMA, national universities, and the other national and local governmental institutes (e.g., [11, 12, 13, 14]). These studies used data obtained mainly at land-based seismic stations with a very few seismic stations on the sea floor such as Sagami Bay, off Kushiro, Sanriku, Boso, and Tokai regions. Reference [14] investigated the structure beneath the PAC plate at depths of 30–50 km using events that occurred under the Pacific Ocean (PO) with focal depths determined by NIED F-net. However, that study was not able to clarify the shallow structure beneath the PO at depths of 0–20 km because of the lack of seismic stations on the seafloor of the PO. The seismic ray takeoff angles proceed downward from the events to the seismic stations on land, and they do not pass through the shallow zone beneath the ocean since the distance from the hypocenter to the seismic stations is usually over 150 km. We investigated the 3D seismic velocity structure of and around Japanese Islands including the Sea of Japan and PO by the seismic tomographic method. We added the arrival time data detected in the S-net, the DONET, and the Hi-net datasets, operated by NIED, as well as other datasets, operated by multiple organizations, after 2016 in addition to the data used in [14]. Then we applied the seismic tomography to these datasets.
\nThe target region, 20–48°N and 120–148°E, covers the whole Japanese Islands from Hokkaido to Okinawa and the seismic stations both Hi-net on land and S-net and DONET beneath the ocean. In addition to the arrival time data used by [14], 1,782,425 P- and 1,528,733 S-wave arrival times from 32,952 earthquakes recorded at approximately 2000 stations including NIED S-net and DONET from April 2016 to June 2018 were selected. A total of 7,853,757 P-wave arrival data and 4,604,780 S-wave arrival data from 112,631 events are available after merging the new datasets (Figure 3).
\nDistribution of hypocenters and seismic stations used for seismic tomography.
We used the seismic tomographic method [15, 16] with spatial velocity correlation and station corrections to the original code by [11]. Grid nodes were placed with half of the spatial resolution. We performed smoothing in order to stabilize the solution for the inverse problem with the LSQR algorithm [17] since arbitrary damping matrix with combination of diagonal and smoothing matrices could be assumed.
\nWe placed 3D grid nodes to construct the velocity (slowness) structure with the grid spacing shown in Table 1 and adopted the 1D structure used in the routine determination of hypocenters at the Hi-net and S-net [18] as the initial velocity model (Figure 4). No velocity discontinuities such as Moho discontinuities or the plate boundary between the EUR and PAC or PHS plates were assumed in this study. This is because there were enough data to estimate the steep velocity gradient to represent plate boundaries so that velocity discontinues in the model were not necessary [13, 16, 19]. The total number of unknowns, 4,417,505, for P-wave slowness is the same as those for S-wave slowness. We solved the P- and S-wave slowness at each grid node from more than 10 associated rays.
\nDepth | \nGrid interval | \nResolution/checkerboard pattern | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|
Horizontal | \nVertical (km) | \nHorizontal | \nVertical (km) | \n|
0–10 | \n0.1° | \n2.5 | \n0.2° | \n5 | \n
10–40 | \n5 | \n10 | \n||
40–60 | \n10 | \n20 | \n||
60–180 | \n15 | \n30 | \n||
180–300 | \n20 | \n40 | \n||
300− | \n25 | \n50 | \n
Grid interval and resolution size.
Seismic velocity structures of the initial model and the average of the final 3D model.
First, we inverted the P- and S-wave seismic velocities using the initial hypocenter location. Second, both hypocenters and 3D seismic velocity structure were inverted simultaneously. We included the arrival times from the events beneath the ocean before 2015 in addition to the data used by [14]. Focal depths of offshore events were determined by NIED F-net or [20] since offshore events determined by only NIED Hi-net are not reliable. For these offshore events, only epicenters are inverted by the 3D seismic velocity structure, while hypocenter depths are fixed. We do not fix any condition for the events after 2016 detected by NIED S-net and DONET and the events within 50 km of the onshore seismic networks before 2015 during the inversion.
\nResiduals are improved to within 0.5 s for P-wave and 0.6 s for S-wave in the travel time inversion. In the final iteration, we used 6,356,481 P-wave arrival data and 3,534,482 S-wave arrival data to solve for the P-wave slowness at 1,135,165 grid nodes and the S-wave slowness at 1,103,525 grid nodes. The inversion reduces RMS of the P-wave travel time residual from 0.561 to 0.192 s and that of the S-wave data from 0.812 to 0.239 s after 11 iterations.
\nWe conducted a checkerboard resolution test to evaluate the reliability of our solution [21]. We assumed a ± 5% checkerboard pattern and calculated synthetic travel times with random noise of 0 mean and standard deviations of 0.13 and 0.24 s for P- and S-waves, respectively. The standard deviations for random noise were derived from the average of the estimated uncertainty of the manually picked arrival times. The weight of data is inversely proportional to each width of picking error. The damping factors for the P-wave inversion are twice those for the S-wave inversion, since the average standard deviation of P-wave picking errors is almost half of that of S-wave.
\nFigure 5 shows the results of checkerboard resolution test. We calculate the recovery rate and stability with surrounding grid nodes in order to confirm well-resolved area [15]. The resolutions of Vp and Vs at depths of 5–30 km beneath main four islands are good. At depths of 40–60 km, resolutions are not good along the Sea of Japan coast because there are few deep earthquakes that can be used for inversion.
\nMap views of checkerboard resolution test for Vp and Vs. green line surrounds the well-resolved area.
NIED S-net data increase the resolution at depths of 10–60 km from Honshu to the Japan Trench (Figure 5). Reference [14] used the offshore events such as aftershocks of the Tohoku-oki earthquake. The presence of a seismic station above the events is extremely important for the estimation of velocity structure as well as the determination of hypocenters. The resolutions at depths of 0 and 5 km are still not good in spite of the use of S-net data because the incident angle to the S-net stations are mainly steep and ray paths do not run horizontally because of the lack of shallow earthquakes. Resolutions near the triple junction of Japan Trench and Sagami Trough where three plates, PAC, PHS, and EUR, meet are good at depths of 20–30 km. This is an advantage of using NIED S-net.
\nBeneath the DONET area, the resolution at depths of 10–60 km is good for Vp, and those at depths of 5–40 km are good for Vs. The resolved zone extends to the Nankai Trough since there is sufficient seismicity in this area.
\nWe calculated the average 1D model from the final 3D velocity structure (Figure 4). We also showed the perturbation from these average velocities (Figure 6).
\nMap views of Vp and Vs perturbation and Vp/Vs. Colored area is the resolved area. Broken white lines at depths of 10 and 20 km denote the median tectonic line.
At a depth of 5 km, low-Vp and low-Vs regions are located along the PAC coast beneath southeastern Hokkaido, northeastern Honshu, most of Kanto, Sagami Bay, southern Kinki, and southern Shikoku regions. A low-Vs region extends beneath the entire Shikoku and southern Chugoku regions. A low-Vp/Vs region runs along the Ou backbone range in northeastern Japan and central Japan. Other regions have high Vp/Vs.
\nAt a depth of 10 km, low-Vp regions extend beneath the active volcanoes in the northeastern and central Honshu and Kyushu regions. Low-Vs regions are almost the same as those at a depth of 5 km. High-Vp/Vs regions are distributed at central Hokkaido and coastal area in northeastern Japan. Low-Vp/Vs covers the other regions.
\nAt a depth of 20 km, low-Vp regions lie beneath volcanoes in Hokkaido, central Honshu, and Kyushu. Low-Vs regions extend beneath the volcanoes and back-arc side of Honshu. Both low-Vp and low-Vs regions extend from central Kinki to Kyushu region across central Shikoku. This low-V zone remains the same as at a depth of 5 km. High-Vp/Vs regions cover the Ou backbone range and back-arc side of northeastern Honshu.
\nAt a depth of 30 km, low-Vp extends beneath the northeastern Honshu, central and southwestern Honshu, and northern Kyushu regions. Low-Vs regions extend beneath most of Honshu, Kyushu, and northern Shikoku regions. High-Vp/Vs regions cover almost all Japanese Islands except the central Hokkaido.
\nAt a depth of 40 km, low-Vp regions exist beneath the volcanoes in southeastern Hokkaido and northeastern and central Honshu regions. The low-Vp regions beneath the volcanoes in the northeastern Japan extend to back-arc side. Low-Vs regions are clarified beneath the volcanoes in southeastern Hokkaido and central Honshu regions. Low-Vs regions beneath the northeastern Honshu can be found east of the volcanic front as are low-Vp regions. Low-Vp/Vs regions cover the central mountains across Hokkaido and northeastern and central Honshu.
\nAt a depth of 60 km, low-Vp and low-Vs regions extend beneath the volcanoes in Honshu and central Honshu. High-Vp and Vs regions extend beneath the Kinki, Shikoku, and eastern Kyushu regions where the PHS plates subduct. High-Vp/Vs regions are distributed across western Hokkaido, central Honshu, and central Shikoku regions.
\nAt a depth of 90 km, low-Vp and low-Vs regions exist beneath the volcanoes beneath Hokkaido and Honshu. High-Vp and Vs regions extend to the east of northeastern Japan where the PAC plate subducts. High-Vp/Vs regions cover northern and southwestern Hokkaido, central Honshu, and central Kyushu regions.
\nAt a depth of 10 km, a low-Vp and low-Vs zone extends along the coast of the PO in the northeastern Honshu. A high-Vp and high-Vs zone exists between the longitudes of 142 and 143°. East of longitude of 143° (Figure 6A and B), low-Vp, and low-Vs zone shows again. Vp/Vs is generally low except in some small regions.
\nAt a depth of 20 km, a high-Vp and high-Vs zone extends along the coast of the PO in the northeastern Honshu, in contrast to the structure at a depth of 10 km. Low-V zones extend to the east of the high-Vp zone; however, some high-Vp zones exist among the low-Vp zones (Figure 6C). High-Vs zones are mixed with minor low-Vs zone off the east of northeastern Honshu, extending to a longitude of 143.5° (Figure 6D). This pattern can be seen with Vp at a depth of 10 km. Vp/Vs is also broadly low, and this pattern of Vp/Vs can be seen when the depth is 10 km except in some regions.
\nAt a depth of 30 km, low-Vp zone extends off the east of northeastern Honshu between longitudes of 142 and 143.5 and to the region off the southeast of Hokkaido. High-Vp zone can be seen along the Japan Trench. Two patches of low-Vs zones exist in the east of northeastern Honshu at latitude of 37–40° and longitude of 142–143° and at latitude of 35–36° and longitude of 141–142°. High-Vp/Vs region is bounded by the low-Vp/Vs region, a north–south “stripe” pattern.
\nAt a depth of 40 km, low-Vp and low-Vs zones extend between longitude of 142–143° and latitudes of 37–41°. These low-Vp and low-Vs zones extend to the west of the Hidaka Mountains. High-Vp and high-Vs zones can be seen on the east of the low-V zone and reach the east of the Japan Trench. Vp/Vs in this area is moderate except for some low-Vp/Vs regions with north–south trend.
\nAt a depth of 60 km, low-Vp and low-Vs zones extend just off the coast of the PAC in the northeastern Honshu. High-Vp and high-Vs zones extend broadly on the east of the narrow low-V zone. Vp/Vs in this area is high.
\nAt depths of 20 and 30 km, low-Vp zones extend around the hypocenters of the large events with magnitude 6.9 and 7.4 that occurred on September 5, 2004. Low-Vs zones partly exist within the low-Vp zone. We cannot resolve the continuous structure from Honshu at depths of 5–10 km since the number of events for seismic tomography beneath the DONET stations is small. This is because the DONET picked data are basically added after the Hi-net manual picking. The seismic tomography will be recalculated when the microearthquake data triggered at DONET stations become available.
\nThe station corrections for the final model are shown in Figure 7. Red stations denote positive O-C travel times. It means that the modeled velocity is too high due to thick sediment or low-V materials since the calculated travel time is too small. It also depends on the depth of borehole of Hi-net stations. The seismometers of the Hi-net stations are typically deployed at depths of around 100–200 m, and low-Vp sediment materials are estimated beneath the backbone range and back-arc side of Japan. Large station corrections are estimated along the Sea of Japan coast in northeastern Honshu since there are thick sediments, while borehole stations are relatively shallow. For Vs, there are many blue-colored stations meaning that the velocity model is too slow. Large station corrections are also estimated on the Sea of Japan side of northeastern Honshu.
\nStation corrections for (a) Vp and (b) Vs.
For S-net stations, blue stations can be seen near the coast and the Japan Trench. Red stations are shown between them for both Vp and Vs. It suggests that the seismic velocity model is too slow near the coast and the Japan Trench and too fast between them.
\nFor DONET stations, red stations are shown near the coast and blue stations reside off the coast. It means that the modeled seismic velocity is too high near the coast.
\nFigure 8 shows the histogram of the epicentral movement during the iterations. Epicenters determined by NIED F-net and [20] are shifted over 50 km after the inversion. Epicenters determined by NIED Hi-net or by NIED Hi-net, S-net, and DONET are mainly less than 10 km in spite of 11 iterations of inversion.
\nHistogram of the earthquake epicentral movements during the inversion. The initial epicenters are determined by (a) NIED Hi-net; (b) NIED Hi-net, S-net, and DONET; (c) NIED F-net; and (d) Ref. [20]. The Hi-net system also uses the seismic stations operated by the other organizations.
Ref. [14] also clarified the seismic velocity structure beneath the PO at depths of 30–50 km; however, that study could not resolve the shallow structure at depths of 0–20 km since the ray paths, such as head waves, from the oceanic event to the land seismic stations pass through the deep zone. The ray paths from the events to NIED S-net stations run through the shallow part of the PO. In this study, we can clarify the structure at depths of 10–60 km and even east of the Japan Trench at depths of 20–30 km (Figures 5 and 6). This is a major improvement enabled by including NIED S-net data
\nOne important feature is the probable Mesozoic rift structure trending NS from the coast of Tohoku to the west of Hidaka Collision Zone. The recent 2018 Hokkaido Eastern Iburi earthquake (M6.7) (Iburi earthquake) occurred at a depth of around 32 km, which is much deeper than the usual inland crustal earthquake. Unfortunately, the structure beneath the PO between the Honshu and Hokkaido islands at a depth of 20 km is not clear; however, a low-Vp zone at a depth of 30 km in north–south direction between 142 and 143° (Figure 9) is resolved. Low-Vp zones also exist west of the Hidaka Mountains and between the Honshu and Hokkaido at the northern extension of this low-V zone, although the high-Vp zone parallel to the Japan Trench along the coast of Honshu and Hokkaido invades the low-Vp zone. The high-Vp zone is consistent with the large positive Bouguer gravity anomaly [22] and large positive aeromagnetic anomaly zones [23]. It implies that high-V mantle mafic material is located in the shallow zone. The depth of the Moho is also shallow near the coast of northern Honshu [24]. The Iburi earthquake may be related to the reactivation of the rift related to the structure in the upper mantle to the lower crust, where it is marked by high-Vp.
\nMap views of (a) Moho depth, (b) aeromagnetism, (c) Bouguer gravity anomaly, Vp perturbation at depths of (d) 20 km and (e) 30 km beneath northern Japan.
We clarified the seismic velocity structure beneath the Sea of Japan at depths of 10–20 km from offshore Hokkaido to Wakasa Bay (Figure 6). The Vp beneath the Okushiri and Sado Islands is low at a depth of 10 km; however, Vp beneath the Sea of Japan is high at depths of 10–35 km. Vp along the coast of Sea of Japan in western Japan gives moderate value. The lithospheric velocity structure in this region is strongly affected by the Mid-Tertiary breakup and formation of the Sea of Japan. Through the reactivation of the younger compressed tectonic terrain, tsunamigenic source faults have been developed. The lithospheric structure provides essential information to infer the structure of faults.
\nRef. [25] imaged the bending-shaped low-Vp oceanic crust of PAC plate subducting from the Japan Trench at latitudes of 38–38.5° offshore Miyagi where the rupture of large interplate earthquakes propagated. In this study, low-Vp material is imaged at depths of 40–50 km bounded by the high-Vp materials with a number of earthquakes surrounded with red ellipse in Figure 10. It indicates the subducting oceanic crust of the PAC plate
\nVertical cross section beneath the Pacific Ocean off Miyagi in WNW-ESE direction. Black circle shows the relocated hypocenters used for seismic tomography in this study.
The isovelocity contour of Vp = 7.0 km/s lies around depths of 25–40 km. Active-source seismic experiments off Sanriku region imaged the same contour lying at depths of 20–35 km [25] on the west side of Japan Trench, at depths of 15–30 km at the Japan Trench [26], and at depths of 15–25 km in NS direction between Honshu and Japan Trench [27]. The seismic velocity model of this study is relatively slower than those models derived from seismic experiments. The difference may depend on the initial velocity model of the oceanic region being set as the same as the land area in this study. The Moho depth becomes shallower with the EUR crust toward the Japan Trench. The oceanic crust of the PAC plate has also thinner crust than the EUR island arc crust.
\nFigure 11 shows the Vp perturbation just above the upper boundary of the PAC plate within the overriding EUR plate. The plane with the upper side at surface has a dip angle of 15°. Reference [28] also showed the Vp perturbation [29] above the upper boundary of the subducting PAC slab and three low-V zone offshore Sanriku, Miyagi, and Ibaraki. In our results, we obtain velocity structure in fine scale; however, we do not estimate the shallow structure along the Japan Trench. We obtain the broad low-Vp and low-Vp/Vs zone within the overriding EUR plate between the Japan Trench and Honshu. A high-Vp and slightly high-Vp/Vs zone exists on the west side of the low-Vp and low-Vp/Vs zone. There are some small high-V zones within the low-V zone near the hypocenter of the Tohoku-oki event.
\nVp perturbation on the plane just above the upper boundary of the PAC plate within the overriding EUR plate. The plane has strike with S17degW from the point with a longitude of 144.5 and a latitude of 41.0 with dip angle of 12 deg. The depth of the upper edge of the plane is 10 km.
Figure 12 also shows the Vp perturbation and Vp/Vs on the coseismic plane of the Tohoku-oki event [30]. We do not obtain the shallow structure along the Japan Trench although the extremely large slip of the Tohoku-oki event is estimated near the Japan Trench. The western edge of the large slip zone is consistent with the high-Vp zone; however, the surrounding region has low-Vp and low-Vp/Vs. Low-Vp/Vs material is difficult to deform so that it can generate large elastic waves if it fails. Low-Vp/Vs on the coseismic slip region may be one of the reasons for the extreme size of the Tohoku-oki event.
\n(a) Vp perturbation and (b) Vp/Vs on the coseismic slip plane [30].
We conducted the seismic tomography for entire Japanese Islands including oceanic area. This is the first tomographic study to use the data from NIED S-net. The hypocenters of oceanic events are greatly improved using the S-net data. We also obtain the detailed seismic velocity structure beneath the PO at depths of 10–60 km. Low-Vp and low-Vs zones are revealed between 142 and 143° at a depth of 30 km and in western Hokkaido where the Eastern Iburi Earthquake in 2018 occurred. The lithospheric velocity structure on the coast of Sea of Japan on Honshu is strongly affected by the Mid-Tertiary breakup and formation of the Sea of Japan. Tsunamigenic source faults have been developed through the reactivation of the younger compression. Subducting low-V oceanic crust is imaged within the mantle of overriding EUR and subducting oceanic PAC plate. The coseismic slip plane of the Tohoku-oki event has low-Vp/Vs; however, the shallow structure along the Japan Trench will be improved in the future with increased data. Previous seismic reflection and refraction studies found the oceanic crust at the uppermost part of the PAC plate with Vp of approximately 6–7 km/s; however, the seismic tomography with NIED S-net clarified the 6–7 km/s Vp zone at depths of 25–40 km. The result may depend on the initial velocity model beneath the PO, which was the same initial model as the land area in this study. Applying the initial velocity model derived from the refraction or reflection seismology would improve the results beneath the ocean in the future.
\nWe used the seismic data provided by the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience, the Japan Meteorological Agency, Hokkaido University, Hirosaki University, Tohoku University, the University of Tokyo, Nagoya University, Kyoto University, Kochi University, Kyushu University, Kagoshima University, the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, the Geographical Survey Institute, Tokyo Metropolis, Shizuoka Prefecture, Hot Springs Research Institute of Kanagawa Prefecture, Yokohama City, and Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology. This study was supported by the project on the Operation of Seismograph Networks for NIED. We thank academic editor Masaki Kanao for checking and commenting on our manuscript. We also thank David Shelly and Tomoko E. Yano for their helpful comments and improvement of our manuscript. Some of the figures were drawn using Generic Mapping Tools software [31] and the software for viewing 3D velocity structures beneath whole Japan Islands [32]. This work was financially supported in part by Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) and by the Council for Science, Technology and Innovation (CSTI) through the Cross-ministerial Strategic Innovation Promotion Program (SIP), entitled “Enhancement of societal resiliency against natural disasters” (Funding agency: Japan Science Technology Agency).
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