Recognised risk factors associated with diabetic retinopathy
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5781",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Phytohormones - Signaling Mechanisms and Crosstalk in Plant Development and Stress Responses",title:"Phytohormones",subtitle:"Signaling Mechanisms and Crosstalk in Plant Development and Stress Responses",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Phytohormones are regulatory compounds that play crucial roles in plants. This book brings together recent work and progress that has recently been made in the dynamic field of phytohormone regulation in plant development and stress responses. It also provides new insights and sheds new light regarding the exciting hormonal cross talk phenomenon in plants. This book will provoke interest in many readers and scientists, who can find this information useful for the advancement of their research works.",isbn:"978-953-51-3412-1",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3411-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4710-7",doi:"10.5772/65234",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"phytohormones-signaling-mechanisms-and-crosstalk-in-plant-development-and-stress-responses",numberOfPages:170,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"054eaa85c13ebe3d04fb8852005d2bad",bookSignature:"Mohamed El-Esawi",publishedDate:"August 16th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5781.jpg",numberOfDownloads:15339,numberOfWosCitations:47,numberOfCrossrefCitations:39,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:77,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:163,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 22nd 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 17th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 9th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 9th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 9th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",middleName:null,surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191770/images/system/191770.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Mohamed A. El-Esawi is a visiting research fellow at the University of Cambridge, United Kingdom, and Associate Professor of Molecular Genetics, Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University, Egypt. Dr. El-Esawi received his BSc and MSc from Tanta University, and his Ph.D. degree in Plant Genetics and Molecular Biology from Dublin Institute of Technology, Technological University Dublin, Ireland. After obtaining his Ph.D., Dr. El-Esawi joined the University of Warwick, United Kingdom; University of Sorbonne, France; and University of Leuven (KU Leuven), Belgium as a visiting research fellow. His research focuses on plant genetics, genomics, molecular biology, molecular physiology, developmental biology, plant-microbe interaction, and bioinformatics. He has authored several international peer-reviewed articles, book chapters, and books, and has participated in more than sixty conferences and workshops worldwide. Dr. El-Esawi is currently involved in several biological science research projects.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"9",institution:{name:"Tanta University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"328",title:"Food Technology",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-bromatology-food-technology"}],chapters:[{id:"56091",title:"Introductory Chapter: Hormonal Regulation in Plant Development and Stress Tolerance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69806",slug:"introductory-chapter-hormonal-regulation-in-plant-development-and-stress-tolerance",totalDownloads:2363,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Mohamed A. El‐Esawi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56091",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56091",authors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],corrections:null},{id:"55145",title:"Recent Developments in a Radio-labeling of Brassinosteroids",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68584",slug:"recent-developments-in-a-radio-labeling-of-brassinosteroids",totalDownloads:1730,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter provides a comprehensive overview on methodologies used for radio-labeling of brassinosteroids as one of the newest class of phytohormones. Discussed labeling strategies are lined up in terms of reached specific activities (SA) of brassinosteroids (BRs) as a key parameter for further utilization of such labeled drugs. The chapter is focused on two key natural radio-isotopes (tritium and carbon-14) used for drug tracing in pharmaceutical research.",signatures:"Aleš Marek",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55145",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55145",authors:[{id:"201705",title:"Dr.",name:"Ales",surname:"Marek",slug:"ales-marek",fullName:"Ales Marek"}],corrections:null},{id:"54932",title:"Salicylic Acid: An All-Rounder in Regulating Abiotic Stress Responses in Plants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68213",slug:"salicylic-acid-an-all-rounder-in-regulating-abiotic-stress-responses-in-plants",totalDownloads:2778,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:29,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Salicylic acid (SA) is an endogenous growth regulator of phenolic nature and also a signaling molecule, which participates in the regulation of physiological processes in plants such as growth, photosynthesis, and other metabolic processes. Several studies support a major role of SA in modulating the plant response to various abiotic stresses. It is a well-founded fact that SA potentially generates a wide array of metabolic responses in plants and also affects plant-water relations. This molecule also found to be very active in mitigating oxidative stress under adverse environmental conditions. Since abiotic stress remained the greatest constraints for crop production worldwide, finding effective approaches is an important task for plant biologists. Hence, understanding the physiological role of SA would help in developing abiotic stress tolerance in plants. In this chapter, we will shed light on the recent progress on the regulatory role of SA in mitigating abiotic stress.",signatures:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman, Kamrun Nahar, Tasnim Farha Bhuiyan,\nTaufika Islam Anee, Masashi Inafuku, Hirosuke Oku and Masayuki\nFujita",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54932",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54932",authors:[{id:"47687",title:"Prof.",name:"Masayuki",surname:"Fujita",slug:"masayuki-fujita",fullName:"Masayuki Fujita"},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman"},{id:"166818",title:"MSc.",name:"Kamrun",surname:"Nahar",slug:"kamrun-nahar",fullName:"Kamrun Nahar"},{id:"198602",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirosuke",surname:"Oku",slug:"hirosuke-oku",fullName:"Hirosuke Oku"},{id:"198603",title:"Dr.",name:"Taufika Islam",surname:"Anee",slug:"taufika-islam-anee",fullName:"Taufika Islam Anee"},{id:"198604",title:"Ms.",name:"Tasnim Farha",surname:"Bhuiyan",slug:"tasnim-farha-bhuiyan",fullName:"Tasnim Farha Bhuiyan"},{id:"205411",title:"Dr.",name:"Masashi",surname:"Inafuku",slug:"masashi-inafuku",fullName:"Masashi Inafuku"}],corrections:null},{id:"55903",title:"Seed Dormancy: The Complex Process Regulated by Abscisic Acid, Gibberellins, and Other Phytohormones that Makes Seed Germination Work",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68735",slug:"seed-dormancy-the-complex-process-regulated-by-abscisic-acid-gibberellins-and-other-phytohormones-th",totalDownloads:2758,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:20,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Seed dormancy is one of the most important adaptive mechanisms in plants, which protects seeds from precocious germination in the presence of the inappropriate conditions for growth continuation. Numerous environmental and molecular signals regulate seed dormancy. Maintenance or release of seed dormancy is dependent on light, temperature, and water availability. Precise response of seeds to environmental factors is mediated by different phytohormonal pathways. ABA is considered as a main phytohormone regulating seed dormancy induction and maintenance. ABA‐ and GA‐responsive components, ensure crosstalk between the GA and ABA pathways and enable seed response adequate to the environment. Phytohormonal regulation mechanism of seed dormancy is similar in dicot and monocot plants. Recently, it is suggested that other phytohormones, such as auxin, jasmonates, brassinosteroids, and ethylene, also take part in seed dormancy regulation. Auxin regulators, enhance ABA action and positively influence seed dormancy. However, jasmonates, brassinosteroids, and ethylene reduce seed dormancy level. Here, we describe recent advances in understanding the complex process of seed dormancy regulated by many phytohormonal pathways and their components. Seed dormancy studies can help obtain crop varieties producing seeds with the most desirable timing of germination.",signatures:"Anna Skubacz and Agata Daszkowska‐Golec",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55903",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55903",authors:[{id:"156791",title:"Dr.",name:"Agata",surname:"Daszkowska-Golec",slug:"agata-daszkowska-golec",fullName:"Agata Daszkowska-Golec"},{id:"197990",title:"MSc.",name:"Anna",surname:"Skubacz",slug:"anna-skubacz",fullName:"Anna Skubacz"}],corrections:null},{id:"55005",title:"Strigolactone Signaling in Plants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68497",slug:"strigolactone-signaling-in-plants",totalDownloads:1748,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Strigolactones (SLs) are a new group of recently described phytohormones. They were found to be involved in the communication between plant roots and symbiotic bacteria or fungi, but also in the interactions between roots of host plants and germinating seeds of parasitic plants. Over the years, however, it has become clear that SLs play a regulatory role in many aspects of plant growth and development. Extensive studies on plant model species Arabidopsis thaliana L. and Oryza sativa L. have uncovered the molecular mechanisms of SL biosynthesis and signaling. In some aspects, the SL perception and signaling correspond to the already known mechanisms described for other phytohormones, but in other points, they seem to be unique in the plant kingdom. This chapter summarizes the recent discoveries in the signal transduction pathway of SLs and describes the model of SL perception and signaling.",signatures:"Marek Marzec",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55005",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55005",authors:[{id:"198115",title:"Dr.",name:"Marek",surname:"Marzec",slug:"marek-marzec",fullName:"Marek Marzec"}],corrections:null},{id:"56185",title:"Cross Talk between Nitric Oxide and Phytohormones Regulate Plant Development during Abiotic Stresses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69812",slug:"cross-talk-between-nitric-oxide-and-phytohormones-regulate-plant-development-during-abiotic-stresses",totalDownloads:2016,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:22,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Plants, being sessile, are concurrently exposed to various biotic and abiotic stresses. The perception of stress signals in plants involves a wide spectrum of signal transduction pathways that interact to induce tolerance against adverse environmental conditions. This functional overlapping among various stress signaling cascades also leads to the expression of genes that regulate biosynthesis or action of other hormones. Phytohormonal signals, activated by both developmental and environmental responses, play a crucial role to develop stress tolerance in plants. Nitric oxide (NO) is one of the major players in plant signaling networks. Emerging evidence supports that NO interplays with signaling pathways of auxins, gibberellins, abscisic acid, ethylene, jasmonic acid, brassinosteroids, and other plant hormones to control metabolism, growth, and development in plants. This chapter focuses on the current state of knowledge of cross talk between signaling pathways of NO and phytohormones in plants exposed to various abiotic stresses.",signatures:"Fahim Nawaz, Rana Nauman Shabbir, Muhammad Shahbaz, Sadia\nMajeed, Muhammad Raheel, Waseem Hassan and Muhammad\nAmir Sohail",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56185",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56185",authors:[{id:"198267",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahim",surname:"Nawaz",slug:"fahim-nawaz",fullName:"Fahim Nawaz"},{id:"206899",title:"Dr.",name:"Rana Nauman",surname:"Shabbir",slug:"rana-nauman-shabbir",fullName:"Rana Nauman Shabbir"},{id:"206905",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Shahbaz",slug:"muhammad-shahbaz",fullName:"Muhammad Shahbaz"},{id:"206906",title:"Ms.",name:"Sadia",surname:"Majeed",slug:"sadia-majeed",fullName:"Sadia Majeed"},{id:"206907",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Raheel",slug:"muhammad-raheel",fullName:"Muhammad Raheel"},{id:"206908",title:"Dr.",name:"Waseem",surname:"Hassan",slug:"waseem-hassan",fullName:"Waseem Hassan"},{id:"206909",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Sohail",slug:"muhammad-sohail",fullName:"Muhammad Sohail"}],corrections:null},{id:"55013",title:"Phytohormonal Control over the Grapevine Berry Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68453",slug:"phytohormonal-control-over-the-grapevine-berry-development",totalDownloads:1946,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Grapevine (Vitis vinifera) is one of the most important commercial plants since its berries are used for wine production or consumed as fresh fruit or dry fruit. Many studies have focused on berry development and have pointed out the hormonal regulation on the three phases, from early development to maturity. Grapevine fruit has been classified as non-climacteric based on the low levels of ethylene present around véraison, although recent evidence has suggested a role for this hormone during grape berry ripening. The control of different physiological processes depends on a complex integration between environmental cues and endogenous factors, which is mediated by a phytohormone crosstalk. In this chapter, we will focus on phytohormones, their signaling pathways, and their association to berry development in V. vinifera; in particular, we will refer to auxins, abscisic acid, brassinosteroids, ethylene, gibberellins, and cytokinins.",signatures:"Francisca Parada, Carmen Espinoza and Patricio Arce-Johnson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55013",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55013",authors:[{id:"181474",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricio",surname:"Arce-Johnson",slug:"patricio-arce-johnson",fullName:"Patricio Arce-Johnson"},{id:"182102",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",surname:"Espinoza",slug:"carmen-espinoza",fullName:"Carmen Espinoza"},{id:"198306",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Francisca",surname:"Parada",slug:"francisca-parada",fullName:"Francisca Parada"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6627",title:"Brassica Germplasm",subtitle:"Characterization, Breeding and Utilization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f11a68d95e239f899f787ef2ecd31466",slug:"brassica-germplasm-characterization-breeding-and-utilization",bookSignature:"Mohamed Ahmed El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6627.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6277",title:"Physical Methods for Stimulation of Plant and Mushroom Development",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"33dff71e3489403e273057ae36bd0dbd",slug:"physical-methods-for-stimulation-of-plant-and-mushroom-development",bookSignature:"Mohamed El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6277.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7000",title:"Legume Crops",subtitle:"Characterization and Breeding for Improved Food Security",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d0f73bf883bbb984cc2feef1259a9a7",slug:"legume-crops-characterization-and-breeding-for-improved-food-security",bookSignature:"Mohamed Ahmed El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7000.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6166",title:"Maize Germplasm",subtitle:"Characterization and Genetic Approaches for Crop Improvement",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c417c25f765a026f5ebbf9d3119edb2e",slug:"maize-germplasm-characterization-and-genetic-approaches-for-crop-improvement",bookSignature:"Mohamed El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6166.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6628",title:"Circadian Rhythm",subtitle:"Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"628bbcbfaf54a56710498540efe51b87",slug:"circadian-rhythm-cellular-and-molecular-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Mohamed Ahmed El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6628.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7991",title:"Understanding the Molecular Crosstalk in Biological Processes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4b678bab3a6334187a4fb5bb44a3811",slug:"understanding-the-molecular-crosstalk-in-biological-processes",bookSignature:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7991.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7444",title:"Genetic Diversity in Plant Species",subtitle:"Characterization and Conservation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"25f15c723c96ab2d6209d7aa0961cacc",slug:"genetic-diversity-in-plant-species-characterization-and-conservation",bookSignature:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7444.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. R. Rinaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3568.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"142145",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",surname:"Leva",slug:"annarita-leva",fullName:"Annarita Leva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5305",title:"Fermentation Processes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ade563b4042ed9674f6413b4ac8883f3",slug:"fermentation-processes",bookSignature:"Angela Faustino Jozala",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5305.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"174371",title:"Dr.",name:"Angela",surname:"Jozala",slug:"angela-jozala",fullName:"Angela Jozala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6293",title:"Yeast",subtitle:"Industrial Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"46632cf5c744c601f5c36175e8dc8dc4",slug:"yeast-industrial-applications",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata and Iris Loira",coverURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/cover.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"74026",slug:"corrigendum-to-calf-sex-influence-in-bovine-milk-production",title:"Corrigendum to: Calf-Sex Influence in Bovine Milk Production",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74026.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74026",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74026",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74026",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74026",chapter:{id:"73504",slug:"calf-sex-influence-in-bovine-milk-production",signatures:"Miguel Quaresma and R. Payan-Carreira",dateSubmitted:"April 21st 2020",dateReviewed:"September 10th 2020",datePrePublished:"October 8th 2020",datePublished:"January 20th 2021",book:{id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",publishedDate:"January 20th 2021",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",email:"rtpayan@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",email:"miguelq@utad.pt",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"73504",slug:"calf-sex-influence-in-bovine-milk-production",signatures:"Miguel Quaresma and R. Payan-Carreira",dateSubmitted:"April 21st 2020",dateReviewed:"September 10th 2020",datePrePublished:"October 8th 2020",datePublished:"January 20th 2021",book:{id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",publishedDate:"January 20th 2021",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",email:"rtpayan@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",email:"miguelq@utad.pt",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},book:{id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",publishedDate:"January 20th 2021",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"8919",leadTitle:null,title:"Reliability and Ecological Aspects of Photovoltaic Modules",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Photovoltaic (PV) solar energy is expected to be the world's largest source of electricity in the future. To enhance the long-term reliability of PV modules, a thorough understanding of failure mechanisms is of vital importance. In addition, it is important to address the potential downsides to this technology. These include the hazardous chemicals needed for manufacturing solar cells, especially for thin-film technologies, and the large number of PV modules disposed of at the end of their lifecycles. This book discusses the reliability and environmental aspects of PV modules.",isbn:"978-1-78984-823-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-822-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-452-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82613",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"reliability-and-ecological-aspects-of-photovoltaic-modules",numberOfPages:170,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"84b4f2c95c817552f02813474b074576",bookSignature:"Abdülkerim Gok",publishedDate:"January 8th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8919.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:6417,numberOfWosCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitations:15,numberOfDimensionsCitations:28,numberOfTotalCitations:59,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 22nd 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 1st 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 1st 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 10th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 1st 2019",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!0,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"266161",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abdulkerim",middleName:null,surname:"Gok",slug:"abdulkerim-gok",fullName:"Abdulkerim Gok",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/266161/images/system/266161.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Abdulkerim Gok is an assistant professor in the department of Materials Science and Engineering at Gebze Technical University, Turkey. He completed his bachelor’s degree in Materials Science and Engineering at Anadolu University, Turkey in 2007. He received his M.Sc. degree in Chemical Engineering from Columbia University, New York, USA, in 2011 and his PhD. degree in Materials Science and Engineering from Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA, in 2016. His work focuses on developing predictive and mechanistic degradation pathway models of polymeric materials used in photovoltaic module materials under accelerated and real-world weathering exposures. His research interests include lifetime and degradation science of PV module and module materials, reproducible statistical methods, the effect of environmental stressors on PV module performance.",institutionString:"Gebze Technical University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Gebze Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"793",title:"Sustainable Energy Engineering",slug:"sustainable-energy-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"67744",title:"PV Outdoor Tests",slug:"pv-outdoor-tests",totalDownloads:621,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"292274",title:"Dr.",name:"Rüştü",surname:"Eke",slug:"rustu-eke",fullName:"Rüştü Eke"}]},{id:"67623",title:"Comparing Different PV Module Types and Brands Under Working Conditions in the United Kingdom",slug:"comparing-different-pv-module-types-and-brands-under-working-conditions-in-the-united-kingdom",totalDownloads:824,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"297256",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamad",surname:"Kharseh",slug:"mohamad-kharseh",fullName:"Mohamad Kharseh"},{id:"298383",title:"Prof.",name:"Holger",surname:"Wallbaum",slug:"holger-wallbaum",fullName:"Holger Wallbaum"}]},{id:"70277",title:"Analysis of the Solar Tracking System for a Mobile Robot Prototype",slug:"analysis-of-the-solar-tracking-system-for-a-mobile-robot-prototype",totalDownloads:640,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"5720",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonimer",surname:"Melo",slug:"leonimer-melo",fullName:"Leonimer Melo"},{id:"277616",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",surname:"Archela",slug:"alex-archela",fullName:"Alex Archela"},{id:"296175",title:"MSc.",name:"Dario",surname:"Toginho",slug:"dario-toginho",fullName:"Dario Toginho"}]},{id:"68937",title:"Some Reliability Aspects of Photovoltaic Modules",slug:"some-reliability-aspects-of-photovoltaic-modules",totalDownloads:872,totalCrossrefCites:2,authors:[{id:"286037",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Titu-Marius",surname:"Băjenescu",slug:"titu-marius-bajenescu",fullName:"Titu-Marius Băjenescu"}]},{id:"66372",title:"Reliability Analysis of Photovoltaic Systems for Specific Applications",slug:"reliability-analysis-of-photovoltaic-systems-for-specific-applications",totalDownloads:732,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"297319",title:"Prof.",name:"Laurentiu",surname:"Fara",slug:"laurentiu-fara",fullName:"Laurentiu Fara"},{id:"297321",title:"Mr.",name:"Dan",surname:"Craciunescu",slug:"dan-craciunescu",fullName:"Dan Craciunescu"}]},{id:"68684",title:"Emerging Thin Film Solar Panels",slug:"emerging-thin-film-solar-panels",totalDownloads:956,totalCrossrefCites:8,authors:[{id:"293842",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mahmoud",surname:"Zendehdel",slug:"mahmoud-zendehdel",fullName:"Mahmoud Zendehdel"},{id:"306961",title:"Dr.",name:"Narges",surname:"Yaghoobi Nia",slug:"narges-yaghoobi-nia",fullName:"Narges Yaghoobi Nia"},{id:"306964",title:"MSc.",name:"Mohammadreza",surname:"Yaghoubinia",slug:"mohammadreza-yaghoubinia",fullName:"Mohammadreza Yaghoubinia"}]},{id:"68288",title:"Toxic Materials Used in Thin Film Photovoltaics and Their Impacts on Environment",slug:"toxic-materials-used-in-thin-film-photovoltaics-and-their-impacts-on-environment",totalDownloads:993,totalCrossrefCites:2,authors:[{id:"192759",title:"Dr.",name:"Hervé Joël",surname:"Tchognia Nkuissi",slug:"herve-joel-tchognia-nkuissi",fullName:"Hervé Joël Tchognia Nkuissi"},{id:"295602",title:"Dr.",name:"Fransisco",surname:"Konan",slug:"fransisco-konan",fullName:"Fransisco Konan"},{id:"295603",title:"Prof.",name:"Bouchaib",surname:"Hartiti",slug:"bouchaib-hartiti",fullName:"Bouchaib Hartiti"},{id:"302650",title:"Prof.",name:"Jean-Marie",surname:"Ndjaka",slug:"jean-marie-ndjaka",fullName:"Jean-Marie Ndjaka"}]},{id:"68297",title:"Emerging Photovoltaic Technologies and Eco-Design—Criticisms and Potential Improvements",slug:"emerging-photovoltaic-technologies-and-eco-design-criticisms-and-potential-improvements",totalDownloads:779,totalCrossrefCites:2,authors:[{id:"196427",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Barolo",slug:"claudia-barolo",fullName:"Claudia Barolo"},{id:"297513",title:"MSc.",name:"Nicole",surname:"Mariotti",slug:"nicole-mariotti",fullName:"Nicole Mariotti"},{id:"306941",title:"Dr.",name:"Matteo",surname:"Bonomo",slug:"matteo-bonomo",fullName:"Matteo Bonomo"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"177731",firstName:"Dajana",lastName:"Pemac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/177731/images/4726_n.jpg",email:"dajana@intechopen.com",biography:"As a Commissioning Editor at IntechOpen, I work closely with our collaborators in the selection of book topics for the yearly publishing plan and in preparing new book catalogues for each season. This requires extensive analysis of developing trends in scientific research in order to offer our readers relevant content. Creating the book catalogue is also based on keeping track of the most read, downloaded and highly cited chapters and books and relaunching similar topics. I am also responsible for consulting with our Scientific Advisors on which book topics to add to our catalogue and sending possible book proposal topics to them for evaluation. Once the catalogue is complete, I contact leading researchers in their respective fields and ask them to become possible Academic Editors for each book project. Once an editor is appointed, I prepare all necessary information required for them to begin their work, as well as guide them through the editorship process. I also assist editors in inviting suitable authors to contribute to a specific book project and each year, I identify and invite exceptional editors to join IntechOpen as Scientific Advisors. I am responsible for developing and maintaining strong relationships with all collaborators to ensure an effective and efficient publishing process and support other departments in developing and maintaining such relationships."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"461",title:"Biomass",subtitle:"Detection, Production and Usage",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e28b368f1d1e2d8852f4eec9c2544d8a",slug:"biomass-detection-production-and-usage",bookSignature:"Darko Matovic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/461.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"27708",title:"Dr.",name:"Miodrag Darko",surname:"Matovic",slug:"miodrag-darko-matovic",fullName:"Miodrag Darko Matovic"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"169",title:"Remote Sensing of Biomass",subtitle:"Principles and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c93637da5d1c8fcd07eda02777afab83",slug:"remote-sensing-of-biomass-principles-and-applications",bookSignature:"Temilola Fatoyinbo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/169.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"11875",title:"Dr.",name:"Lola",surname:"Fatoyinbo",slug:"lola-fatoyinbo",fullName:"Lola Fatoyinbo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"459",title:"Biomass and Remote Sensing of Biomass",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e3a442193c8c914342671324dcf6bcbb",slug:"biomass-and-remote-sensing-of-biomass",bookSignature:"Islam Atazadeh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/459.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"27584",title:"Dr.",name:"Ehsan",surname:"Atazadeh",slug:"ehsan-atazadeh",fullName:"Ehsan Atazadeh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"47004",title:"Diabetic Retinopathy – An Update on Pathophysiology, Classification, Investigation and Treatment",doi:"10.5772/58567",slug:"diabetic-retinopathy-an-update-on-pathophysiology-classification-investigation-and-treatment",body:'The global prevalence of diabetes was estimated at 285 million in 2010.[1] The countries with the most significant number of sufferers in 2010 were India, China, United States, Russia and Brazil.[1] Countries with a low and middle income experience the worst burden of diabetes, compared with higher income countries.[1]
The total prevalence of diabetes in children and adults in the United States was 25.8 million in 2011, which is 8.3% of the entire population.[2] It is estimated that 18.8 million of this figure are diagnosed and 7 million remain undiagnosed.[2] 79 million individuals in the United States are expected to be at risk of diabetes.[2] The overall cost of diabetes in the United States in 2012 was $245 billion, with $176 being directly related to medical costs and $69 billion related to reduced productivity.[2] In the UK, 2.6 million individuals were diagnosed with diabetes in 2009,[3] and this is expected to exceed 4 million in 2024.[4] It is also expected that up to 500,000 other UK individuals remain undiagnosed.[5] An estimated one in 20 individuals in England have diabetes-both diagnosed and undiagnosed, and this is marginally reduced UK-wide.[1] For adults in the UK it is estimated that 10% of individuals with diabetes mellitus (DM) have Type 1 diabetes mellitus and 90% have type 2 diabetes mellitus.[1, 6]
Effective management of diabetes reduces complication risk.[7] However failure to control the condition can lead to microvascular and macrovascular complications. At the time of diagnosis, 50% of those with type 2 diabetes mellitus face complications.[8] Complications may begin five to six years prior to diagnosis, whilst the onset of diabetes itself may precede the clinical diagnosis by a decade.[9]
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is the most frequent complication associated with diabetes mellitus, and is the number one cause of blindness in individuals of working age in developed nations.[10] Indeed individuals with diabetes are 10 to 20 times at greater risk of developing blindness than those without the diagnosis.[11] DR prevalence in the Wisconsin Epidemiological Study of Diabetic Retinopathy (WESDR) was identified as 50.1% and 54.2% in the diabetes control and complications trial (DCCT) in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM)[12, 13] DR prevalence in non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) was found to be 35-39% in the United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study.[14] During 2005-2008, 4.2 million (28.5%) of diabetics in the United States aged 40 years and above suffered from diabetic retinopathy, with 0.7 million (4.4% of these diabetics) experiencing advanced DR, thus risking severe loss of vision.[2] In the WESDR, 1.4% of patients with IDDM were able to achieve a best-corrected visual acuity of 20/80 to 20/160, with 3.6% having an acuity of 20/200 or worse in the better eye.[15] 3% of the older-onset group had vision ranging from 20/80 to 20/160, and 1.6% were 20/200 or worse in the best eye.[15]
10 years following diabetes mellitus (DM) onset, blindness (a visual acuity of equal to or worse than 20/200 in the best eye) was 1.8% in the type 1 cohort, 4.0% in the insulin-treated type 2 group and 4.8% in the non-insulin-treated type 2 patients.[16] Further, in these groups the incidence of visual impairment at 10 years (loss of 15 letters on a 0-70 letter scale) was identified as 9.4, 37.2 and 23.9 respectively.[16]
There appear to be few paediatric cases of DR, though it has been identified in children as young as 5.5 years in an American study, and severe blindness has also been described in adolescents as the microvascular effects of diabetes, including DR, can develop during puberty years.[17]
The Diabetic Retinopathy Study in the 1970s and the Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study in the 1980s, identified the major effects of retinal photocoagulation on visual loss associated with proliferative diabetic retinopathy and macular oedema, as well as influencing guideline and screening programme development for early identification and management of diabetic retinopathy.[18, 19, 20] Following this, both the incidence and progression risk of diabetic retinopathy has reduced from an estimated 90% of patients with diabetes, to less than 50%.[20] In the WESDR, which focused on individuals with type 1 diabetes mellitus, the yearly incidence of proliferative diabetic retinopathy reduced by 77% from 1980 to 2007, with a 57% reduction in visual impairment during this same time period.[21] Evidence from a range of international studies, including those from Sweden, Denmark and the United States, indicate that individuals recently diagnosed with type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus have a significantly reduced risk of proliferative diabetic retinopathy, macular oedema and visual impairment, compared with those diagnosed in the past.[22, 23, 24, 25, 26] The considerable decrease in the prevalence and incidence of diabetic retinopathy and visual impairment over the previous few decades suggests improved glycaemic, blood pressure and lipid level management.[26]
However the number of individuals with diabetes is expected to exponentially increase internationally to 429 million by 2030, attributed to the increased prevalence of obesity, an ageing population and enhanced identification of the disease.[27, 28] This represents a major public health concern. As an exemplar, in India 32 million individuals were diagnosed with diabetes in 2000 and an estimated 79 million will be affected by 2030, and if complication prevalence remains the same, around 0.7 million Indians will suffer from proliferative diabetic retinopathy and 1.8 million with have macular oedema with clinical manifestations.[29] This identifies a large population at risk of visual impairment attributed to their diabetes, and highlights the importance of effective epidemiological surveillance of developing countries as there may be reduced delivery of health care capacity compared with developed nations.[20]
The DCCT and United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) both support the significant association between a long-term hyperglycaemic status and the establishment, as well as progression, of DR.[36, 37] However the mechanism which result in microvascular injury attributed to hyperglycaemia is uncertain.[36, 37] Several interlinking molecular pathways have been discussed as being possibly involved in the mechanism, and these include enhanced polyol pathway activity, diacylglycerol-(DAG-)PKC pathway activation, enhanced growth factor expression for example vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), haemodynamic alterations, faster advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) production, oxidative stress, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) activation, inflammation and leukostasis.[38] However the final metabolic pathway resulting in the establishment of DR is uncertain.[39]
The polyol pathway is involved in the metabolism of surplus glucose.[38]
Polyol pathway
Aldose reductase (AR), which exists in the retina, is involved in the reduction of glucose into sorbitol, employing nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) as a cofactor.[38] Sorbitol is then converted to fructose using sorbital dehydrogenase (SDH).[38] Sorbitol is impermeable to cellular membranes, and therefore there is an intracellular accumulation of it, which is followed by the gradual metabolism of sorbitol to fructose.[40] NADPH is also employed as a cofactor for glutathione reductase in the regeneration of intracellular glutathione, therefore limiting the antioxidant capability of the cells.[38]
Sorbitol accumulation may have multi-injurious effects on retinal cells, such as osmotic injury.[41] Further, the fructose formed in the polyol pathway can undergo a phosphorylation reaction, forming fructose-3-phosphate, with the potential for further degradation to 3-deoxyglucosone.[42] Both of these products are potent glycating mediators and can support the production of AGEs.[42] Moreover employment of NADPH in the polyol pathway, reduces NADPH availability for glutathione reductase, thereby preventing the production of reduced glutathione, resulting in reduced protection against oxidative stress.[43]
More recently, evidence suggests that AR is localised in retinal cells such as pericytes,[44] retinal endothelial cells,[45] ganglion cells,[45] Muller cells,[45] retinal pigment epithelial cells and neurons.[45, 46] Enhanced AR activity may be involved in retinal cell destruction.[43] Importantly, pericyte or endothelial cell exposure to enhanced concentrations of glucose or galactose reduces the survivability of these cells,[38] with reversal of this cell death on the administration of ARIs.[47] Generally, electrolye imbalance attributed to high aldose reductase levels results in cellular death, in particular retinal pericytes, which contribute to microaneurysm formation.[48]
The polyol pathway is also associated with other pathophysiological characteristics in DR, including a thickened retinal capillary basement membrane,[49] with ARI preventing this thickening in rat models.[50] ARIs are also effective in reducing leukocyte adhesion in endothelial cells,[51] which results in leukostasis and is discussed later, as well as preventing enhanced vascular permeability and blood retinal barrier breakdown which is a hallmark feature of DR.[46] Genetically, AR may also contribute to DR establishment.[52]
Thus far, ARIs employed in animal models at the onset of diabetes has been useful in preventing DR, though limited clinical benefit has been shown.[38]
The establishment and accumulation of AGEs is a significant contributor to DR.[53] AGEs are molecules produced non-enzymatically when sugars are reduced with free amino groups of proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.[38] Normally, AGEs are produced at a constant and gradual rate, commencing at the embryonic stage and accumulating with time.[38] In the context of increased glucose availability in diabetes, their production is accelerated.[54]
AGEs are important in several diabetic complications.[38] For example, they have been identified in the retinal vessels of diabetics, and these AGE levels have been correlated with those found in the serum, as well as retinopathy severity.[55] AGE interaction with certain cell surface receptors such as RAGE, CD36 and the macrophage scavenger receptor have been described in DR development.[55]
Animal studies suggest significantly high AGE exposure is contributory to renal and vascular complications.[56, 57] In rats which developed diabetes, retinal capillaries had enhanced AGE accumulation, as well as a loss of pericytes.[53] Treatment with AGE formation inhibitors considerably reduced AGE accumulation, and stopped microaneurysm formation, acellular capillaries and pericyte loss.[53] In another study, rats with a diabetes duration of 29 weeks, there was an increase in acellular capillaries by more than three times compared to previously, and there was increased thickening of the basement membrane.[56] A thickened capillary basement membrane and enhanced deposition of extracellular matrix components is a contributor to the development of abnormal retinal haemodynamics.[58] Again, treatment with an AGE formation inhibitor prevented capillary dropout and reduced basement membrane protein formation.[56]
These studies, which are still in their infancy, identify AGE formation and activation of their respective receptors as important targets for pharmacotherapeutic strategies.[38]
PKC is a kinase involved in signal transduction activity in response to a stimulus which may be hormonal, neuronal or growth factor in origin.[38] The Beta1/2 isoform of PKC is associated with DR development.[59] Raised blood glucose increases glucose flux in the glycolysis pathway, thereby increasing diacylglycerol (DAG) production. DAG is a major PKC activator.[60] Clinical and experimental research has identified an increase in DAG and PKC activation in diabetes.[59]
PKC can also influence other physiological pathways therefore having the capability to alter endothelial permeability, retinal haemodynamics and expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in the retina and enhanced leukostasis.[59, 61, 62]
In particular, the expression of the PKC beta1/2 isoform is increased in diabetics, thereby contributing to DR pathogenesis by extracellular matrix (ECM) protein synthesis, remodeling of the ECM, increased angiogenic factor production, endothelial and leukocyte cell abnormalities, ultimately resulting in occluded capillaries and leukostasis, with alterations in retinal blood flow.[38] The PKC pathway also influences other activities such as inflammatory changes, neovascularisation and abberant haemodynamics.[38] This further progresses the pathogenic changes in DR. Experimentally, PKC-beta1/2 inhibitors significantly reduce DR progression.[63] In clinical trials, inhibitors do not prevent DR but considerably reduce the associated vision loss.[64]
Hypertension, which has a high incidence in diabetes, is likely to contribute to DR progression.[38] This may involve the mechanical stretch and sheer stresses associated with hypertension, injuring endothelial cells. Enhanced retinal perfusion and increased blood viscosity can also lead to endothelial dysfunction.[65] Further, the endocrine mechanisms which have regulatory influences over blood pressure are also independently involved in DR pathogenesis.[66]
RAAS is fundamental in blood pressure and fluid regulation, with aberrant changes identified in this system in diabetics.[66] There is an increase in the expression of certain receptors and signaling molecules in the retina, in PDR, including renin, angiotensin converting enzymes (ACE) and angiotensin receptors.[66, 67] This is independent of systemic blood pressure.[38] In experimental studies, ACE inhibitor use prevents neovascularization and several clinical studies suggest that targeting of RAAS reduces the incidence of retinopathy in type 1 diabetes and prevents progression of DR.[68]-[70]
The exact mechanism of RAAS involvement in DR is uncertain, though in vitro evidence identifies association with PKC activation and VEGF signaling.[71]
The importance of inflammation, in particular subclinical inflammation in DR development is considerable, though complex.[38] The hyperglycaemic state, oxidative stress, AGE production and hypertension are all contributory to the inflammation. Moreover, the inflammation is self-propagating by means of cytokines, adhesion molecules, VEGF activity, increased RAGE expression, nitric oxide regulatory changes and NF-kB signaling.[38] This subclinical retinal inflammation increases intraocular blood pressure by the involvement of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), formation of new but weak vessels and their enhanced VEGF permeability which results in retinal haemorrhages, as well as leukostasis attributed to multiple proinflammatory agents.[38] Leukostasis is crucial in DR pathogenesis, resulting in capillary occlusion, reactive oxygen species (ROS)-related cellular death and local retinal amplification of the inflammatory activities.[72]-[75]
There is a considerable increase in systemic proinflammatory cytokine expression, soluble and cell surface adhesion molecule activation and chemokine expression in the DR retina.[76] The increase in serum proinflammatory cytokines, adhesion agents and immune cell activation in diabetes correlates with DR progression.[77, 78] Endothelial abnormalities, as well as increased proinflammatory cytokines and adhesion molecules, contribute to leukostasis by increasing leukocyte and endothelial cell interaction.[79, 80] Localised inflammation including the activation of microglia, macrophages and immune cells is considered important in DR pathogenesis.[81] This is corroborated by the use of minocycline, an antibiotic and anti-inflammatory agent, which prevents microglial activation and thereby prevents DR.[81]
Oxidative stress occurs when the level of ROS or oxygen radicals increase to a degree where the antioxidant defences are unable to cope.[82] Oxidative stress established by hyperglycaemia is pivotal in microvascular complications.[83] Correlation between hyperglycaemia, alterations in redox homeostasis and oxidative stress is essential in DR pathogenesis.[84, 85] Increased ROS are likely to be involved in both the development and progression of DR.[86] It has been proposed that oxidative stress may be a “unifying mechanism” linking several injurious pathways induced by the hyperglycaemic state in DR.[87] ROS derived from mitochondria cause DNA breaks, which activate poly-(ADP-ribose)-polymerase (PARP).[87] PARP activation results in inhibition of glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) activity, causing glycolytic metabolite accumulation.[87] These metabolites cause the activation of AGE, PKC-beta-2, polyol and hexosamine pathways.[87] NADPH oxidase-derived ROS may also be involved in the pathogenesis.[87]
The importance of growth factors in DR is confirmed by the rare observation of serious DR in growth hormone deficient diabetic dwarfs,[88] and this is further corroborated by slowed DR progression in individuals with pituitary ablation in the 1970s.[89]
The growth factor most frequently considered in DR is VEGF, which promotes angiogenesis, causes blood-retinal barrier breakdown, endothelial cell growth stimulation and neovascularization, as well as increased vascular permeability in an ischaemic retina.[90]-[92] Ischaemia in the retina causes angiogenic factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) to establish neovascularization, resulting in proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR). VEGFs are produced by retinal pigment epithelium, pericytes and retinal endothelial cells.[39] Animal and clinical evidence suggests VEGF, especially the 165 isoform, is important in the development and progression of DR.[93, 94]
Anti-VEGF agents have clinical efficacy in the treatment of DMO, but are not effective in all patients.[38] Further long-term use of anti-VEGF agents should be considered with caution in DR.[38]
Enhanced intraocular VEGF concentrations correlates with increased vascular permeability, contributing to haemorrhage, exudate formation, vascular leakage, and ultimately leading to NPDR, angiogenesis and vasculogenesis leading to PDR.[38]
CAs are ubiquitous metalloenzymes which cause conversion of carbon dioxide to bicarbonate and protons.[38] Diabetics have considerably higher CA concentrations than controls,[95] and CA inhibitors reduce DR progression and prevents visual loss in animal and clinical research.[96] The mechanisms involved may include reduced humour secretion, induction of vasodilatation and improved ocular blood flow, platelet aggregation inhibition and reduction in vascular permeability.[95]
Epidemiologic studies have shown several risk factors associated with the incidence of diabetic retinopathy and subsequent macular oedema (table 1). Several other risk factors have also been implicated in disease progression such as sleep apnoea [98], non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, genetic mutations[21, 99] and serum prolactin, homocysteine and adinopectin levels [33, 31, 34]. However the exact contribution of these factors to disease progression remains unknown. The precise association of smoking with diabetic retinopathy appears complex and is unclear.
Type of diabetes | \n\t\t
Duration of diabetes | \n\t\t
Poor glycaemic control | \n\t\t
Hyperlipidaemia | \n\t\t
Hypertension | \n\t\t
Pregnancy | \n\t\t
Recognised risk factors associated with diabetic retinopathy
Type 1 diabetic patients are at substantially higher risk than type 2, which is independent of the duration of the disease process[100, 101]. Both severity and prevalence increase with age in the former group but not the later.
A clear correlation exists between diabetic retinopathy and disease duration[ 1]. This risk factor has influenced the formation of guidelines for early examination of suspected patients to decrease disease progression. In two studies [100, 102] evidence was shown that after 15 years retinopathy would be present in virtually all type 1 diabetics and up to 75% of type 2 diabetics, with 2% becoming blind and up to 10% developing severe visual impairment. Puberty is now an accepted risk factor for retinopathy in type 1 diabetes, due to the acceleration of microvascular compromise as a result of physiological changes post puberty [103]. One study found that younger post-menarchal subjects were up to 3.2 times more likely to develop retinopathy, in comparison to pre-menarchal subjects[104]. Subjects older than 13 years at the time of diagnosis were more likely to suffer from retinopathy, than those younger. A four year follow-up also showed that the same post-menarchal had greater progression of their retinopathy than pre-menarchal (P=0.06). While the exact mechanism is not known, hormonal factors have been speculated to play a part.
The relationship between glycaemic control and onset/progression of diabetic retinopathy is well documented. Intensive metabolic control has shown a decreased in diabetic related complications [105]. Studies such as the Early Treatment of Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) and Diabetes Control and Complication Trial (DCCT)[13] show that risk of progression is reduced with aggressive glycaemic control. Glycosylated haemoglobin levels have shown a relationship with the severity of proliferative diabetic retinopathy[106]. However, while glycosylated haemoglobin remains a formidable risk factor, it only accounted for 11% of all risks for retinopathy in DCCT [107].
Association of hyperlipidaemia and diabetes is well documented [108]. A statistically significant association between elevated serum total cholesterol and low density lipoprotein cholesterol and the severity of retinal hard exudation in patients with diabetic retinopathy was confirmed by the ETDRS group and the Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy (WESDR) found [109]. As reported by Chew found patients with serum cholesterol level more than 240mg/dl were twice as likely to have more hard exudates as those patients with serum cholesterol level 200 mg/dl [110].
A major risk factor of cardiovascular disease in diabetics is hypertension. An age-adjusted 82% increase in risk of diabetes-related death is thought to come from this risk factor alone.[111] This is accorded with the theory that increased blood pressure is implicated in the onset of diabetic retinopathy [112, 113]. The UK Prospective Diabetic Study (UKPDS) showed that tight blood pressure control (144/82 vs 155/87) was associated with a 34% reduction in retinopathy with a 47% reduction in deterioration of visual acuity of three lines [14]. The use of angiotensin-converting-enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and their role in directly affecting the progression of retinopathy (as opposed to their therapeutic effects in hypertension) was the subject of much debate. ACE inhibitors were found to be associated with reduced levels of vascular endothelial growth factor in diabetic retinopathy patients[114]. However in the UKDPS group demonstrated an overall reduction of blood pressure was proven to be effective in slowing down the progression of retinopathy, rather than the type of antihypertensive drug used [115]. More recently, the ‘
Many studies have concluded that diabetic women in pregnancy have a substantial risk of worsening their retinopathy [116, 117] although resolution of ocular changes in post-partum period is reported [116, 118]. Studies by Phelps et al [119] and the Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study (DIEP) group [120] concluded that retinopathy was most likely to progress in those who had the poorest control at baseline. DIEP also found that a disease duration of more than 15 years and severity of existing retinopathy were the most important factors in the development and progression of retinopathy in pregnancy. Type 1 diabetic women are most at risk and should be undergo an ophthalmic examination prior to pregnancy and counselled on good glycaemic control. The exact mechanism of progressive retinopathy in pregnant diabetic woman is the subject of much debate. Factors thought to be involved include duration of diabetes, co-existing hypertension, poor glycaemic control and its rapid normalisation during pregnancy [121].
Microaneurysms are out-pouchings of the capillary wall that form by either focal dilatation of the capillary wall in the absence of pericytes, or fusion of the two arms of a capillary loop. Clinically these are seen as tiny red dots. Retinal haemorrhages are divided into intraretinal, retinal nerve fibre layer and deeper dark round haemorrhages. Intraretinal haemorrhages are located in the middle layers of the retina and give rise to dot/blot configuration. Retinal nerve fibre layer haemorrhages are flame-shaped and arise from larger superficial pre-capillary arterioles. Deeper dark round haemorrhages represent retinal infarcts within the middle layers and are marker for progression to retinal neovascularisation. Cotton wool spots result from nerve fibre layer infarcts. Axon disruption causes accumulation of neuronal debris in the nerve fibre layer. Clinically these are seen as small fluffy lesions that can obscure underlying blood vessels. Exudates are composed of lipoprotein and lipid-filled macrophages located within the outerplexiform layer. They are seen as waxy yellow lesions with relatively distinct margins. They tend to progress as retinopathy worsens and can affect the macula resulting in macular oedema. Exudates reabsorb spontaneously when leakage ceases over a period of months. Venous changes include beading of blood vessels, tortuosity, and focal narrowing with dilatation called ‘beading’. The extent of venous change correlates well with the proliferative change. IRMA, or intraretinal microvascular abnormalities are arteriolar venous shunts that run from retinal arterioles to venules. They bypass capillary beds and are seen in areas of capillary hypoperfusion. Arteriolar narrowing often can be marker for ischaemic dysfunction. Proliferative retinopathy is seen as new preretinal vessels that may arise at the optic disc or elsewhere in the retina or iris. There are fine fragile vessels that can develop fibrous tissue over time.
Diabetic macula oedema is one of or a combination of focal, diffuse or ischaemia. It is the main reason for visual impairment and represents foveal oedema, exudates or ischaemia. Focal maculopathy has retinal thickening and exudates. Fluoroscein angiogram shows late focal hypofluorescence from leakage. Diffuse maculopathy can be associated with cystoids changes and diffuse retinal thickening. Fluoroscein angiogram shows late hypofluorescence with a flower petal pattern if cystoids macula oedema is present. Ischaemic maculopathy often has a relatively normal looking macula in the presence of reduced visual acuity. Fluoroscein angiogram shows non-perfusion and an enlarged foveal avascular zone.
Microaneurysms at the macular and blot haemorrhages temporally
Exudates and microaneurysms at the macula, blot haemorrhages at the arcades, new vessels on the disc and cotton wool spots, IRMA and venous beading supoertemporally.
New vessels on disc and elsewhere inferotemporally
Diabetic retinopathy classification is based on who is classifying the disease. One approach has been for screening and one is based on grading severity in the context of ophthalmic signs. There are different screening systems in different parts of the developed world. In the UK, the English National Screening Criteria[122] is used to merit ophthalmological referral, seen in the table below. Two commonly used classification systems for classification in the context of ophthalmic signs are the Airlie House Classification [123] and the international (AAO) classification [124]. There are similarities and overlap in both. For the purpose of this chapter we will focus on the Airlie House classification.
The Airlie House classification was the original classification that has subsequently undergone modification in the Early Treatment of Diabetic Retinopathy Study (EDTRS)[125] aimed at grading retinopathy in the context of ophthalmic signs. EDTRS was first developed in 1997, but has undergone change and development for countries without significant screening and programmes and for the purpose of research. The sight threatening risk of diabetic retinopathy was incorporated into the later clinical grading system. Broadly this incorporates low risk non-proliferative retinopathy (3 substages), severe non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy, proliferative retinopathy and the presence of macula oedema.
Below is based on the Airlie House classification:
Mild Nonproliferative Diabetic Retinopathy (NPDR): At least one microaneurysm
Moderate NPDR: Severe retinal haemorrhages in at least one quadrant, cotton wool spots, venous beading or IRMA.
Severe NPDR: Severe retinal haemorrhages in four quadrants or venous beading in two quadrants; or extensive IRMA in one quadrant
Proliferative diabetic retinopathy: based on location and risk
Location: new vessels at disc (NVD) or elsewhere (NVE)
Risk: Low risk where neovascularisation of the optic disc is less than one-quarter to a third of the disc area with no vitreous haemorrhage.
High risk: mild NVD with vitreous haemorrhage.
Moderate to severe NVD (one quarter to a third disc areas)
New vessels elsewhere more than one half disc areas with vitreous haemorrhage.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Retinopathy grade | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
R0 | \n\t\t\tNo retinopathy | \n\t\t
R1 | \n\t\t\tRetinal microaneurysms, haemorrhages and or exudates not within the definition of maculopathy | \n\t\t
R2 | \n\t\t\t(Pre-proliferative) venous beading, venous loop or IRMA, dot or blot haemorrhages and cotton wool spots | \n\t\t
R3 | \n\t\t\tProliferative: NVD, NVE or pre-retinal or vitreous haemorrhage, pre-retinal fibrosis and tractional retinal detachment | \n\t\t
M0 | \n\t\t\tNo maculopathy | \n\t\t
M1 | \n\t\t\tExudate within 1 disc diameter of fovea centre, or circinate exudates within the macula, or retinal thickening within 1 disc of fovea centre only if associated with vision of 6/12 or worse | \n\t\t
P | \n\t\t\tFocal/grid laser to macula or peripheral scatter | \n\t\t
U | \n\t\t\tUnobtainable | \n\t\t
The English National Screenin Committee Guidelines
Maculopathy
Focal: Well circumscribed areas of leakage with oedema and exudates, that may surround microaneurysms
Diffuse: Generalised leaking with oedema
Ischaemic: Reduced visual acuity with relatively normal clinical appearance but macula ischaemia on FFA.
Mixed: A combination of the above
Clinical significant macula oedema (CSMO)
Retinal thickening at or within 500μm of the centre of the macula
Hard exudates at or within 500μ of the centre of the macula if associated with adjacent retinal thickening
Retinal thickening of > 1 disc area any part of which is within one disc diameter of the centre of the macula.
More recently the terms centre involving and non-centre involving macula oedema have been used.
Diabetes Mellitus is a complex disease requiring a multidisciplinary approach. The systemic investigations requested for a patient identified with ocular manifestations of the disease may provide valuable information regarding other organ systems affected which are not yet clinically apparent. Some of the general investigations below may be requested by an ophthalmologist depending on the local health setting but require referral for result interpretation and subsequent management by diabetologist colleagues.
The Diabetes Control and Complication Trial (DCCT) [126] and subsequent follow-up study, Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications (EDIC), highlighted that the effect of good glycaemic control on progression of retinopathy is significant and persists for at least 10 years. Due to the 8-12 week turnover of erythrocytes the glycosylated haemoglobin molecule is a more useful marker of glucose control than a random blood glucose measurement.
Recent studies [127] have identified the importance of cholesterol lowering medications to both treatment naïve and previously treated hypercholestrolaemic type 2 diabetics in reducing the risk of clinically significant macular edema (CSME), and diabetic retinopathy progression[127, 128]. Fasting lipids should therefore be requested in new patients.
Diabetic nephropathy is an important consequence of microvascular disease and all patients should be screened for any renal dysfunction.
Various clinical studies have looked at retinopathy clusters in families with type 1 diabetes. Genetic studies have analysed risk genes for retinopathy [The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group, 1997][126]. No study has provided an evidence base for genetic testing in diabetic patients to predict the rate of retinopathy progression and therefore genetic testing is not currently recommended for routine practice.
Patients should be referred to a physician for investigation of all modifiable risk factors including blood pressure and smoking cessation, both known to contribute to the rate of diabetic retinopathy progression. [Gaede
Fundus photography provides a useful photographic record of the posterior pole and is useful in the Diabetic Screening Programme, but relies on 2-dimensional surrogate markers of macular thickening since it cannot quantify actual thickening.
Optical Coherence Tomography is a non-invasive imaging technique which is non-contact and facilitates high resolution cross-sectional imaging of the anterior segment, vitreous, retina and optic nerve head. Rather than the sound waves of B-scan ultrasonography, OCT uses light interferometry (near-infrared) to interpret the interference patterns of wave superposition.
OCT is useful is very sensitive in detecting change in macula thickness and therefore useful in the diagnosis of diabetic macula oedema. It is also able to identify the loss of ganglion cells in the retina, which precedes vascular changes. Because OCT gives a quantitative measure of retinal thickness it is critical in monitoring retinal thickness in response to treatment e.g. Macula laser or Anti-VEGF agents.
Different tissue reflectivities are depicted by different colours; red denotes high reflectivity, green-yellow intermediate reflectivity and blue-black low reflectivity. In addition to numerical measures of retinal thickness a topographical map is created which is colour coded according to thickness.
Fundus Fluorescein Angiography involves the injection of an orange water-soluble dye; sodium fluorescein into the systemic circulation. It remains predominantly intravascular and is fluorescent; i.e. it emits light of a longer wavelength when stimulated by light of a lower wavelength. After intravenous injection, fundus photography is performed in a rapid sequence. Blue filtered light is absorbed by the molecule as it enters the retinal circulation and in turn emits yellow-green light.
The FFA image maps the retinal vasculature and the structural and functional integrity of the vessels.
Normally 10-15 seconds elapse between dye injection and arrival of the dye in the short ciliary arteries. Choroidal circulation precedes retinal circulation by 1 second. Transit of dye through the retinal circulation takes approximately 15 to 20 seconds.
The normal angiogram can be divided into five phases
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Below images are taken from clinical practice for common diabetic pathology (Images kindly provided by Mr Jignesh Patel, Essex County Hospital, Colchester).
The management of diabetic retinopathy involves a multidisciplinary approach with involvement of the ophthalmologist, physician and dietician. The underlying diabetes and risk factors should be managed concurrently with the ocular complications of diabetes.
Tight glycaemic control reduces the incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT)[131] showed that in type 1 diabetics effective glycaemic control reduced the incidence of diabetic retinopathy by 76% and progression of diabetic retinopathy by 54%. Similarly the United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS)[132] reported reduced microvascular complication, by 25% and the need for laser photocoagulation by 29% in type 2 diabetics.
The current British Hypertension Society guidelines define hypertension as systolic blood pressure ≥ 140mmHg and/ or diastolic blood pressure ≥ to 90mmHg [133]. In diabetes treatment targets should be systolic level <130 mm Hg and diastolic <80 mm Hg. Lower levels may be required for younger patients with Type 1 diabetes and microvascular complications. In this group of patients treatment with ACE inhibitors resulted in a 50% reduction in the progression of retinopathy and progression to proliferative diabetic retinopathy by 80% in the EURODIAB Controlled Trial of Lisinopril in Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (EUCLID) trial [134]. Type 2 diabetics in the UKPDS study showed that tight BP control prevented the progression of retinopathy. The beneficial effects of anti-hypertensive medication are immediate on commencing treatment, however the effects wear off as soon as control is lost. It is imperative therefore that blood pressure is measured at every clinical visit.
Observational studies suggest that dyslipideamia increases the risk of diabetic retinopathy particularly diabetic macula oedema[135, 136].
In the Fenofibrate Intervention and Event Lowering in Diabetes (FIELD) study [137], type 2 diabetic patients were treated with fenofibrate. Those patients treated with fenofibrate were less likely than controls to need laser treatment (5.2% vs 3.6%, p<0.001).
In type 1 diabetes smoking increases the risk of diabetic retinopathy, nephropathy and neuropathy. Discontinuation of smoking is recommended for reducing the development of other complications of diabetes especially cardiovascular disease.
Diabetic macula oedema is the most common cause for visual impairment particularly in type 2 diabetic patients. The management of clinically significant macula oedema depends on whether there is evidence of central macular thickening or vitreomacular traction. There are a wide variety of new treatments available currently some licensed and some unlicensed. A summary guideline as to the use of these treatments and their indications are summarized in Table 3.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
No | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | Either | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | Focal/Grid laser | \n\t\t
Yes | \n\t\t\tNormal or "/>78 letters | \n\tEither | \n\t\n\t | Focal/Grid laser/Observation if lesions too close to fovea | \n
Yes | \n\t78-24 letters or symptomatic | \n\tPhakic | \n\t≥ 250 microns | \n\tIntravitreal anti- VEGF with or without laser. If unresponsive consider flucinolone implant. | \n
Yes | \n\t78-24 letters | \n\tPseudophakic | \n\t≥250 microns | \n\tIntravitreal anti- VEGF or intravitreal triamcinolone preservative free with or without laser. If unresponsive consider flucinolone implant. | \n
Yes | \n\t<24 letters | \n\tPseudophakic | \n\t≥250 microns | \n\tObservation especially if long standing or unrepsonsive to laser. Consider macula ischaemia. Otherwise consider anti-VEGF or intravitreal steroid | \n
Yes | \n\t\n\t | Either | \n\tVitreomacular traction | \n\tConsider vitrectomy with or without adjunctive intravitreal anti-VEGF or steroid treatment | \n
Table for management of CMO in Royal College of Ophthalmology
Management of diabetic maculopathy. Adapted from Royal College of Ophthalmologists. Diabetic Retinopathy Guidelines December 2012 (19)
There is a strong evidence from the Early treatment of Diabetic retinopathy Study that focal and grid laser photocoagulation for clinically significant macula oedema reduces the chance of moderate vision loss (3 ETDRS lines) by 50%, (from 24% for the control group to 12% for the treatment group) at 3 years [19].
It is important to perform a fundus fluorescein angiography prior to treatment to delineate the area of leakage and identify areas of macula ischaemia. In focal maculopathy, focal laser treatment burns are applied directly to microaneurysms and and microvascular lesions in the centre of rings of exudates located 500-3000 microns from the centre of the macula. The spot size is 50-100 microns and exposure time 0.1 second with sufficient power to obtain gentle whitening or darkening of the microaneurysm. In macula grid laser treatment burns are applied to areas of diffuse retinal thickening more than 500 microns from the centre of the macula and 500 microns from the temporal margin of the optic disc. The spot size is 100 microns and exposure time 0.1 sec giving a very light intensity burn. Treatment should be lighter if significant macular ischaemia is present.
In addition to argon laser treatment two other forms of laser treatment frequency-doubled Nd:YAG laser and micropulse laser are available for the treatment of macula oedema which reduce the degree of retinal collateral thermal damage. The ‘Pattern Scan Laser’ (Pascal) uses frequency –doubled micropulse YAG in single shot mode or in a predetermined array of upto 56 shots applied in less than a second. This not only reduces the potential destructive retinal effect but allows the operator to apply multiple spots simultaneously with a single foot pedal depression.
Using a micropulse mode laser, energy is delivered with a train of repetitive short pulses, micropulse power as low as 10%-25% of the visible threshold power has been demonstrated to be sufficient to show RPE-confined photothermal effect.
Multiple studies have demonstrated the benefit of the anti-VEGF agents including pegaptanib, ranibizumab and bevacizumab for the treatment of central involving diabetic macula oedema. A large multicenter trial DRCRnet(The Diabetic Retinopathy Research Network Laser-Ranibizumab-Triamcinolone Study)[138] showed that intravitreal injection of 0.5mg ranibizumab initially given monthly for 3 months with prompt or deferred (≥ 24 weeks) macular laser had significantly superior visual and OCT outcomes to laser alone in eyes with diabetic macula oedema involving the fovea.
The READ-2 (Ranibizumab for oedema of macula in diabetes) [139], RESOLVE (Safety and Efficacy of Ranibizumab in diabetic macula oedema) [140], RESTORE (Ranibizumab monotherapy or combined with laser versus laser monotherapy for diabetic macula oedema) [141], and BOLT (Bevacizumab or Laser therapy)[142] studies have all demonstrated that centre-involving macula oedema should be considered for treatment with a VEGF inhibitor alone or in conjunction with focal laser.
Ranibizumab is now licensed for use in the European Union for the treatment of centre involving diabetic macula oedema and NICE have approved its use in patients with a central retinal thickness of ≥ 400 microns on OCT.
The Da VINCI trial (14) evaluated the safety and efficacy of intravitreal aflibercept for diabetic macula oedema. Four treatment regimes were studied versus laser positive results have been reported at 1 year with aflibercept. The maximum letters gain with aflibercept has been 13.1 letters vs 1.3 letters in the laser treated group. It is expected that this treatment will be licensed for Diabetic retinopathy in 2014.
DRCRnet[138] study found that in pseudophakic eyes intravitreal triamcinolone injection followed by prompt laser may be as effective as ranibizumab at improving vision and reducing retinal thickening. However, there was a significant risk of an elevation of intraocular pressure. No corresponding visual benefit above laser was shown for phakic eyes, which also has had a substantially increased rate of cataract surgery by two years.
Flucinolone acetonide is a non-biodegradable intravitreal insert (Illuvein) with sustained release flucinolone and is licensed for use in the UK for chronic diabetic macula oedema unresponsive to other treatment options but it is not yet approved by NICE. Studies have shown that IIluvein can provide treatment benefit for three years-the best corrected visual acuity showed an improvement of 15 or more letters in 28.7% of the low dose group vs 16.2% in controls[144]. The longer acting nature is advantageous in that the patient would not require monthly injections as is the case with the anti-VEGFs. However there is a greater chance of development of cataract and raised intraocular pressure.
A vitrectomy with or without ILM peel may be indicated when macular oedema with or without ischaemia is associated with tangential traction from a thickened and taut posterior hyaloid. Often the oedema is unresponsive to laser and optical coherence tomography scanning may show vitreomacular traction.
This is indicated in the presence of new vessels at the optic disc, iris, angle or elsewhere with or without associated vitreous haemorrhage. Where possible PRP laser treatment should be initiated on the same day and maximum within 2 weeks.
PRP laser treatment should be applied as far peripheral as possible using the laser contact lens up to the ora serrata as the main areas of retinal ischaemia exist in the far peripheral retina. The laser settings depend on the type of lens that is used. With a Goldmann lens the spot size is set at 200-500 microns but with a panfundsocopic-type lens it is set at 100-300 microns. The burn duration should be set between 0.05-0.1 seconds and the power should be sufficient to produce only a light intensity burn.
Initial treatment involves 1500-2000 burns in a scatter pattern extending from the posterior fundus to cover the peripheral retina in one or more sessions. PRP completed in one session carries a higher risk of complications and therefore treatment should be staggered. The number of burns recommended is dependent on the stage of PDR ; early PDR 1200-1800 burns, in moderate PDR 2000-2500 burns and in severe PDR 3000 burns.
The Diabetic Retinopathy Study[145] found that the risk of severe visual loss (5/200) was reduced by 50% in the “high-risk” group treated with PRP. Patients with early proliferative diabetic retinopathy were evaluated in the ETDRS study. In this group PRP decreased the risk of patients developing high risk characteristics by 50%.
The main side effects of PRP laser treatment is the progression or development of diabetic macula oedema, vitreous haemorrhage, tractional retinal detachment, loss of night vision and constricted peripheral visual fields. Vision loss within 6 weeks of treatment has also been reported in 10-23% of patients compared with 6 % of controls.
VEGF is implicated in the development of retinal neovascularization. Intravitreal anti-VEGF is likely to have an increasing role in the treatment of proliferative diabetic retinopathy, probably as an adjunct to laser. Anti-VEGFS can also be used in the setting of proliferative diabetic retinopathy and vitreous haemorrhage to facilitate sufficient clearing of the haemorrhage and allow administration of PRP.
Indications for pars plana vitrectomy are listed below:
Severe persistent vitreous haemorrhage
The surgical goal is to remove the vitreous opacity through a 3 port pars plana vitrectomy. The posterior hyaloid face should be removed as this provides a scaffold for fibrovascular proliferation. The Diabetic Retinopathy Vitrectomy Study (DRVS)[146] 2 year results demonstrate that in eyes with central vitreous haemorrhage that reduced acuity to 50/200 or less for at least a month, vitrectomy carried out before 6 months resulted in an increase in the number of eyes achieving 20/40 or better acuity compared with eyes in which vitrectomy was deferred to a year. Patients with vitreous haemorrhage should be monitored weekly to ensure early detection of retinal detachment.
Type 2 diabetics are less likely to have severe proliferative retinopathy, however there is a growing trend to operate within 3 months as opposed to deferred surgery in both type 1 and type 2 diabetics.
Tractional retinal detachment
Tractional retinal detachment recently involving or imminently threatening the fovea is another common indication for surgery. Progressive traction produces a retinal break usually posterior to the equator and near an area of fibrous proliferation. These detachments progress quickly and usually result in a worse prognosis. Fibrovascular tissue proliferation and contraction attached to multiple retinal foci results in macular distortion (heterotropia) or tractional detachment.
Combined tractional/rhegmatogenous retinal detachments
These should be treated urgently even if the macula is not involved as subretinal fluid is likely to spread quickly and involve the macula.
Premacular subhyaloid haemorrhage
If dense and persistent should be considered for vitrectomy because if untreated the internal limiting membrane or posterior hyaloid face may serve as a scaffold for subsequent fibrovascular proliferation and consequent tractional macular detachment or macular epiretinal membrane formation.
Ghost Cell Glaucoma
Vitrectomy has also been shown in case series to be of benefit when there is ghost cell glaucoma [147]. Raised intraocular pressure may be caused by partially lysed red cells (erthyroclasts) particularly in eyes with a disrupted anterior hyaloid face after previous vitrectomy for vitreous haemorrhage or in aphakic eyes with vitreous haemorrhage.
This occurs in eyes with severe retinal ischaemia or persistent retinal detachment. New vessels on the iris should be treated with PRP laser to induce regression of these vessels.
Current practice for new vessels on the iris and at the angle includes full PRP and an intravitreal anti-VEGF injection to prevent the progression to neovascular glaucoma. Treatment for neovascular glaucoma include cycloablative procedures, trabeculectomy with anti-proliferatives and implantation of a drainage tube.
Eyes that have become blind from neovascular glaucoma should be kept comfortable with topical steroids and atropine.
The global pandemic of diabetes means that retinopathy and associated visual difficulties are an ongoing problem. Further research is needed into the impact of diabetes on the neurovascular unit to facilitate greater understanding of pathophysiology. Improved screening and outcomes of treatment in developed countries mean vision can be maintained for longer. Ideally however, socioeconomic barriers need to be overcome to facilitate translational research to all parts of the world, including poorer areas. Most importantly, education on risk factors and tight glycaemic control are paramount to help prevent visual problems occurring.
The demand for switching converters has been steadily increasing. The desired converters should be small and have high power density, high efficiency, good responsiveness, and good robustness. High responsiveness and high robustness are required for the control systems of switching converters. Voltage mode control (VMC) is the most basic control system of switching converters [1, 2]. Since the voltage mode control uses only one voltage sensor, it can be constructed at very low cost. However, since the stability of the control system is low, current mode control (CMC) is used for a general switching converter [3, 4]. Some studies suggest that responsiveness and robustness can be significantly improved using the current mode control (CMC) approach [1, 2, 3, 4]. However, it is difficult to improve the performance of boost-type DC-DC converters significantly using only this technology. Although buck-type DC-DC converters can be regarded as approximately linear circuits (regardless of the time-varying circuit), this is not so for boost-type DC-DC converters. This is because in boost-type DC-DC converters, the ON and OFF circuit states are different. As a result, the transfer function of any boost-type DC-DC converter includes an unstable zero (right half plane zero (
On the other hand, control of switching converter using sliding mode control (SMC) has been studied [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Sliding mode control has high robustness and is resistant to influences by plant fluctuations. However, the control system has a problem that it is very complicated compared with VMC and CMC.
In this research, we developed power balance mode control (PBMC), which is a new control method that incorporates SMC concept into CMC [10]. In the PBMC approach, the input voltage and the output current are incorporated into the control system as in the conventional control method, and new control items are added by calculation. As a result, the performance of the control system can be greatly improved, when compared with the conventional control method. Furthermore, since the added control items are constituted by four arithmetic operations, implementation is also very easy.
In this study, a single-phase boost-type DC-DC converter was used as a plant. Figure 1 shows the circuit diagram of the plant. To obtain the transfer function of this plant, a modeling method called the state-space averaging method was used. In this section, various transfer functions used for designing the control system of the DC-DC converter are described.
Single-phase boost-type DC-DC converter.
The switching converter is a time-varying circuit in which the state of the circuit can be set to either ON or OFF. Therefore, the state-space averaging method [11, 12, 13], which averages the circuit by a duty ratio, was used. The derivation for obtaining the transfer function of the switching converter using the state-space averaging method is shown below.
For circuit averaging, it is necessary to determine the circuit’s ON/OFF states. When mathematically modeling the state of a circuit, the state equation and the following output equation are used:
where
With respect to the circuit shown in Figure 2, the state equation and the output equation are expressed using the following equations:
Equivalent circuits for the ON and OFF states. (a) Switch Q1: ON; (b) switch Q1: OFF.
In Eq. (2), the inductor current and capacitor voltage comprise the state vector, while the input voltage and the output current comprise the input vector. Figure 2 shows the equivalent circuit for the ON and OFF states of the switch Q1.
When the state of a circuit is averaged over one switching period using the duty ratio, the state equation and the output equation are given as follows:
Here
where
Because the switching converter is controlled by the pulse width modulation (PWM) signal corresponding to the duty ratio, it is necessary to modulate the control signal from the compensator to the PWM signal. Figure 3 shows the correspondence between the control signal and the PWM signal. In an analog circuit, a comparator is used for comparing the control signal
PWM modulation
From Eq. (5), when the amplitude of the sawtooth wave is
When current and voltage are used for feedback directly, the sensor gain can be neglected. However, when the voltage is high, it is necessary to lower it to the voltage value that can be provided to the controller. In addition, when inputting the current value to the controller, it is necessary to convert it into voltage. Therefore, when designing a control system, it is necessary to consider various sensor gains. In this chapter, the voltage gain is denoted by
In this section, voltage mode control (VMC) and current mode control (CMC) are compared to the power balance mode control (PBMC).
Figure 4 shows the block diagram of the VMC. As shown, the control loop is configured to maintain a constant output voltage. The loop transfer function
Voltage mode control.
However, there is a long phase lag due to the second-order lag system 1/
In addition, there is a gain peak owing to the LC resonance. As a result, large overshoots or undershoots can occur in the inductor current and the output voltage following sudden changes such as load changes. In particular, the peak inductor current is remarkable, and when the overcurrent protection (OCP) operates, the DC-DC converter halts. For these reasons, VMC is typically not used in DC-DC converters.
Figure 5 shows the block diagram of the CMC. In the CMC, a control loop is added to the voltage control loop. The loop transfer function
Current mode control.
From Eq. (7), the second-order lag system 1/
In this section, the sliding mode control (SMC) of the buck-type DC-DC converter and the power balance mode control (PBMC) applied to the boost-type DC-DC converter are explained.
The SMC in the buck-type DC-DC converter, which is the foundation of the PBMC, is described here. Figure 6 shows the block diagram of the SMC. One of the SMCs in the buck-type DC-DC converter is the feedforward input of the charge/discharge current of the output capacitor to the output signal of the voltage compensator. For this reason, the voltage compensator adjusts the duty ratio and finely adjusts it with the charge/discharge current of the output capacitor.
Buck-type DC-DC converter using sliding mode control.
In the steady state, the amounts of charge and discharge are equivalent, and the feedforward input can be neglected. In the transient state, the amounts of charge and discharge are different, and the feedforward input directly adjusts the duty ratio.
Because the CMC also feeds back the inductor current, the duty ratio is finely adjusted. However, in the transient state, the inductor suppresses sudden changes in the current, and the system’s responsiveness worsens.
On the other hand, when the charge/discharge current of the output capacitor is used as the feedforward input, the charge/discharge current in the transient state rapidly changes depending on the capacitor. As a result, the duty ratio can be changed faster than for the CMC. Furthermore, when shifting from the transient state to the steady state, the average charge/discharge current becomes zero, and the influence of the feedforward input automatically decreases. Therefore, the feedforward input gain automatically becomes minimal during the transient and in the steady state.
In addition, by appropriately designing the various sensor gains and compensators of this control system, it is possible to set an operation state called the sliding mode. It is known that the control system operating in this sliding mode is not affected by disturbances or plant fluctuations. Therefore, responsiveness and robustness can be improved by operating in sliding mode.
Although this output capacitor current can be detected directly, equivalent series resistance (ESR) and equivalent series inductance (ESL) increase owing to the addition of a shunt resistance and a current transformer, which affects the control system and output voltage. In addition, in digital control systems, analog-to-digital conversion cannot be performed precisely owing to an increase in the noise associated with charging/discharging. On the other hand, it is possible to derive the charge/discharge current of the output capacitor without directly detecting it, by appropriately detecting the output current and the inductor current and performing the calculation. However, as the inductor current of the boost-type DC-DC converter flows only to the output side during the OFF period, the output current differs from the inductor current.
Therefore, it is necessary to consider the control system corresponding to the step-up-type DC-DC converter considering output capacitor current detection and digital control. In the next section, we describe the PBMC with improved responsiveness and robustness for boost-type DC-DC converters.
Figure 7 shows the block diagram of the PBMC. First, various blocks are described.
Power balance mode control.
In addition,
As a result, all output signals of the correction coefficients’ block can be considered as the values for the power stage.
First, when the detected output voltage and output current are fed into the multiplier, the output is expressed by Eq. (9).
Thus, the output power can be calculated. Next, when the calculated output power and the detected input voltage are provided to the divider, the output is expressed by Eq. (10).
Thus, the input current can be calculated. Because the input current of the boost-type DC-DC converter is equivalent to the inductor current, it is denoted by
The flowchart of the control methods.
In this mode, the calculated inductor current
As a result, the signal to be added to the output signal of the voltage compensator becomes positive and the duty ratio increases.
In this mode, the calculated inductor current
As a result, the signal to be added to the output signal of the voltage compensator becomes negative and the duty ratio decreases.
In this mode, the calculated inductor current is equal to the detected inductor current. This corresponds to a steady state, and because the input and output powers are ideally equal, the following relation holds:
As a result, as the signal to be added to the output signal of the voltage compensator becomes zero, the duty ratio does not fluctuate.
These conditions are summarized in Eq. (14).
To sum up, the PBMC is a control method that always compares the input power and the output power and compensates for the difference if there is one. In the next sections, operation verification studies for the different control methods are reported.
In this study, a comparative verification of the different control systems was performed using circuit simulations. Table 1 shows the circuit constants of the single-phase boost-type DC-DC converter, which is the analysis circuit. The control systems were constructed using these circuit parameters.
Description | Symbol | Value |
---|---|---|
Inductor current (100 W design) | 8.33 A | |
Output voltage | 48 V | |
Output power | 100/200 W | |
Switching frequency | 100 kHz | |
Inductance (100 W design) | 36 μH | |
Output capacitance (100 W design) | 500 μH | |
Equivalent series resistance (ESR) of | 58.5 mΩ | |
DC resistance of | 20 mΩ | |
Resistance of drain to source (ON) of Q1 | 58 mΩ | |
Forward resistance of Q1 (diode: D) | 130 mΩ |
Circuit parameters and specifications.
To provide a reference for the responses of these control systems, the gain crossover frequencies of the loop transfer functions for the different control methods were designed to be equal. In addition, the voltage compensator for the PBMC used the same 2-pole-1-zero (type-2) compensator as the current mode control.
The transfer function of the VMC includes second-order lag systems, as expressed by Eq. (4). In addition, the phase lags by 180° or more, owing to the RHP-zero. To improve the phase delay and to stabilize the operation of the control system, a 3-pole-2-zero (type-3) compensator was used. The transfer function of this 3-pole-2-zero compensator is given in Eq. (15).
A secondary delay system was included in both
where
In the PBMC, the difference between the calculated inductor current
Therefore, the voltage compensator used a 2-pole-1-zero compensator similar to the CMC. In our simulations, for simplicity, the values of the correction coefficients
Various parameters represented by capital letters on the right side of Eq. (17) are design values. As a result, the input/output voltage/current/power parameters were all 1 by design.
In this section, a comparative verification of each control system using circuit simulation is described. For the simulation, a circuit simulator PSIM manufactured by Powersim Corporation is used. Configure the configuration of the power stage and control stage using PSIM. The circuit constants of the power stage are shown in Table 1, and the parameters of the voltage compensator of the control stage are shown in Table 2 described later. In addition, each sensor gain and correction constants are as in Section 5.1.3.
Table 2 shows the compensators’ parameters for the different control methods. In addition, the gain crossover frequency of the loop transfer function was
Figure 9 shows the output voltage during load transient in each control method. Compared with CMC, over/undershoot of output voltage is small and settling time is short in PBMC. In particular, the settling time of the output voltage of the PBMC is very short compared with other control methods. Therefore, the PBMC can instantaneously respond to load fluctuations.
Output voltage responses for load transients. (a) Step-up load transient and (b) step-down load transient.
Figure 10 shows the inductor current during the load transient, for the different control methods. From Figure 10, the rise/fall time of the inductor current of the PBMC is very short compared with that of the other control methods. Because the rise/fall time of the inductor current of the PBMC is very short, the settling time of the output voltage becomes short. Although over/undershoots of the inductor current also appear in the PBMC, the outcome can be improved by appropriately setting the correction coefficient
Inductor current responses for load transients. (a) Step-up load transient and (b) step-down load transient.
Figure 11 shows the output voltage during the input voltage transient, for the different control methods. Compared with the other control methods, the over/undershoot of output voltage is smaller and the settling time is shorter for the PBMC method. Therefore, a system with PBMC can instantaneously respond to input voltage fluctuations.
Inductor current responses for input voltage transients. (a) Step-up input voltage transient and (b) step-down input voltage transient.
Figure 12 shows the inductor current during the input voltage transient, for the different control methods. From Figure 12, the rise/fall time of the inductor current for the PBMC method is much shorter compared with that of the other control methods. Because the rise/fall time of the inductor current for the PBMC method is very short, the settling time of the output voltage is short.
Inductor current responses for input voltage transients. (a) Step-up input voltage transient and (b) step-down input voltage transient.
The simulation results for the different control methods are compared below. Table 3 lists the simulation results for the load transient response, and Table 4 shows the simulation results for the input voltage transient response. The most efficient results are shown by *, while the least efficient ones are shown by **. From these tables, it is evident that the PBMC method yields the most efficient results in terms of almost all metrics, when compared with the other control systems. The effectiveness of the PBMC method is confirmed across all simulation results.
VMC | 35.3 | 1.86 × 103 | 1.86 × 103 | 4.00 × 104 | 3.42 × 104 |
CMC | 105.0 | 86.8 | – | 3.42 × 104 | – |
PBMC |
Compensator
Target value | Step-up transient | Step-down transient | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Undershoot (mV) | Settling time (ms) | Overshoot (mV) | Settling time (ms) | |
VMC | 0.77 | 0.78 | ||
CMC | 735.2 | |||
PBMC | 667.1 |
Simulation results for the load transient response.
Target value | Step-up transient | Step-down transient | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Overshoot (mV) | Settling time (ms) | Undershoot (mV) | Settling time (ms) | |
VMC | 3.86 | 3.96 | ||
CMC | 498.7 | 484.9 | ||
PBMC |
Simulation results for the input voltage transient response.
VMC method has only output components. Therefore, it is impossible to promptly respond to input fluctuations. Therefore, the overshoot and undershoot in the input voltage fluctuation are much larger than the other two control methods.
CMC method has input and output components one by one. However, even during transient, the settling time is long because it is always approximated to the first-order lag system.
PBMC method has all components of input and output. Therefore, it is thought that it be able to respond quickly to input/output fluctuations.
This chapter described fast-response and highly robust PBMC for boost-type DC-DC converters. PBMC uses control to compensate for the difference between input power and output power for the inner loop. Performances of the PBMC method and conventional control methods were compared and verified using circuit simulations. As a result, the PBMC method yielded the best results on all performance metrics. This confirms the effectiveness of PBMC.
IntechOpen books and journals are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter/article level.
",metaTitle:"Access policy",metaDescription:"IntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"All IntechOpen published chapters and articles are available OPEN ACCESS and can be read without the requirement for registration of any kind, immediately upon publication, without any barrier.
\\n\\nThe HTML version, as well as the PDF version of publications dated before 2012 that are accessible through a reader, are available to readers with no restriction.
\\n\\nThe full content of chapters and articles can be read, copied and printed from the link location of the chapter/article and these actions are not limited or restricted in any way.
\\n\\nRegistration is requested only to download the PDF of the chapter/article. There are no subscription fees and there is no charge to user groups.
\\n\\nIntechOpen chapters and articles are distributed under CC BY 3.0 licences allowing users to “copy, use, distribute, transmit and display the work publicly and to make and distribute derivative works, in any digital medium for any responsible purpose, subject to proper attribution of authorship...” and there is no non-commercial restriction.
\\n\\nAuthors may post published works to any repository or website with no delay, and Authors and Editors of IntechOpen books have direct access to the PDF of the full book.
\\n\\nAll published content can be crawled for indexing. Full text and metadata may be accessed with instructions publicly posted.
\\n\\nAll IntechOpen books and Journal articles are indexed in CLOCKSS and preservation of access to published content is clearly indicated.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2022-04-14
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"All IntechOpen published chapters and articles are available OPEN ACCESS and can be read without the requirement for registration of any kind, immediately upon publication, without any barrier.
\n\nThe HTML version, as well as the PDF version of publications dated before 2012 that are accessible through a reader, are available to readers with no restriction.
\n\nThe full content of chapters and articles can be read, copied and printed from the link location of the chapter/article and these actions are not limited or restricted in any way.
\n\nRegistration is requested only to download the PDF of the chapter/article. There are no subscription fees and there is no charge to user groups.
\n\nIntechOpen chapters and articles are distributed under CC BY 3.0 licences allowing users to “copy, use, distribute, transmit and display the work publicly and to make and distribute derivative works, in any digital medium for any responsible purpose, subject to proper attribution of authorship...” and there is no non-commercial restriction.
\n\nAuthors may post published works to any repository or website with no delay, and Authors and Editors of IntechOpen books have direct access to the PDF of the full book.
\n\nAll published content can be crawled for indexing. Full text and metadata may be accessed with instructions publicly posted.
\n\nAll IntechOpen books and Journal articles are indexed in CLOCKSS and preservation of access to published content is clearly indicated.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2022-04-14
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6675},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5955},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2459},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12718},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1017},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17720}],offset:12,limit:12,total:134177},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"14"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11124",title:"Next-Generation Textiles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"093f9e26bb829b8d414d13626aea1086",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Hassan Ibrahim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11124.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11467",title:"Bismuth-Based Nanostructured Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"951c872d9d90e13cfe7d97c0af91845e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. William Wilson Anku",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11467.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"196465",title:"Dr.",name:"William Wilson",surname:"Anku",slug:"william-wilson-anku",fullName:"William Wilson Anku"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11483",title:"Magnetic Materials - Recent Advances and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9df995499c9e30ad3bc64368cde49ef4",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Dipti Ranjan Sahu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11483.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"251855",title:"Prof.",name:"Dipti Ranjan",surname:"Sahu",slug:"dipti-ranjan-sahu",fullName:"Dipti Ranjan Sahu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11485",title:"Wetting and Wettability - Fundamental and Applied Aspects",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"54b954378e0840f2317b2e94e6c467d6",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Volodymyr Shatokha",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11485.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"111000",title:"Dr.",name:"Volodymyr",surname:"Shatokha",slug:"volodymyr-shatokha",fullName:"Volodymyr Shatokha"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11758",title:"Glass-Ceramics - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e03ff7760e0aaea457f259ab63153846",slug:null,bookSignature:" Uday M. Basheer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11758.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"182041",title:null,name:"Uday",surname:"Basheer",slug:"uday-basheer",fullName:"Uday Basheer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11759",title:"Copper - From the Mineral to the Final Application",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"afea7aef1cb09fc3a1a5d619152d02a6",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Daniel Fernández González and Dr. Luis Felipe Verdeja González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11759.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"211395",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Fernández González",slug:"daniel-fernandez-gonzalez",fullName:"Daniel Fernández González"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11760",title:"Applications and Use of Diamond",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2edcf9a24450d8655e756e1080defe32",slug:null,bookSignature:"Mr. Evgeniy Lipatov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11760.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"21254",title:"Mr.",name:"Evgeniy",surname:"Lipatov",slug:"evgeniy-lipatov",fullName:"Evgeniy Lipatov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11761",title:"New Advances in Powder Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bd8063ae11e4fdd8626f5a095012c628",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Shashanka Rajendrachari and Dr. Baris Avar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11761.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"246025",title:"Dr.",name:"Shashanka",surname:"Rajendrachari",slug:"shashanka-rajendrachari",fullName:"Shashanka Rajendrachari"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11762",title:"Characteristics and Applications of Boron",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"611776f7f3cc9951a8956d2e3d535a8e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Chatchawal Wongchoosuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11762.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"34521",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Chatchawal",surname:"Wongchoosuk",slug:"chatchawal-wongchoosuk",fullName:"Chatchawal Wongchoosuk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11764",title:"Electrodeposition - Modern Methods and Recent Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"dd7b08197c3dcfef54b5e636795a67f7",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Keith J. Stine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11764.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"192643",title:"Prof.",name:"Keith J.",surname:"Stine",slug:"keith-j.-stine",fullName:"Keith J. Stine"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11765",title:"Pyrometallurgy - New Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b0ed96047d5aadd003e16ab2884bb2f6",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Swamini Chopra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11765.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"325912",title:"Dr.",name:"Swamini",surname:"Chopra",slug:"swamini-chopra",fullName:"Swamini Chopra"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11766",title:"Cast Iron - Production, Properties, Characterization, and Casting Defects Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"821766a37d38da743321864be6b2334a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Thoguluva Raghavan Vijayaram",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11766.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"139338",title:"Prof.",name:"Thoguluva",surname:"Vijayaram",slug:"thoguluva-vijayaram",fullName:"Thoguluva Vijayaram"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:38},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:23},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:65},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:116},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:4}],offset:12,limit:12,total:34},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11012",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals",subtitle:"Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9046d6f96148b285e776f384991120d",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-current-research-for-better-diagnosis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11012.jpg",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4431},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1677,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1337,editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1309,editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:847,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2273,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:591,editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:515,editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:413,editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2194,editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:341,editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"11043",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Treatments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7baf1c70b11d41400bb9302ae9411ca4",slug:"endometriosis-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-treatments",bookSignature:"Giovana Ap. Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11043.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"185930",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Giovana",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"giovana-goncalves",fullName:"Giovana Gonçalves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10536",title:"Campylobacter",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c4b132b741dd0a2ed539b824ab63965f",slug:"campylobacter",bookSignature:"Guillermo Tellez-Isaias and Saeed El-Ashram",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10536.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"73465",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Téllez",slug:"guillermo-tellez",fullName:"Guillermo Téllez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10798",title:"Starch",subtitle:"Evolution and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f197f6062c1574a9a90e50a369271bcf",slug:"starch-evolution-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11083",title:"Hazardous Waste Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d553bd4f6f1c4b115ca69bd19faac7dc",slug:"hazardous-waste-management",bookSignature:"Rajesh Banu Jeyakumar, Kavitha Sankarapandian and Yukesh Kannah Ravi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11083.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh Banu",middleName:null,surname:"Jeyakumar",slug:"rajesh-banu-jeyakumar",fullName:"Rajesh Banu Jeyakumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10848",title:"Tribology of Machine Elements",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3c4ca4c4692ca8d4fa749b4ae81ec1fa",slug:"tribology-of-machine-elements-fundamentals-and-applications",bookSignature:"Giuseppe Pintaude, Tiago Cousseau and Anna Rudawska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10848.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"18347",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Pintaude",slug:"giuseppe-pintaude",fullName:"Giuseppe Pintaude"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10856",title:"Crude Oil",subtitle:"New Technologies and Recent Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d0a7ca35b3de95b295dc4eab39a087e",slug:"crude-oil-new-technologies-and-recent-approaches",bookSignature:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf and Mohamed Hasan El-Keshawy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10856.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"102626",title:"Prof.",name:"Manar",middleName:null,surname:"Elsayed Abdel-Raouf",slug:"manar-elsayed-abdel-raouf",fullName:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9625",title:"Spinocerebellar Ataxia",subtitle:"Concepts, Particularities and Generalities",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"365a7025fd46eb45de2549bdd9d50b98",slug:"spinocerebellar-ataxia-concepts-particularities-and-generalities",bookSignature:"Patricia Bozzetto Ambrosi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9625.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"221787",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Bozzetto Ambrosi",slug:"patricia-bozzetto-ambrosi",fullName:"Patricia Bozzetto Ambrosi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10905",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"84ad5b27dde5f01dc76087d0fd6fa834",slug:"plant-defense-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Josphert Ngui Kimatu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"224171",title:"Prof.",name:"Josphert N.",middleName:null,surname:"Kimatu",slug:"josphert-n.-kimatu",fullName:"Josphert N. Kimatu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10686",title:"Natural Gas",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Future Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"581763788a6a59e653a9d1d9b5a42d79",slug:"natural-gas-new-perspectives-and-future-developments",bookSignature:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"2416",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Takht Ravanchi",slug:"maryam-takht-ravanchi",fullName:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10988",title:"Railway Transport Planning and Manageme",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5cb54cc53caedad9ec78372563c82e2c",slug:"railway-transport-planning-and-management",bookSignature:"Stefano de Luca, Roberta Di Pace and Chiara Fiori",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10988.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"271061",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"de Luca",slug:"stefano-de-luca",fullName:"Stefano de Luca"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"549",title:"Algorithm Analysis",slug:"computer-science-and-engineering-algorithm-analysis",parent:{id:"90",title:"Computer Science and Engineering",slug:"computer-science-and-engineering"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:13,numberOfWosCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:13,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"549",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"5966",title:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics",subtitle:"Principles and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"da699185a8b84a430d96d54bc35acdb2",slug:"heuristics-and-hyper-heuristics-principles-and-applications",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser Lorente",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5966.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"55554",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69225",title:"Hyper‐Heuristics and Metaheuristics for Selected Bio‐Inspired Combinatorial Optimization Problems",slug:"hyper-heuristics-and-metaheuristics-for-selected-bio-inspired-combinatorial-optimization-problems",totalDownloads:1583,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Many decision and optimization problems arising in bioinformatics field are time demanding, and several algorithms are designed to solve these problems or to improve their current best solution approach. Modeling and implementing a new heuristic algorithm may be time‐consuming but has strong motivations: on the one hand, even a small improvement of the new solution may be worth the long time spent on the construction of a new method; on the other hand, there are problems for which good‐enough solutions are acceptable which could be achieved at a much lower computational cost. In the first case, specially designed heuristics or metaheuristics are needed, while the latter hyper‐heuristics can be proposed. The paper will describe both approaches in different domain problems.",book:{id:"5966",slug:"heuristics-and-hyper-heuristics-principles-and-applications",title:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics",fullTitle:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Aleksandra Swiercz",authors:[{id:"203032",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Aleksandra",middleName:null,surname:"Swiercz",slug:"aleksandra-swiercz",fullName:"Aleksandra Swiercz"}]},{id:"55704",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69236",title:"Advanced Particle Filter Methods",slug:"advanced-particle-filter-methods",totalDownloads:1565,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"This chapter presents a set of algorithmic methods based on particle filter heuristics. We start with an introduction to particle filters, which covers the main motivation and related works. Then, the generic framework for particle filter algorithm is presented, followed by two important use cases regarding indoor positioning and multitarget tracking; for both problems, modified particle filter algorithms are presented followed by experimental results, implementation remarks, and a discussion. Finally, a short list of conclusion and future work are presented.",book:{id:"5966",slug:"heuristics-and-hyper-heuristics-principles-and-applications",title:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics",fullTitle:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Roi Yozevitch and Boaz Ben-Moshe",authors:[{id:"203049",title:"Prof.",name:"Boaz",middleName:null,surname:"Benmoshe",slug:"boaz-benmoshe",fullName:"Boaz Benmoshe"},{id:"203051",title:"Mr.",name:"Roi",middleName:null,surname:"Yozevitch",slug:"roi-yozevitch",fullName:"Roi Yozevitch"}]},{id:"56264",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69224",title:"Heuristics Techniques for Scheduling Problems with Reducing Waiting Time Variance",slug:"heuristics-techniques-for-scheduling-problems-with-reducing-waiting-time-variance",totalDownloads:1709,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In real computational world, scheduling is a decision making process. This is nothing but a systematic schedule through which a large numbers of tasks are assigned to the processors. Due to the resource limitation, creation of such schedule is a real challenge. This creates the interest of developing a qualitative scheduler for the processors. These processors are either single or parallel. One of the criteria for improving the efficiency of scheduler is waiting time variance (WTV). Minimizing the WTV of a task is a NP-hard problem. Achieving the quality of service (QoS) in a single or parallel processor by minimizing the WTV is a problem of task scheduling. To enhance the performance of a single or parallel processor, it is required to develop a stable and none overlap scheduler by minimizing WTV. An automated scheduler's performance is always measured by the attributes of QoS. One of the attributes of QoS is ‘Timeliness’. First, this chapter presents the importance of heuristics with five heuristic-based solutions. Then applies these heuristics on 1‖WTV minimization problem and three heuristics with a unique task distribution mechanism on Qm|prec|WTV minimization problem. The experimental result shows the performance of heuristic in the form of graph for consonant problems.",book:{id:"5966",slug:"heuristics-and-hyper-heuristics-principles-and-applications",title:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics",fullTitle:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Satyasundara Mahapatra, Rati Ranjan Dash and Sateesh K. Pradhan",authors:[{id:"201253",title:"Dr.",name:"Satyasundara",middleName:null,surname:"Mahapatra",slug:"satyasundara-mahapatra",fullName:"Satyasundara Mahapatra"},{id:"203077",title:"Dr.",name:"Rati Ranjan",middleName:null,surname:"Dash",slug:"rati-ranjan-dash",fullName:"Rati Ranjan Dash"},{id:"203078",title:"Dr.",name:"Sateesh Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Pradhan",slug:"sateesh-kumar-pradhan",fullName:"Sateesh Kumar Pradhan"}]},{id:"55594",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69222",title:"Multi‐Objective Hyper‐Heuristics",slug:"multi-objective-hyper-heuristics",totalDownloads:1470,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Multi‐objective hyper‐heuristics is a search method or learning mechanism that operates over a fixed set of low‐level heuristics to solve multi‐objective optimization problems by controlling and combining the strengths of those heuristics. Although numerous papers on hyper‐heuristics have been published and several studies are still underway, most research has focused on single‐objective optimization. Work on hyper‐heuristics for multi‐objective optimization remains limited. This chapter draws attention to this area of research to help researchers and PhD students understand and reuse these methods. It also provides the basic concepts of multi‐objective optimization and hyper‐heuristics to facilitate a better understanding of the related research areas, in addition to exploring hyper‐heuristic methodologies that address multi‐objective optimization. Some design issues related to the development of hyper‐heuristic framework for multi‐objective optimization are discussed. The chapter concludes with a case study of multi‐objective selection hyper‐heuristics and its application on a real‐world problem.",book:{id:"5966",slug:"heuristics-and-hyper-heuristics-principles-and-applications",title:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics",fullTitle:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Mashael Suliaman Maashi",authors:[{id:"201702",title:"Dr.",name:"Mashael",middleName:null,surname:"Maashi",slug:"mashael-maashi",fullName:"Mashael Maashi"}]},{id:"55810",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69223",title:"Efficient Heuristics for Scheduling with Release and Delivery Times",slug:"efficient-heuristics-for-scheduling-with-release-and-delivery-times",totalDownloads:1185,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we describe efficient heuristics for scheduling jobs with release and delivery times with the objective to minimize the maximum job completion time. These heuristics are essentially based on a commonly used scheduling theory in Jackson’s extended heuristic. We present basic structural properties of the solutions delivered by Jackson’s heuristic and then illustrate how one can exploit them to build efficient heuristics.",book:{id:"5966",slug:"heuristics-and-hyper-heuristics-principles-and-applications",title:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics",fullTitle:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Nodari Vakhania",authors:[{id:"202585",title:"Prof.",name:"Nodari",middleName:null,surname:"Vakhania",slug:"nodari-vakhania",fullName:"Nodari Vakhania"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56264",title:"Heuristics Techniques for Scheduling Problems with Reducing Waiting Time Variance",slug:"heuristics-techniques-for-scheduling-problems-with-reducing-waiting-time-variance",totalDownloads:1709,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In real computational world, scheduling is a decision making process. This is nothing but a systematic schedule through which a large numbers of tasks are assigned to the processors. Due to the resource limitation, creation of such schedule is a real challenge. This creates the interest of developing a qualitative scheduler for the processors. These processors are either single or parallel. One of the criteria for improving the efficiency of scheduler is waiting time variance (WTV). Minimizing the WTV of a task is a NP-hard problem. Achieving the quality of service (QoS) in a single or parallel processor by minimizing the WTV is a problem of task scheduling. To enhance the performance of a single or parallel processor, it is required to develop a stable and none overlap scheduler by minimizing WTV. An automated scheduler's performance is always measured by the attributes of QoS. One of the attributes of QoS is ‘Timeliness’. First, this chapter presents the importance of heuristics with five heuristic-based solutions. Then applies these heuristics on 1‖WTV minimization problem and three heuristics with a unique task distribution mechanism on Qm|prec|WTV minimization problem. The experimental result shows the performance of heuristic in the form of graph for consonant problems.",book:{id:"5966",slug:"heuristics-and-hyper-heuristics-principles-and-applications",title:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics",fullTitle:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Satyasundara Mahapatra, Rati Ranjan Dash and Sateesh K. Pradhan",authors:[{id:"201253",title:"Dr.",name:"Satyasundara",middleName:null,surname:"Mahapatra",slug:"satyasundara-mahapatra",fullName:"Satyasundara Mahapatra"},{id:"203077",title:"Dr.",name:"Rati Ranjan",middleName:null,surname:"Dash",slug:"rati-ranjan-dash",fullName:"Rati Ranjan Dash"},{id:"203078",title:"Dr.",name:"Sateesh Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Pradhan",slug:"sateesh-kumar-pradhan",fullName:"Sateesh Kumar Pradhan"}]},{id:"55554",title:"Hyper‐Heuristics and Metaheuristics for Selected Bio‐Inspired Combinatorial Optimization Problems",slug:"hyper-heuristics-and-metaheuristics-for-selected-bio-inspired-combinatorial-optimization-problems",totalDownloads:1583,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Many decision and optimization problems arising in bioinformatics field are time demanding, and several algorithms are designed to solve these problems or to improve their current best solution approach. Modeling and implementing a new heuristic algorithm may be time‐consuming but has strong motivations: on the one hand, even a small improvement of the new solution may be worth the long time spent on the construction of a new method; on the other hand, there are problems for which good‐enough solutions are acceptable which could be achieved at a much lower computational cost. In the first case, specially designed heuristics or metaheuristics are needed, while the latter hyper‐heuristics can be proposed. The paper will describe both approaches in different domain problems.",book:{id:"5966",slug:"heuristics-and-hyper-heuristics-principles-and-applications",title:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics",fullTitle:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Aleksandra Swiercz",authors:[{id:"203032",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Aleksandra",middleName:null,surname:"Swiercz",slug:"aleksandra-swiercz",fullName:"Aleksandra Swiercz"}]},{id:"55594",title:"Multi‐Objective Hyper‐Heuristics",slug:"multi-objective-hyper-heuristics",totalDownloads:1470,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Multi‐objective hyper‐heuristics is a search method or learning mechanism that operates over a fixed set of low‐level heuristics to solve multi‐objective optimization problems by controlling and combining the strengths of those heuristics. Although numerous papers on hyper‐heuristics have been published and several studies are still underway, most research has focused on single‐objective optimization. Work on hyper‐heuristics for multi‐objective optimization remains limited. This chapter draws attention to this area of research to help researchers and PhD students understand and reuse these methods. It also provides the basic concepts of multi‐objective optimization and hyper‐heuristics to facilitate a better understanding of the related research areas, in addition to exploring hyper‐heuristic methodologies that address multi‐objective optimization. Some design issues related to the development of hyper‐heuristic framework for multi‐objective optimization are discussed. The chapter concludes with a case study of multi‐objective selection hyper‐heuristics and its application on a real‐world problem.",book:{id:"5966",slug:"heuristics-and-hyper-heuristics-principles-and-applications",title:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics",fullTitle:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Mashael Suliaman Maashi",authors:[{id:"201702",title:"Dr.",name:"Mashael",middleName:null,surname:"Maashi",slug:"mashael-maashi",fullName:"Mashael Maashi"}]},{id:"55968",title:"On the Use of Hybrid Heuristics for Providing Service to Select the Return Channel in an Interactive Digital TV Environment",slug:"on-the-use-of-hybrid-heuristics-for-providing-service-to-select-the-return-channel-in-an-interactive",totalDownloads:1303,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The technologies used to link the end-user to a telecommunication infrastructure, has been changing over time due to the consolidation of new access technologies. Moreover, the emergence of new tools for information dissemination, such as interactive digital TV, makes the selection of access technology, factor of fundamental importance. One of the greatest advantages of using digital TV as means to disseminate information is the installation of applications. In this chapter, a load characterization of a typical application embedded in a digital TV is performed to determine its behavior. However, it is important to note that applications send information through an access technology. Therefore, this chapter, based on the study on load characterization, developed a methodology combining Bayesian networks and technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) analytical approach to provide support to service providers to opt for a technology (power line communication, PLC, wireless, wired, etc.) for the return channel.",book:{id:"5966",slug:"heuristics-and-hyper-heuristics-principles-and-applications",title:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics",fullTitle:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Marcos César da Rocha Seruffo, Ádamo Lima de Santana, Carlos\nRenato Lisboa Francês and Nandamudi Lankalapalli Vijaykumar",authors:[{id:"10493",title:"Dr.",name:"Adamo",middleName:null,surname:"Lima De Santana",slug:"adamo-lima-de-santana",fullName:"Adamo Lima De Santana"},{id:"202549",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"Seruffo",slug:"marcos-seruffo",fullName:"Marcos Seruffo"},{id:"202551",title:"Dr.",name:"Nadamundi",middleName:null,surname:"Vijaykumar",slug:"nadamundi-vijaykumar",fullName:"Nadamundi Vijaykumar"},{id:"202552",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Renato",middleName:null,surname:"Francês",slug:"carlos-renato-frances",fullName:"Carlos Renato Francês"}]},{id:"55704",title:"Advanced Particle Filter Methods",slug:"advanced-particle-filter-methods",totalDownloads:1565,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"This chapter presents a set of algorithmic methods based on particle filter heuristics. We start with an introduction to particle filters, which covers the main motivation and related works. Then, the generic framework for particle filter algorithm is presented, followed by two important use cases regarding indoor positioning and multitarget tracking; for both problems, modified particle filter algorithms are presented followed by experimental results, implementation remarks, and a discussion. Finally, a short list of conclusion and future work are presented.",book:{id:"5966",slug:"heuristics-and-hyper-heuristics-principles-and-applications",title:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics",fullTitle:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Roi Yozevitch and Boaz Ben-Moshe",authors:[{id:"203049",title:"Prof.",name:"Boaz",middleName:null,surname:"Benmoshe",slug:"boaz-benmoshe",fullName:"Boaz Benmoshe"},{id:"203051",title:"Mr.",name:"Roi",middleName:null,surname:"Yozevitch",slug:"roi-yozevitch",fullName:"Roi Yozevitch"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"549",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:36,paginationItems:[{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105450",signatures:"Raúl Ventura and María Isabel Hernández-Alvarez",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",signatures:"Hailian Shen",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:32,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. Dr. Suzuki currently serves as a visiting researcher at Kogakuin University, Japan, and also a vice president of the Japan Firefly Society.",institutionString:"Kogakuin University",institution:null}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"11601",title:"Econometrics - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11601.jpg",hash:"bc8ab49e2cf436c217a49ca8c12a22eb",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 13th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"452331",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian",surname:"Sloboda",slug:"brian-sloboda",fullName:"Brian Sloboda"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"12141",title:"Leadership - Advancing Great Leadership Practices and Good Leaders",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12141.jpg",hash:"85f77453916f1d80d80d88ee4fd2f2d1",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"July 1st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"420133",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Crawford",slug:"joseph-crawford",fullName:"Joseph Crawford"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"12139",title:"Global Market and Trade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12139.jpg",hash:"fa34af07c3a9657fa670404202f8cba5",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 21st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"243649",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Ireneusz",surname:"Miciuła",slug:"ireneusz-miciula",fullName:"Ireneusz Miciuła"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:36,paginationItems:[{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105450",signatures:"Raúl Ventura and María Isabel Hernández-Alvarez",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",signatures:"Hailian Shen",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82212",title:"Protein Prenylation and Their Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104700",signatures:"Khemchand R. Surana, Ritesh B. Pawar, Ritesh A. Khairnar and Sunil K. Mahajan",slug:"protein-prenylation-and-their-applications",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Modifications of Biomolecules",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11098.jpg",subseries:null}},{id:"80954",title:"Ion Channels and Neurodegenerative Disease Aging Related",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103074",signatures:"Marika Cordaro, Salvatore Cuzzocrea and Rosanna Di Paola",slug:"ion-channels-and-neurodegenerative-disease-aging-related",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82096",title:"An Important Component of Tumor Progression: Fatty Acids",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105087",signatures:"Jin Wang, Qifei Wang and Guangzhen Wu",slug:"an-important-component-of-tumor-progression-fatty-acids",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82029",title:"Synthesis, Characterization and Antimicrobial Properties of Novel Benzimidazole Amide Derivatives Bearing Thiophene Moiety",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104908",signatures:"Vinayak Adimule, Pravin Kendrekar and Sheetal Batakurki",slug:"synthesis-characterization-and-antimicrobial-properties-of-novel-benzimidazole-amide-derivatives-bea",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Benzimidazole",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10840.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"81927",title:"Purinergic System in Immune Response",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104485",signatures:"Yerly Magnolia Useche Salvador",slug:"purinergic-system-in-immune-response",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"80495",title:"Iron in Cell Metabolism and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101908",signatures:"Eeka Prabhakar",slug:"iron-in-cell-metabolism-and-disease",totalDownloads:16,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Iron Metabolism - Iron a Double‐Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:1,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:5,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:13,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:15,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:32,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10798",title:"Starch",subtitle:"Evolution and Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",slug:"starch-evolution-and-recent-advances",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",hash:"f197f6062c1574a9a90e50a369271bcf",volumeInSeries:33,fullTitle:"Starch - Evolution and Recent Advances",editors:[{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",volumeInSeries:32,fullTitle:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195290/images/system/195290.png",institutionString:"Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi",institution:{name:"Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10839",title:"Protein Detection",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10839.jpg",slug:"protein-detection",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar and Lütfi Tutar",hash:"2f1c0e4e0207fc45c936e7d22a5369c4",volumeInSeries:31,fullTitle:"Protein Detection",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10797",title:"Cell Culture",subtitle:"Advanced Technology and Applications in Medical and Life Sciences",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10797.jpg",slug:"cell-culture-advanced-technology-and-applications-in-medical-and-life-sciences",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Xianquan Zhan",hash:"2c628f4757f9639a4450728d839a7842",volumeInSeries:30,fullTitle:"Cell Culture - Advanced Technology and Applications in Medical and Life Sciences",editors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10841",title:"Hydrolases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10841.jpg",slug:"hydrolases",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Sajjad Haider, Adnan Haider and Angel Catalá",hash:"4e868cde273d65a7ff54b1817d640629",volumeInSeries:29,fullTitle:"Hydrolases",editors:[{id:"110708",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"sajjad-haider",fullName:"Sajjad Haider",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110708/images/system/110708.png",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10803",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10803.jpg",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rizwan Ahmad",hash:"176adcf090fdd1f93cb8ce3146e79ca1",volumeInSeries:28,fullTitle:"Reactive Oxygen Species",editors:[{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9008",title:"Vitamin K",subtitle:"Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9008.jpg",slug:"vitamin-k-recent-topics-on-the-biology-and-chemistry",publishedDate:"March 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hiroyuki Kagechika and Hitoshi Shirakawa",hash:"8b43add5389ba85743e0a9491e4b9943",volumeInSeries:27,fullTitle:"Vitamin K - Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",editors:[{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10799",title:"Phenolic Compounds",subtitle:"Chemistry, Synthesis, Diversity, Non-Conventional Industrial, Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10799.jpg",slug:"phenolic-compounds-chemistry-synthesis-diversity-non-conventional-industrial-pharmaceutical-and-therapeutic-applications",publishedDate:"February 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",hash:"339199f254d2987ef3167eef74fb8a38",volumeInSeries:26,fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Chemistry, Synthesis, Diversity, Non-Conventional Industrial, Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9659",title:"Fibroblasts",subtitle:"Advances in Inflammation, Autoimmunity and Cancer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9659.jpg",slug:"fibroblasts-advances-in-inflammation-autoimmunity-and-cancer",publishedDate:"December 22nd 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mojca Frank Bertoncelj and Katja Lakota",hash:"926fa6446f6befbd363fc74971a56de2",volumeInSeries:25,fullTitle:"Fibroblasts - Advances in Inflammation, Autoimmunity and Cancer",editors:[{id:"328755",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mojca",middleName:null,surname:"Frank Bertoncelj",slug:"mojca-frank-bertoncelj",fullName:"Mojca Frank Bertoncelj",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/328755/images/system/328755.jpg",institutionString:"BioMed X Institute",institution:{name:"University Hospital of Zurich",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Switzerland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8977",title:"Protein Kinases",subtitle:"Promising Targets for Anticancer Drug Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8977.jpg",slug:"protein-kinases-promising-targets-for-anticancer-drug-research",publishedDate:"December 8th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rajesh Kumar Singh",hash:"6d200cc031706a565b554fdb1c478901",volumeInSeries:24,fullTitle:"Protein Kinases - Promising Targets for Anticancer Drug Research",editors:[{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",volumeInSeries:22,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:9},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:13}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:8},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:301,paginationItems:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. Escribano",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGnzQAG/Profile_Picture_1633076636544",institutionString:"Consultant and Independent Researcher in Industry Sector, Spain",institution:null},{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"216995",title:"Prof.",name:"Figen",middleName:null,surname:"Kırkpınar",slug:"figen-kirkpinar",fullName:"Figen Kırkpınar",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRMzxQAG/Profile_Picture_1625722918145",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"82392",title:"Nanomaterials as Novel Biomarkers for Cancer Nanotheranostics: State of the Art",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105700",signatures:"Hao Yu, Zhihai Han, Cunrong Chen and Leisheng Zhang",slug:"nanomaterials-as-novel-biomarkers-for-cancer-nanotheranostics-state-of-the-art",totalDownloads:21,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11405.jpg",subseries:{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering"}}},{id:"81778",title:"Influence of Mechanical Properties of Biomaterials on the Reconstruction of Biomedical Parts via Additive Manufacturing Techniques: An Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104465",signatures:"Babatunde Olamide Omiyale, Akeem Abiodun Rasheed, Robinson Omoboyode Akinnusi and Temitope Olumide Olugbade",slug:"influence-of-mechanical-properties-of-biomaterials-on-the-reconstruction-of-biomedical-parts-via-add",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11405.jpg",subseries:{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7102",title:"Pneumonia",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7102.jpg",slug:"pneumonia",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Nima Rezaei",hash:"9fd70142814192dcec58a176749f1b60",volumeInSeries:13,fullTitle:"Pneumonia",editors:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9615",title:"Chikungunya Virus",subtitle:"A Growing Global Public Health Threat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9615.jpg",slug:"chikungunya-virus-a-growing-global-public-health-threat",publishedDate:"February 9th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",hash:"c960d94a63867dd12a8ab15176a3ff06",volumeInSeries:12,fullTitle:"Chikungunya Virus - A Growing Global Public Health Threat",editors:[{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9619",title:"Epstein-Barr Virus",subtitle:"New Trends",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9619.jpg",slug:"epstein-barr-virus-new-trends",publishedDate:"December 22nd 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Emmanuel Drouet",hash:"a2128c53becb6064589570cbe8d976f8",volumeInSeries:11,fullTitle:"Epstein-Barr Virus - New Trends",editors:[{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9613",title:"Dengue Fever in a One Health Perspective",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9613.jpg",slug:"dengue-fever-in-a-one-health-perspective",publishedDate:"October 28th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Márcia Aparecida Sperança",hash:"77ecce8195c11092230b4156df6d83ff",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Dengue Fever in a One Health Perspective",editors:[{id:"176579",title:"Dr.",name:"Márcia Aparecida",middleName:null,surname:"Sperança",slug:"marcia-aparecida-speranca",fullName:"Márcia Aparecida Sperança",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/176579/images/system/176579.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal do ABC",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7887",title:"Hepatitis B and C",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7887.jpg",slug:"hepatitis-b-and-c",publishedDate:"April 8th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",hash:"8dd6dab483cf505d83caddaeaf497f2c",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Hepatitis B and C",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73208/images/system/73208.jpg",institutionString:"University of Oviedo",institution:{name:"University of Oviedo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6667",title:"Influenza",subtitle:"Therapeutics and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6667.jpg",slug:"influenza-therapeutics-and-challenges",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"105e347b2d5dbbe6b593aceffa051efa",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Influenza - Therapeutics and Challenges",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}},{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression"},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors"},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation"},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/74568",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"74568"},fullPath:"/profiles/74568",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()