Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
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Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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These words are being used to define the interaction of water and other materials. As an example, these words are being used in classification of liquids and solids based on their solubility in water, as well as classification of solid surfaces regarding to their wettability. A lot of surfaces in the nature have Superhydrophobic and self-cleaning properties. For example the wings of a butterfly, leaves of some plants, including cabbage and Indian Cress, have the mentioned properties. The best example is the LOTUS leaf. This book collects new developments in the science of surface energy.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-2216-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6646-7",doi:"10.5772/59354",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"surface-energy",numberOfPages:382,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"0e17cd77d2616f544522495c30285475",bookSignature:"Mahmood Aliofkhazraei",publishedDate:"December 16th 2015",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4614.jpg",numberOfDownloads:30835,numberOfWosCitations:63,numberOfCrossrefCitations:38,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:80,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:7,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:181,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 13th 2014",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 3rd 2014",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 30th 2015",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 1st 2015",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 31st 2015",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"155413",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood",middleName:null,surname:"Aliofkhazraei",slug:"mahmood-aliofkhazraei",fullName:"Mahmood Aliofkhazraei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/155413/images/3939_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mahmood Aliofkhazraei works in the corrosion and surface engineering group at the Tarbiat Modares University. He is the head of Aliofkhazraei research group (www.aliofkhazraei.com). Dr. Aliofkhazraei has received several honors, including the Khwarizmi award and the best young nanotechnologist award of Iran. He is a member of the National Association of Surface Sciences, Iranian Corrosion Association, and National Elite Foundation of Iran. His research focuses on materials science, nanotechnology, and its use in surface and corrosion science.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"13",institution:{name:"Tarbiat Modares University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"813",title:"Engineering Mechanics",slug:"mechanical-engineering-engineering-mechanics"}],chapters:[{id:"49063",title:"Re-derivation of Young’s Equation, Wenzel Equation, and Cassie-Baxter Equation Based on Energy Minimization",doi:"10.5772/61066",slug:"re-derivation-of-young-s-equation-wenzel-equation-and-cassie-baxter-equation-based-on-energy-minimiz",totalDownloads:5085,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:28,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Recently, Young’s equation, the Wenzel equation, and the Cassie-Baxter equation have been widely used with active research on superhydrophobic surfaces. However, experiments showed that the Wenzel equation and the Cassie-Baxter equation were not derived correctly. They should be reviewed on a firm physical ground. In this study, these equations are re-derived from a thermodynamic point of view by employing energy minimization and variational approach. The derivations provide a deeper understanding of these equations and the behavior of a contact angle. Also, in applying these equations, the limitations and considerations are discussed. It is expected that this study will provide a theoretical basis for the careful use of these equations on rough or chemically heterogeneous surfaces.",signatures:"Kwangseok Seo, Minyoung Kim and Do Hyun Kim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49063",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49063",authors:[{id:"97132",title:"Prof.",name:"Do Hyun",surname:"Kim",slug:"do-hyun-kim",fullName:"Do Hyun Kim"}],corrections:null},{id:"48532",title:"Capillary Bridges — A Tool for Three-Phase Contact Investigation",doi:"10.5772/60684",slug:"capillary-bridges-a-tool-for-three-phase-contact-investigation",totalDownloads:2197,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Subject of investigation are capillary bridges (CB) between two parallel solid plates normally oriented to the gravity field. Presented are results of study of CB with negligible gravity effects and CB undergoing observable gravitational deformations. Among the discussed problems some new aspects of the CB behavior are formulated. One of them is the so-called stretching thickness limit, i.e. the maximal thickness above which a CB of given volume and contact angles cannot exist. It is shown that the stretching thickness limit of a concave CB substantially differs from that of a convex one. Analysis of the forces acting on CB plates is presented. It clearly demonstrates that the gravity part of the forces, relative to the part of capillary forces, increases with stretching. Most of the observed effects are interpreted on the basis of the two CB radii of curvature analysis, thus avoiding the ponderous procedures of obtaining (integrating) the CB generatrix profile. The success of this approach lies in its combination with image analysis of CB profile. Discussed are the contact angle hysteresis effects at CB stretching and pressing.",signatures:"Boryan P. Radoev, Plamen V. Petkov and Ivan T. Ivanov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48532",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48532",authors:[{id:"173768",title:"Prof.",name:"Boryan",surname:"Radoev",slug:"boryan-radoev",fullName:"Boryan Radoev"}],corrections:null},{id:"49310",title:"Solid-Liquid-Solid Interfaces",doi:"10.5772/61572",slug:"solid-liquid-solid-interfaces",totalDownloads:2319,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Interfaces comprised of a liquid interposed between two solids in close proximity are common in small-scale devices. In many cases, the liquid induces large and undesired adhesive forces. It is of interest, therefore, to model the way in which forces are developed in such an interface. The following chapter presents several models of liquid-mediated adhesion, considering the roles of surface geometry, liquid surface tension, elastic deformation, surface roughness, and surface motion on the development of interfacial forces.",signatures:"Jeffrey L. Streator",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49310",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49310",authors:[{id:"174610",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jeffrey",surname:"Streator",slug:"jeffrey-streator",fullName:"Jeffrey Streator"}],corrections:null},{id:"48490",title:"Adhesive Properties of Metals and Metal Alloys",doi:"10.5772/60599",slug:"adhesive-properties-of-metals-and-metal-alloys",totalDownloads:3051,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The paper presents the effect of some surface treatment on the bonded joints strength of selected construction materials, adhesive properties of adherends after surface treatment and surface roughness. The aluminium alloys sheets, the titanium sheets and the stainless steel sheets were tested. In the experiments the following surface treatments were investigated: degreasing (chemical cleaning), mechanical treatment, mechanical treatment and degreasing, etching, anodising and chromate treatment. Adhesive joints were formed with a two component epoxy adhesive, Loctite 3430. Adhesive joint tensile-shear strength tests were performed in accordance with EN DIN 1465 standard on Zwick/Roell Z100 and Zwick/Roell Z150 testing machines. Adhesive properties were determined by surface free energy and surface free energy was determined by the Owens-Wendt method. The roughness of specimens was qualified by the method for measuring contact roughness, using an M2 profilometer manufactured by Mahr. The surface view was obtained by used NanoFocus uscan AF2. Results obtained from adhesive joint strength tests of materials evidence that surface treatment plays an important role in increasing strength of analysed joints. Tests indicate that in numerous instances this is mechanical treatment only or mechanical treatment followed by chemical cleaning which translate to the highest joint strength. The surface treatment method which introduces extensive changes in the analysed materials surface geometry is mechanical treatment. The results of surface roughness parameters measurement carried out on test samples subjected to anodising indicate that anodising has an impact on the height of surface irregularities. The application of various surface treatments in different structural materials allows modification of their adhesive properties, determined by the surface free energy. It was noted that different surface treatments contribute not only to the surface free energy changes but to the SFE components share in the total value. In the majority of variants of EN AW-2024PLT3 aluminium alloy sheet surface treatment the dispersive component amounted to the 93-99% of the total surface free energy. The assumption then should be that in order for the determination of a particular surface for adhesive processes to be comprehensive it should account for the adherends surface geometry as well as its adhesion properties. The geometry of surface can influence the mechanical adhesion and the surface free energy is connected with both mechanical adhesion and the other constituent of adhesion – proper adhesion.",signatures:"Anna Rudawska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48490",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48490",authors:[{id:"110857",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Anna",surname:"Rudawska",slug:"anna-rudawska",fullName:"Anna Rudawska"}],corrections:null},{id:"48712",title:"Plasma Processing for Tailoring the Surface Properties of Polymers",doi:"10.5772/60927",slug:"plasma-processing-for-tailoring-the-surface-properties-of-polymers",totalDownloads:3585,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:29,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter details how plasma treatments can be used to tailor the wettability of polymers. A plasma is an excited gas, and exposure of a polymer to a plasma discharge generally results in an enhancement in surface energy and associated with this is an increase in wettability. The effect however can be short lived due to hydrophobic recovery. In this review the use of both low and atmospheric plasmas for the activation of polymers will be discussed, as will the use of these plasmas for the deposition of plasma polymerised coatings. The latter can be used to produce polymer surfaces with tailored functionalities, thus achieving stable water contact angles ranging from superhydrophilic to superhydrophobic, as required.",signatures:"Hisham M. Abourayana and Denis P. Dowling",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48712",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48712",authors:[{id:"173659",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Hisham",surname:"Abourayana",slug:"hisham-abourayana",fullName:"Hisham Abourayana"},{id:"176771",title:"Dr.",name:"Denis",surname:"Dowling",slug:"denis-dowling",fullName:"Denis Dowling"}],corrections:null},{id:"48815",title:"DFT Investigations on the CVD Growth of Graphene",doi:"10.5772/61031",slug:"dft-investigations-on-the-cvd-growth-of-graphene",totalDownloads:2158,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chemical vapor deposition technique is the most popular for preparing high-quality graphene. Surface energy will dominate the nucleation process of graphene; thus, the surface energy problems involved in thin film growth are introduced first. The experimental tools to describe the growth process in detail are insufficient. So, a mass of simulation investigations, which can give out a very fine description of the surface atomic process, have been carried out on this topic. We mainly summarized the density functional theory works in unearthing the graphene nuclei process and mechanisms. In addition, some studies using molecular dynamics methods are also listed. Such a summary will be helpful to stimulate future experimental efforts on graphene synthesis.",signatures:"Meicheng Li, Yingfeng Li and Joseph Michel Mbengue",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48815",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48815",authors:[{id:"173687",title:"Prof.",name:"Meicheng",surname:"Li",slug:"meicheng-li",fullName:"Meicheng Li"}],corrections:null},{id:"48687",title:"Modern Methods (Without Determining the Contact Angle and Surface Tension) for Estimating the Surface Properties of Materials (Using Video and Computer Technology)",doi:"10.5772/61041",slug:"modern-methods-without-determining-the-contact-angle-and-surface-tension-for-estimating-the-surface-",totalDownloads:1768,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the study of surface phenomena including nanotechnology, the main and only instrumentally determined parameters are the surface tension and the contact angle. These indicators have been introduced over 200 years ago, and any new inventions in this area do not exist anymore. In line with this, we have developed a new method and device for determining the surface activity.",signatures:"A.O. Titov, I.I. Titova, M.O. Titov and O.P. Titov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48687",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48687",authors:[{id:"173750",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",surname:"Titov",slug:"andrew-titov",fullName:"Andrew Titov"}],corrections:null},{id:"48952",title:"A General-Purpose Multiphase/Multispecies Model to Predict the Spread, Percutaneous Hazard, and Contact Dynamics for Nonporous and Porous Substrates and Membranes",doi:"10.5772/60807",slug:"a-general-purpose-multiphase-multispecies-model-to-predict-the-spread-percutaneous-hazard-and-contac",totalDownloads:1811,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A computational model to solve the coupled transport equations with chemical reaction and phase change for a liquid sessile droplet or the contact and spread of a sessile droplet between two approaching porous or non-porous surfaces, is developed. The model is general therefore it can be applied to toxic chemicals (contact hazard), drug delivery through porous organs and membranes, combustion processes within porous material, and liquid movements in the ground. The equation of motion and the spread of the incompressible liquid available on the primary surface for transfer into the contacting surface while reacting with other chemicals (or water) and/or the solid substrate are solved in a finite difference domain with adaptive meshing. The comparison with experimental data demonstrated the model is robust and accurate. The impact of the initial velocity on the spread topology and mass transfer into the pores is also addressed.",signatures:"Navaz Homayun, Zand Ali, Gat Amir and Atkinson Theresa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48952",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48952",authors:[{id:"20980",title:"Prof.",name:"Homayun",surname:"Navaz",slug:"homayun-navaz",fullName:"Homayun Navaz"}],corrections:null},{id:"48739",title:"Micro/Nano Hierarchical Super-Lyophobic Surfaces Against Gallium-Based Liquid Metal Alloy",doi:"10.5772/60984",slug:"micro-nano-hierarchical-super-lyophobic-surfaces-against-gallium-based-liquid-metal-alloy",totalDownloads:2087,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Against a gallium-based liquid metal alloy, we report super-lyophobic surfaces that have micro/nano hierarchical structures made of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and carbon nanotube (CNT) materials. The surface oxidation of the liquid metal is a challenging problem to be utilized for various applications, as it wets most surfaces. However, the micro/nano hierarchical structures of a fabricated-PDMS micro pillar array with dual-scale surface texturing and a grown-CNT surface enable one to minimize a contact area between the liquid metal droplet and the surface. Due to the low contact area, a large static contact angle and a low contact angle hysteresis are achieved, indicating super-lyophobic surfaces. Based on these super-lyophobic surfaces, the gallium-based liquid metal alloy can be more widely utilized for undeveloped applications that rely on the liquid metal’s mobility.",signatures:"Daeyoung Kim and Jeong-Bong Lee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48739",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48739",authors:[{id:"173814",title:"Prof.",name:"Daeyoung",surname:"Kim",slug:"daeyoung-kim",fullName:"Daeyoung Kim"},{id:"174149",title:"Prof.",name:"Jeong-Bong(J.-B.)",surname:"Lee",slug:"jeong-bong(j.-b.)-lee",fullName:"Jeong-Bong(J.-B.) Lee"}],corrections:null},{id:"48638",title:"Effect of Certain Ethylene Oxide Heterogeneous Heterobifunctional Acyclic Oligomers (HEHAO) on Wetting",doi:"10.5772/60998",slug:"effect-of-certain-ethylene-oxide-heterogeneous-heterobifunctional-acyclic-oligomers-hehao-on-wetting",totalDownloads:1966,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The effect of ethylene oxide (EO) heterogeneous heterobifunctional acyclic oligomers (HEHAO) on wetting represents a continuation of the review of the research partly published by the author on ethylene oxide (EO) homogeneous heterobifunctional acyclic oligomers (HOHAO). Heterogeneous polyoxyethylene chains obtained by the anionic polymerization of EO (“anionic ring-opening polymerization”) with a certain polydispersity degree are hydrophilic, flexible (specific spatial conformation), biocompatible “bridges,” without toxicity. After the purification of polyethoxylated higher alcohols (technical products), heteroderivatization performed by an adapted classical reaction scheme led to the colloidally evaluated HEHAO series.",signatures:"Calin Jianu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48638",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48638",authors:[{id:"169634",title:"Dr.",name:"Calin",surname:"Jianu",slug:"calin-jianu",fullName:"Calin Jianu"}],corrections:null},{id:"48778",title:"Recent Advances in the Methods for Designing Superhydrophobic Surfaces",doi:"10.5772/60852",slug:"recent-advances-in-the-methods-for-designing-superhydrophobic-surfaces",totalDownloads:2810,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The investigations of superhydrophobicity and self-cleaning surfaces have been given a lot of attention in the last few decades. The surfaces having water contact angle larger than 90° are termed as hydrophobic surfaces and those which exhibit contact angle higher than 150° are said to be superhydrophobic. Such surfaces were first observed in nature in various plants and animals, for example, lotus leaf-like structures. Water repellence of various materials have shown great influences on various applications such as self-cleaning, anti-ageing, water-oil separation, water corrosion in electrical industry, water proof textiles, controlled transportation of fluids, etc. Generally, surface micro/nanostructuring combined with low surface energy of materials leads to extreme anti-wetting properties. The hundreds of research articles and more than 450 patents on the subject of nature mimicking self-cleaning surfaces prove the potential of this topic.",signatures:"Harinarayanan Puliyalil, Gregor Filipič and Uroš Cvelbar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48778",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48778",authors:[{id:"174326",title:"Prof.",name:"Uros",surname:"Cvelbar",slug:"uros-cvelbar",fullName:"Uros Cvelbar"},{id:"174327",title:"MSc.",name:"Harinarayanan",surname:"Puliyalil",slug:"harinarayanan-puliyalil",fullName:"Harinarayanan Puliyalil"},{id:"174328",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregor",surname:"Filipič",slug:"gregor-filipic",fullName:"Gregor Filipič"}],corrections:null},{id:"49569",title:"Lipid Self-Spreading on Solid Substrates",doi:"10.5772/61584",slug:"lipid-self-spreading-on-solid-substrates",totalDownloads:1999,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter is dedicated to wetting and fracturing processes involving molecular phospholipid films and high-energy solid surfaces. In these systems, wetting of planar surfaces occurs in an aqueous environment by means of self-spreading of phospholipid membranes from artificially generated lipid sources, which range from manually deposited single sources (multilamellar liposomes) to liposome suspensions of different particle sizes, which are directly pipetted onto the substrate. The most prominent of the molecular lipid films is the phospholipid bilayer, which constitutes the fundamental structure of the biological cell membrane. Lipid membranes have peculiar characteristics, are highly dynamic, feature two-dimensional fluidity, and can accommodate functional molecules. Understanding the interactions of lipid films with solid interfaces is of high importance in areas like cell biology, biomedical engineering, and drug delivery.",signatures:"Irep Gözen, Paul Dommersnes and Aldo Jesorka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49569",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49569",authors:[{id:"114596",title:"Dr.",name:null,surname:"Jesorka",slug:"jesorka",fullName:"Jesorka"},{id:"174347",title:"Dr.",name:"Irep",surname:"Gözen",slug:"irep-gozen",fullName:"Irep Gözen"},{id:"174348",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",surname:"Dommersnes",slug:"paul-dommersnes",fullName:"Paul Dommersnes"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3817",title:"Developments in Corrosion Protection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8ff86fac7ac8bce142fdc3c0e5a79f30",slug:"developments-in-corrosion-protection",bookSignature:"M. 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She is currently engaged as a researcher for the Scientific-Disciplinary Sector BIO/16 Human Anatomy at the Anatomy and Pathophysiology Division, Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia (Italy).\r\nDr. Favero focuses on aging-related morphological dysfunctions as the prelude to various pathophysiological processes in her research programs. The central hypothesis is that natural antioxidants and, in particular, melatonin may act as molecular "switches" that modulate cells and tissues by suppressing, at various levels, oxidative stress and inflammatory signalling cascades. These research approaches represent powerful tools for developing innovative preventive strategies and identifying novel prognostic biomarkers for several diseases. 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1. Introduction
Registration of spatial spectra of surface waves is actual in solving many fundamental and applied problems of modern oceanology [1, 2, 3]. Obtaining information about such spectra is important for studying various physical processes occurring near the ocean-atmosphere interface, detecting water pollution, and monitoring anthropogenic impacts on the marine areas [1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. To obtain two-dimensional spectra of surface waves in large water areas, including hard-to-reach ones, the use of remote sensing methods based on the processing of various images obtained from air carriers and also space images of high spatial resolution is promising [4, 13, 14, 15].
An adequate estimation of such spectra formed by image processing obtained in the process of aerospace monitoring of marine areas of the seas and oceans requires the use of reconstructing operators that are functions that allow the spatial spectra of brightness fields recorded in optical aerospace images to be transformed into sea wave spectra [4, 16, 17, 18, 24]. These operators are built using numerical simulation methods based on the various conditions for the formation of aerospace images and the characteristics of remote sensing equipment [4, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. Initially, these methods were used to construct retrieving operators, which allow us to obtain wavelet spectra in the equilibrium interval [16, 17, 18]. At the present time, the development of modified retrieving operators, which are a superposition of the high-frequency and low-frequency components, is being developed and is suitable for use in the low-frequency region, including near the spectral maximum [17, 18].
This chapter describes a method for retrieving sea wave spectra from the spectra of aerospace optical images over a wide range of spatial frequencies, including the equilibrium interval, the spectral maximum, and the low-frequency region. To calibrate and verify the adequacy of the developed method, the contact data obtained in synchronous measurements with the help of an array of string wave recorders are used. The results of experimental studies carried out using the developed method are presented.
2. An approach to retrieve marine surface spectra
Rough sea surface is a random field of elevations (wave applications).
z=ζxytE1
where ζ (x, y, t) is random function of sea surface elevations (elevation field); (x, y, z) is a rectangular Cartesian coordinate system in which the (x, y) plane coincides with the level of a calm (undisturbed) water surface; t is time.
Fixing the time instant t = t0 in (1), we obtain a two-dimensional random function of spatial coordinates:
z=ζxytt=t0=ξxyE2
Aerospace images, which are recorded by remote methods, are used to study the characteristics of the sea surface elevation field at a fixed time z = ξ (x, y). Two-dimensional signal fields that are represented in aerospace images are associated with the sea surface elevation field and can be used to estimate significant characteristics of this surface.
Since the sea surface elevation field (x, y) is a Gaussian quasistationary field, it is described quite adequately by the spectral density [2]:
Ψk=SξkE3
where S is the spectral density operator, which is proportional to the square of the modulus of the Fourier transform of the field ξ(x, y); k = (kx, ky) is the wave vector.
Since optical images of the sea surface are formed as a result of reflection and refraction of light according to the laws of geometrical optics, for their analysis, the structure of the sea surface along with the field of elevations (x, y) is conveniently characterized by fields of slopes (or gradients) along the axes [2, 4, 17].
ξxxy=∂ξxy/∂x,ξyxy=∂ξxy/∂yE4
The gradient of the sea surface in an arbitrary direction ϕ, with allowance for (3), can be expressed as follows:
ξϕxy=cosϕξxxy+sinϕξyxyE5
Taking into account the properties of the Fourier transform, one can associate the spectrum of such a field of slopes with the spectrum of the field of elevations:
Φk=cosϕkx+sinϕkyΨkE6
The brightness field, recorded by the remote sensing equipment at a fixed time, can be expanded in a power series along the surface slopes and is represented in the form [1, 11, 12]:
Lxy=C0+Cxξxxy+Cyξyxy+NxyξxxyξyxyE7
where N is the nonlinear component of the signal, containing terms proportional to (ξx(x,y))2, (ξy(x,y))2, and so on. C0, Cx, and Cy are coefficients of the linear part of the expansion and ξx(x,y) and ξy(x,y) are fields of slopes (gradients of the elevation field) of the sea surface.
The contribution to the detected signal of the nonlinear component N (x, y, ξx, ξy) is determined by a number of parameters: lighting conditions, wave state, and recording equipment characteristics [4, 17].
In order to change from the spectrum of the optical image S(k), obtained under known conditions, to the slope spectrum of the sea surface Φ(k) in the direction determined by these conditions, the definition of the retrieving operator R is introduced as:
Φk=RSkE8
As a rule, analytical estimates of the contribution of the nonlinear component of N to the spatial spectrum of the luminosity field are difficult; therefore, the numerical simulation method is used to solve the problem of constructing the recovery operator [1, 11, 12, 13].
The method of constructing the retrieving operator developed and described in this chapter is an extension of the method proposed in [1, 5, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14]. To construct a retrieving operator corresponding to certain image acquisition conditions, direct numerical modeling of optical images is performed under a given set of conditions [8, 9, 10, 11], after which an approximation of the spatial frequency filter (transfer function) [11, 12, 13, 14] is constructed, which allows obtaining a spatial spectrum of sea surface slopes from the aerospace image spectrum.
Parametrization of the spatial-frequency filter using a set of parameters that depends on the experimental conditions was proposed in [21]. The adequacy of the parametrization was experimentally verified in the equilibrium interval using contact data obtained by wave recorders and also by stereoscopic photography from the oceanographic platform [22].
However, the operator obtained in [21] does not allow for reconstructing the wave spectra in the region of low spatial frequencies and near the spectral maximum. To eliminate this shortcoming, an improvement was made to the method of constructing the retrieving operator and its approbation in various conditions [20, 19].
The modified retrieving operator Rmod is represented as the product of two operators (transfer functions):
Rmodk=RlowkRhighkE9
where Rhigh is a recovery operator (transfer function) in the high-frequency region; Rlow is a recovery operator (transfer function) in the low-frequency range.
An approximation of the retrieving operator in the form
Rk=a0expa4ka5cosφ−φca3ka1+a2cosφ−φcE10
where the parameter vector a = (a0, a1, a2, a3, a4, a5) is formed on the basis of experimental data obtained in complex experiments, including remote and in situ measurements of wave spectra.
3. Calibration and verification of the adequacy of remote methods
When verifying the adequacy of remote methods of measuring wave spectra, sea truth data obtained in specially conducted experiments under controlled conditions using reference techniques and means ensuring the measurement of the sea surface spectra with sufficient accuracy should be used. As such methods and means in this chapter, measurements of sea surface elevations made using a grid of string wave recorders, stereo photography from low altitudes, and measurements using wave buoys will be used.
In an experimental verification of the reliability of methods for recording wave spectra from the spectra of satellite images, we will make a quantitative comparison of the results of remote measurements with data obtained by direct measurements by contact methods.
Having obtained under the same conditions the results of remote measurements of instantaneous two-dimensional fields of slopes and elevations, as well as data of direct (contact) measurements of local time series of heights, and also using the method of comparing spatial and temporal characteristics of sea waves based on the corresponding hydrodynamic models, it is possible to calibrate remote sensing assets for measuring sea surface characteristics.
As sources of information for comparing the results of remote and direct contact measurements of sea surface characteristics, we will use the following types of measurements:
Measurements in which temporal sequences of elevations of the sea surface are formed using stationary contact sensors.
Measurements using wave buoys drifting in the space survey area.
Stereo-photogrammetric measurements performed from close distances and allowing us to directly measure the two-dimensional realizations of the sea surface elevation field with high spatial resolution.
For direct determination of characteristics of sea waves, contact methods usually employ arrays of sensors (wave recorders) measuring the parameters of sea surface (gradient, elevation, and acceleration) at one or several points spaced from each other by some distance. To estimate spatiotemporal spectra from the arrays of wave recorders, indirect iterative calculation methods are widely used, in which some hypotheses about the statistical properties of wave are postulated.
The stereo-photogrammetric processing of synchronously registered optical images of the sea surface from two different points of view (stereopairs) makes it possible to directly measure the realizations of two-dimensional fields of sea surface elevations, and calculate spatial spectra of elevations on the base of these realizations.
The stereo-photogrammetric method allows measuring the shape of rough sea surface. The drawbacks of this method include the greater complexity of processing primary data and high demands on the computing resources used.
To compare the frequency and frequency-directed wave spectra recorded by wave recorders with two-dimensional and one-dimensional spatial spectra of sea surface elevations recorded by remote data, it is necessary to develop a special approach that takes into account the features of gravitational and gravitational-capillary waves.
Taking into account the features considered, the present chapter proposes an approach to comparing satellite and contact measurements, which consists of the following:
Conducting experiments under controlled conditions, including satellite imagery of sea surface test areas and synchronous measurements using contact equipment and/or stereo-photogrammetric imagery of the sea surface from a low altitude.
Retrieving sea surface spectra from space images under fixed conditions for obtaining these images.
Calculation of frequency spectra of waves from contact data obtained by wave recorders.
Formation of wave spectra from the satellite data of stereo-photogrammetric image processing.
Comparison of wave spectra obtained remotely with contact and/or stereo-photogrammetric measurements.
Consider the relationship between the spatial spectra of the sea surface, reconstructed from optical images, as well as frequency and frequency-directed wave spectra, measured by contact sensors, and characterize the fluctuations in sea level over time at a fixed point.
The frequency spectrum of sea surface elevations Sξ(ω) characterizes the distribution of wave oscillations at a given point along the cyclic frequencies ω, ω = 2π/τ, where τ is the period of the wave oscillation.
The spatial wave spectrum characterizes the energy distribution at a fixed time instant with respect to wave numbers k (or spatial frequencies ν = 1/Λ), k = 2π/Λ, where Λ is the length of the surface wave.
Spatial and frequency spectra of waves are functions of different arguments. They have different physical meanings and require the use of different methods of measurement. Therefore, to compare the spectra measured by different methods, a dispersion relation is used that describes the relationship between the time and spatial frequencies of waves, depending on the physical mechanisms that form the surface waves of the range in question. Within the framework of the linear hydrodynamic model, the components of the wave spectrum can be considered as elementary plane waves, for which the dispersion relation of the theory of potential waves of small amplitude that relates the cyclic frequency of the wave (ω) to the wave number k is valid. In deep water (for kh ≫ 1, where h is the depth), the dispersion relation taking into account the contribution of gravitational and capillary forces to wave formation has the form
ωk=gk+Τ/ρk3E11
For gravitational waves (for Λ>10−1m), the relation (11) is simplified and takes the form
ωk=gkE12
The dispersion relation makes it possible to establish a relationship between the spatial spectrum of χ(k) characterizing the total energy of waves with a wave number k propagating in all possible directions and a frequency spectrum S(ω) characterizing the total energy of waves with a cyclic frequency ω propagating in all possible directions
χk=Sωkdωkdk.E13
On the other hand, a one-dimensional spatial spectrum can be obtained from the two-dimensional spectrum of sea surface elevations Ψ(k) by integrating over the azimuth
χk=∫−π/2π/2ΨkcosφksinφkdφE14
Thus, the spectrum χk can be used as a base function and recalculate the spectra obtained by various measurement methods in this spectrum by means of appropriate transformations.
4. The results of experimental studies
To solve the problems of validation of the developed methods, the results obtained in three types of experiments were used [19, 22]:
The first type of experiments consisted of carrying out space surveys and synchronous sea truth measurements of wave spectra near the stationary oceanographic platform.
The second type of experiments consisted of carrying out a space survey of the investigated water area and simultaneous measurements of wave spectra with the help of drifting wave buoys.
The third type of experiments consisted of carrying out studies in the short-wave region of wave spectra (Λ = 0.04–1.0 m) with the help of string wave recorders, object photography and stereo survey from the deck of the oceanographic platform.
Let us briefly summarize some experimental results of these types.
Experimental work of the first type was carried out in the area of the oceanographic platform (Katsiveli settlement, Crimea), installed at a distance of about 600 m from the shore.
For the measurement of space-time wave spectra, contact data obtained using a wave measuring unit based on an array of string wave recorders, which were a set of six resistive wave recorders measuring the elevations of the sea surface at points located in the center and at the top of the pentagon, were used.
The distance from the central string to each of the external strings was 25 cm. The main technical characteristics of this complex were as follows:
Resolution—no worse than 3 mm
Number of measuring channels—6
Frequency of interrogation of channels—10, 20, 50, and 100 Hz
The maximum height of the measured waves was up to 4 m.
During the first type of experiments, a special space imagery was conducted in the vicinity of the oceanographic platform using high-spatial resolution (0.5 m) optic-electronic equipment installed on board the GEOEYE spacecraft. A brief overview of the complex experiments conducted on September 24, 2015 at 11:52 (LT) and on September 12, 2011 at 12:06 is presented below. The presented experiments were characterized by different conditions of wave formation. During the first complex experiment, developing wind waves were observed at a near-surface wind speed of about 4 m/s. During the second complex experiment, the velocity of the near-surface wind varied from 0 to 2 m/s; however, swell waves were present in the experiment zone.
Figures 1 and 2 show the results of a joint analysis of sea wave spectra obtained from satellite and contact data under various wave formation conditions. Figure 1 shows the results of an experiment conducted on September 24, 2015 under the conditions of developing wind waves, and Figure 2 shows the results experiment, conducted on September 12, 2012 with weak wind waves in the presence of swell waves [19, 20]. Figures 1(a) and 2(a) show the reconstructed spatial spectra of sea surface slopes in a wide range of spatial frequencies, and Figures 1(b) and 2(b) show the slope spectra in the region of the spectral maximum and low spatial frequencies are enlarged.
Figure 1.
Comparison of the spectra of developing wind waves measured from remote and contact data of the complex experiment. September 24, 2015: (a) and (b) two-dimensional slope spectrum recovered in two intervals of spatial frequencies; (c) comparison of the one-dimensional frequency spectrum of the elevations obtained from the two-dimensional spectrum of slopes by the retrieving operator R, with the spectrum obtained from the data of the string wave recorder. The dashed lines denote the Toba approximation [23].
Figure 2.
Comparison of the spectra of weak wind waves in the presence of swell waves measured from remote and contact experimental data. September 12, 2012: (a) and (b) two-dimensional slope spectrum recovered in two intervals of spatial frequencies; (c) comparison of the one-dimensional frequency spectrum of the elevations obtained from the two-dimensional spectrum of slopes by the retrieving operator R, with the spectrum obtained from the data of the string wave recorder.
Figures 1(c) and 2(c) show a comparison of the one-dimensional frequency spectrum of the elevations obtained from the two-dimensional spectrum of slopes with the frequency spectrum of the elevations obtained from the data of the array of string wave recorders. The conjugated spectra conditionally show the boundary ω0 between the frequency domains corresponding to the regions of action of the high-frequency and low-frequency reconstructing operators included in the formula (9) [20].
The comparison of the graphs of one-dimensional frequency spectra of waves, shown in Figures 1 and 2, allows us to visually evaluate the good correspondence between the spectra measured by contact data and spectra reconstructed from remote data.
For the quantitative analysis of the correspondence between the results of remote and contact measurements, a measure of discrepancy was used, calculated from formula
Δ=1/N∑n=1N1−Ψспωn/Ψcontactωn2E15
For the complex experiment carried out on September 24, 2010, the measure of discrepancy estimated by formula (15) was Δ ≈ 0.07, and for the experiment conducted on September 12, 2012, this measure of divergence amounted to Δ ≈ 0.08. The obtained results indicate the adequacy of the determination of wave spectra from satellite images of high spatial resolution.
During the experiments of the second type, a space survey was conducted in the vicinity of Oahu Island (Hawaii, USA) from the Ikonos and QuickBird satellites, which provided space images of high spatial resolution (0.65–1.0 m) and synchronous measurements of the frequency-angular wave spectra with the help of two wave buoys, drifting in the space survey area.
The experiments were carried out to assess the anthropogenic impacts on the water area of Mamala bay, using satellite and contact data [19]. In the course of complex experiments, space surveys and synchronous sea truth measurements were carried out, including with the help of drifting wave buoys, which ensure the registration of frequency-angle spectra of surface waves.
The following circumstance was taken into account when processing the data of the complex experiment. IKONOS and QuickBird satellites were photographed in these experiments far from the sunlight, and the resolution of the survey cameras of these satellites allowed us to fix surface waves of the submeter range (0.6–1.0 m). Under such conditions, the nonlinear components of the brightness field of the sea surface make an insignificant contribution to the spectra of satellite images. In this connection, in the analysis of complex experiment data, it is permissible to use the linear model, according to which the two-dimensional spatial spectra of satellite images S (kx, ky) are linearly related to the spatial spectra of sea wave inclinations Ψφ (νx, νy).
The results of comparison of the wave spectra obtained on the basis of remote data and drifting buoy data are shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3.
The results of a joint analysis of sea wave spectra obtained from space images and from drifting wave buoys: (a) the initial space image and its fragment used for processing; (b) two-dimensional spatial spectrum of the selected fragment and its enlarged central part (right); (c) installation of a wave buoy; (d) a one-dimensional spatial spectrum obtained from the two-dimensional spectrum of the satellite image; (e) the frequency spectrum obtained by a wave buoy; (f) comparison of frequency spectra obtained by different methods.
During the processing, fragments of satellite images with dimensions of 1024 × 1024 or 2048 × 2048 pixels were selected in such a way that the fragment overlapped the wave buoy path at the time of shooting (see Figure 3a). The data obtained by measurements with a wave buoy (see Figure 3c) were selected in such a way that the moment of the survey was as close as possible to the end of the half-hour accumulation of data obtained by the buoy. For the selected image fragments, two-dimensional spatial spectra S (kx, ky) were formed, examples of which are shown in Figure 3b, and according to measurements by wave buoys, the frequency-angle spectra of the elevations Ψε (ω, θ) are constructed.
Two-dimensional spectra of satellite images S (kx, ky) (see Figure 3b) also yielded one-dimensional spatial spectra S (k) (see Figure 3d), and from the frequency-angle spectra of the elevations Ψ (ω, θ) obtained by wave buoys, the frequency spectra of Ψ (ω) (see Figure 3e) were constructed in the chosen directions.
From the one-dimensional spatial spectra obtained from two-dimensional spectra of satellite images using the dispersion relation for gravitational waves, the frequency spectra S (ω) were determined from the formula (12).
An important stage in the comparison of wave spectra obtained from space images and data from wave buoys is the detection of additional spectral harmonics due to anthropogenic effects on the surface waves caused by buried wastewater outfalls in the region of the experiments [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. Such spectral harmonics arise under the action of high-frequency internal waves generated by turbulent jets of nonsalty water discharged into the saline marine environment through the diffusers of deep outfalls. Similar effects are caused by various physical mechanisms, analyzed in [14, 15].
The conducted experiments’ results and comparison of additional spectral harmonics detected on the base of satellite image spectra and wave buoy data have confirmed the efficiency of remote methods for detection of manifestations of anthropogenic impacts on the water environment taking into account wave spectra changes.
Experimental work of the third type was performed completely on the oceanographic platform in Katsiveli settlement (Crimea).
To verify the adequacy of the methods for retrieving sea wave spectra in the 0.1–1 m short-wave range, the results of complex field experiments of the third type were analyzed. These experiments were carried out at an oceanographic platform, including conventional and stereo survey, as well as contact measurements of wave spectra using a wave recorder array. Stereo surveying of the sea surface was carried out from the working platform, which was located at a height of 16 m above sea level with a 10.2 m basis using stereocameras with a focal length of 99 mm. From the measured elevation field samples, the spectra Ψϕ (kϕ) were calculated using the interpolation and discrete Fourier transform procedures. Simultaneously, with the stereoscopic shooting on the platform, contact measurements of the frequency spectra of waves were performed using a wave spectrograph providing registration in the frequency range of 0.1–15 Hz with a tunable filter bandwidth of 0.1 Hz. In the wave spectrograph, a method for sequential analysis of the frequency spectrum was realized by automatically tuning the transmission frequency of a narrowband filter in a given interval [22].
Images of the sea surface obtained during stereo photography were also used to retrieve the wave spectra by a nonlinear multiposition method [22]. At the same time, fragments of two stereopair images were analyzed on which a surface area processed by a stereo-photogrammetric method is presented. Experimental conditions: the zenith angle of the Sun was 30° (the images were recorded with a cloudless sky), and the wind speed was 5 m/s. During the experiments, the wind blew from the shore, so the acceleration of wind waves did not exceed the distance from the platform to the shore, which was ~600 m.
As the main characteristics for comparing the wave spectra obtained by different methods, the rms elevation σξ and the power exponent px in two wavelength intervals Λ were chosen: from 0.1 to 1 m and from 0.04 to 0.4 m. The wave spectra, measured by different methods, were recalculated in spatial spectra of χ (k).
In the presence of solar glitters in the image, which cause a significant nonlinearity of the transfer function, which connects the slopes and the brightness of the elements of the sea surface, systematic errors arise in retrieving the spectra of waves. Such errors were eliminated by means of nonlinear retrieval filters adapted to the wave characteristics using an iterative procedure for retrieving the wave spectra [20, 25].
Quantitative estimates of these errors were given in [17, 21], where it was shown that even with the use of images containing solar patches, two iterations of retrieving obtained from different positions are sufficient to reduce the relative error in measuring the integral spectral energy to ≈3% and the error determines the exponent of the power-law approximation of the wave spectrum to ≈0.03.
To correct the spectra of elevations obtained by the stereo method, the noise of digitization resulting from errors in measuring the elevations of the surface during stereo-photogrammetric image processing was taken into account. It was assumed that the noise is additive, so their spectrum was subtracted from the spectra measured during processing [22].
The form of short-wave spatial spectra of sea surface elevations χ (k), obtained from data of different measurement methods, is shown in Figure 4. The spectra are constructed by averaging over six realizations. The analysis of Figure 4 indicates a good correspondence of the wave spectra obtained by different methods in the short-wave range of wavelengths (Λ = 0.04–1.0 m). The character of the obtained spatial spectra of the elevations testifies to the possibility of their power-law approximation by the Toba formula [23], recalculated taking into account the dispersion relation (12).
Figure 4.
Spatial spectra of sea surface elevations, obtained by different methods: (1) retrieving of images by the nonlinear multiposition method; (2) contact measurements by a string wave; (3) stereo-photogrammetric measurements; red lines denote Toba approximation.
To generalize the data obtained, such characteristics of the spectra as the exponents of power approximation and the dispersion of wave energy in different wavelength ranges were analyzed. For the wavelength range Λ = 1.0–5.0 m, wave spectra were used, which were determined from the space image obtained from the GEOEYE satellite by the nonlinear recovery approach. For shortwave waves (Λ = 0.04–1.0 m), experimental data obtained in six experiments of the third type by three methods in two bands were used: Λ = 0.04–0.4 m and Λ = 0.1–1.0 m.
For comparison with known literature data, the parameters of wave spectra were calculated from the well-known approximations: Phillips, Pierson-Moskovitz, Toba, Leikin, and Rosenberg [19]. The values of the variances and exponents of power approximations of the spatial spectra of sea surface elevations, obtained experimentally by various methods, as well as obtained from known approximations, were analyzed in [19].
Analysis of the experimental data has shown that there is a coincidence of statistical estimates of the characteristics of sea waves measured by different methods within the mean square scatter of samples of these parameters. This indicates that the developed remote methods sufficiently accurately determine the characteristics of sea waves.
The most important for practice is the determination of the exponent p in power approximation. An analysis of the data obtained in the experiments shows that the parameters of the spectra of waves retrieved from the image spectra correspond best to the Toba approximation [23].
The obtained results of the studies by remote methods made it possible to reveal the following values of the parameters p for the experimental conditions:
p = 2.22 ± 0.08 for the wavelength interval Λ = 1.0–5.0 m; p = 2.23 ± 0.09 for the short-wavelength wavelength interval Λ = 0.1–1.0 m; p = 2.1 ± 0.08 for the short-wavelength wavelength interval Λ = 0.04–0.4 m.
To determine the effect of sea surface disturbances associated with the nonstationary nature of the wave, correlation analysis was used to obtain the estimates. Correlation coefficients between sea surface characteristics in the short-wave range were studied in [19].
The correlation of the estimates carried out by various methods is quite high, and averages were 0.8–0.9. Those cases in which there is a decrease in the correlation coefficient are explained by the peculiarities of the measurement methods. For example, a slight decrease in the correlation coefficient of estimates of the exponent px obtained by the contact method, with estimates obtained from the images, is due to the time diversity of the registration of the spectral density at different frequencies ω. During the tuning of the filter transmission frequency, a change in the spectral density of the wave at different frequencies ω can occur, which leads to a deviation in the estimate of the exponent of the elevation spectrum with respect to estimates obtained for a fixed time in image processing [22].
Good correlation between independently measured wave spectra allows us to conclude that the developed remote measurement methods reliably reflect real processes in the ocean-atmosphere boundary layer.
Retrieving operators constructed by the numerical method and having passed the calibration procedure using contact data were used for experimental studies in various water areas [16, 18, 19, 20].
One of the important experiments was to study the development of wind waves at various distances from the shore. An experiment of this type was conducted in the water area of Mamala Bay near the Oahu Island (Hawaii, USA) [19].
Figure 5 shows four fragments of the space image obtained by the QuickBird satellite with 0.65 m spatial resolution, and the spectra of slopes retrieved on their base.
Figure 5.
Fragments of the satellite image obtained at various distances from the shore in the water area of Mamala Bay off the Oahu Island and retrieved two-dimensional spatial spectra of sea wave slopes.
An analysis of the two-dimensional retrieved slope spectra shows that, as the distance from the coast and the wind regime change, characteristic additional wave systems develop. At the same time, the energy of sea waves increases with the distance from the coast and the increase in wind speed.
Figure 6 presents one-dimensional spatial elevation spectra obtained by averaging over the direction of two-dimensional spatial spectra of elevations in the 70° angular sector, recovered using the developed retrieving operator.
Figure 6.
One-dimensional spatial spectra of sea wave elevation, retrieved from fragments of the satellite image, obtained at different distances from the shore at different wind speeds in the water area of Mamala Bay near Oahu (Hawaii, USA).
The analysis of Figure 6 shows that the course of one-dimensional spectra retrieved from the two-dimensional spatial spectra of fragments of the satellite image depends on wind speed and the distance of the corresponding sections from the shore. The shape and position of the spectral maxima depends not only on the speed of the near-surface wind but also on the acceleration from the leeward shore, which in this experiment was between 10 and 50 km.
5. Conclusion
A method is developed to retrieve the spectra of gradients and elevations of sea waves from the spectra of aerospace optical images over a wide frequency range, based on the formation of a retrieving operator that takes into account the nonlinear character of the modulation of the brightness field by sea surface slopes.
The conducted studies demonstrated the effectiveness and adequacy of the application of the method of recovering the spectra of gradients and elevations of sea waves from satellite optical images of high spatial resolution.
The optimal parameters of such a retrieving operator are determined by an iterative method when comparing the spectra of aerospace images with spectra with sea wave characteristics measured with high accuracy by string waveforms under controlled conditions.
During the research, the spatial spectral characteristics of sea waves estimated from remote sensing data were compared with the corresponding characteristics measured by contact means under controlled conditions. The satellite data used for the comparison were the arrays of string wave recorders mounted on a stationary oceanographic platform, the data of a stereo survey performed with a high spatial resolution from a low altitude above the sea surface, as well as data of drifting wave buoys. Comparison of the spectra of waves and their statistical characteristics demonstrated the consistency of the results obtained in the processing of satellite images of high spatial resolution and the results of processing data obtained by various sea truth assets.
Experiments carried out in different water areas demonstrated the possibility of using a retrieving operator with optimal values of parameters found under certain conditions for obtaining satellite optical images of the sea surface for a wide range of wave formation conditions.
As a result of the application of numerical optimization procedures, the values of the parameters of nonlinear retrieving filters that are effective in both developed and developing waves, as well as in the presence of swell waves, are chosen. In this case, the measurement of the divergence of the wave spectra obtained from satellite images of high spatial resolution and subsatellite data at optimal values of these parameters is 0.08–0.12. This testifies to the adequacy of the proposed method for recording wave spectra from the spectra of satellite images over a wide frequency range.
Thus, the adequacy of remote measurement of both the time-averaged spectra of the sea surface and the variations of these spectra caused by wave nonstationarity using high spatial resolution images and nonlinear recovering operators has been experimentally confirmed. The conducted researches made it possible to develop methods and technologies for comprehensive ground-space monitoring of marine areas to obtain such important oceanographic characteristics as surface wave spectra.
The developed method can be used to study surface wave conditions, including in the space monitoring of natural and anthropogenic impacts on the marine waters.
Acknowledgments
The work was carried out with the financial support of the state represented by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation in the framework of the Federal Program “Research and development in priority areas of development of the scientific and technological complex of Russia for 2014-2020” (unique identifier of the project RFMEFI57716X0234).
\n',keywords:"wave spectra, surface waves, remote sensing, image processing",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/58684.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/58684.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58684",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58684",totalDownloads:962,totalViews:206,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:39,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 5th 2017",dateReviewed:"October 20th 2017",datePrePublished:"December 20th 2017",datePublished:"May 2nd 2018",dateFinished:"January 9th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The chapter is devoted to the development of methods for remote measurement of spatial spectra of waves arising on marine and ocean surface. It is shown that in most natural conditions of optical image formation, a nonlinear modulation of the brightness field occurs by slopes of water surface elements. Methods for reconstructing the spectra of surface waves from optical image spectra with allowance for such modulation are proposed. The methods are based on the numerical simulation of water surface taking into account wave formation conditions and conditions of light entering the sea surface from the upper and lower hemispheres. Using the results of numerical simulation, special operators are built to retrieve wave spectra from the spectra of aerospace images. These retrieving operators are presented in the form of analytical expressions, depending on the sets of parameters, which are determined by the conditions for the formation of images. The results of experimental studies of the sea wave spectra in various water areas using satellite optical images of high spatial resolution are presented. In the experimental studies, the spatial spectral characteristics of sea waves estimated from remote sensing data were compared with the corresponding characteristics measured by contact assets under controlled conditions.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/58684",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/58684",book:{id:"6244",slug:"surface-waves-new-trends-and-developments"},signatures:"Valery G. Bondur and Alexander B. Murynin",authors:[{id:"23328",title:"Prof.",name:"Valery",middleName:null,surname:"Bondur",fullName:"Valery Bondur",slug:"valery-bondur",email:"vgbondur@aerocosmos.info",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Aerocosmos",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210498",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Murynin",fullName:"Alexander Murynin",slug:"alexander-murynin",email:"amurynin@bk.ru",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. An approach to retrieve marine surface spectra",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Calibration and verification of the adequacy of remote methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. The results of experimental studies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Monin AS, Krasitsky VP. Ocean Surface Phenomena. Leningrad: Gidrometeoizdat; 1985. 375 p'},{id:"B2",body:'Phillips OM. Dynamics of the Upper Ocean Layer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1977. 336 p'},{id:"B3",body:'Davidan IN, Lopatukhin LI, Rozhkov VA. Wind Waves in the World Ocean. Leningrad: Gidrometeoizdat; 1985. 289 p'},{id:"B4",body:'Bondur VG. Aerospace methods in modern oceanology. In: New Ideas in Oceanology, Physics, Chemistry, and Biology. Vol. 1. Moscow: Nauka; 2004. pp. 55-117'},{id:"B5",body:'Bondur VG, Grebenyuk YV. Remote indication of anthropogenic influence on marine environment caused by depth wastewater plume: Modeling, experiments. Issledovaniya Zemli iz Kosmosa. 2001;6:46-67'},{id:"B6",body:'Keeler R, Bondur V, Gibson C. Optical satellite imagery detection of internal wave effects from a submerged turbulent outfall in the stratified ocean. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
The purpose of buildings is to protect the occupants from a harsh outdoor climate, but also to provide a comfortable and healthy indoor environment. The latter two objectives are intimately related to building ventilation, i.e. the exchange of indoor air with outdoor air. However, 40% of the total consumption of energy resources in the European Union (EU) can be traced to building use. [1] A large part of the consumption is due to the need to condition the indoor air for the thermal comfort of the occupants, i.e. heating or cooling depending on the outdoor climate. In these situations, exchanging the conditioned indoor air for unconditioned outdoor air obviously raises the energy consumption. On the other hand, striving for more energy efficient buildings without a clear strategy for adequate ventilation is likely to lead to more toxic and hazardous indoor environments. In a wider perspective, the relative projected societal costs for the occupants of a building, compared to the energy use in that building, are probably nine to one. [2] Compromising public health in the name of “energy efficiency” can therefore lead to a considerable economic backlash for society. In a larger perspective, many indoor sources of pollutants in the world have been identified as major causes of premature mortality, e.g. combustion of biomass fuels for cooking, burning incense or mosquito coils and parental smoking. [3, 4] In addition, if the occupants perceive the indoor environment to be unhealthy or uncomfortable, they are likely to take actions (e.g. use air cleaners or increase ventilation flows) that will increase the energy use in buildings. [5]
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After the energy crisis in 1973, new and renovated buildings have been built with increasingly tighter envelopes to stop uncontrolled air exchanges through cracks and leaks in the construction and to improve energy efficiency. In 1974, the “Passivhaus”-concept combined three energy-saving measures: adequate thermal insulation, a tight envelope, and heat recovery into the idea of a building requiring no, or very little, energy use after it was built. [6] After a few serious backlashes in the early days, the building technologies used to achieve energy efficiency in nearly zero energy (NZE) buildings are currently more mature, but the efficiency of the corresponding ventilation strategies have not been given the same attention. There are several examples of inadequate ventilation in NZE buildings. [7] After the EU Energy Performance in Buildings Directive (EPBD) in 2010, [1] stipulating that all new building should meet the NZE requirements, a majority of EU ventilation experts were worried that EPBD would lead to a worse indoor air quality as compared to the current state. [8]
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The EPBD is an integral part of the European Green Deal: an action plan to reach a “climate neutral” EU economy. [9] The European Green Deal outlines a more sustainable path for economic and societal development to “transform the EU into a fair and prosperous society, with a modern, resource-efficient and competitive economy”. [9] The European Green Deal addresses many issues: a toxic-free environment; preserving and restoring ecosystems and biodiversity; circular economy; a fair, healthy and environmentally friendly food system; but much focus is devoted to an energy transition to reach zero net emissions of greenhouse gases in the EU by 2050 at the latest. [9] Zero net emissions means that there should be a balance, between the actual emissions of greenhouse gases and the absorption of greenhouse gases by nature (or other processes), in some bookkeeping system like the Emission Trading System. [9, 11] This goal of net zero emissions by 2050 will be legally binding for the member states if the proposal for an EU Climate Law is ratified. [10] Renewable energy sources as well as moving to more energy efficient and sustainable solutions play essential roles in the European Green Deal. [9] The EPBD is the result of the European Commission’s resolve to “rigorously enforce legislation related to the energy performance of buildings”. [9]
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Another issue addressed in EPBD (and its amendments as well as in the European Green Deal) is that 85% of the present building stock in the EU is built before 2001, and most of those buildings are not considered energy efficient. [12, 13] More importantly, at the current rate of renewal (1%), 85–95% of the buildings that will be standing in 2050 are already built. [9, 12, 13] Increasing the rate of renovation of the existing building stock to NZE standard should therefore be strongly encouraged in order to reach “climate neutrality”. [12] Recently, the European Commission also proposed to triple the building renewal rate to 3% coupled with an even more aggressive renovation strategy to kick-start the EU economy after Covid-19. [14]
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Adapting existing buildings to NZE are much more complex tasks than to build a NZE-building from scratch. It requires a considerable knowledge-base of old building techniques, old installations, and the consequences that may arise when NZE technologies are retrofitted to these older structures. In addition, 25% of the existing buildings are historic and will require respect for aesthetics, conservations principles and architectural craftsmanship. [15] In fact, the craftsmanship in many older buildings, although non-historic, deserve the same respect. However, the guiding principle of EPBD: “Energy efficiency first”, clearly states that the energy aspect will be given a high weight in a decision conflict. [14] Even though the EPBD states that indoor environments should be healthy or that cultural heritage should be safeguarded and preserved, it is obvious that these incentives will be pushed towards the minimum legal requirements when they are in conflict with the efforts to achieve energy efficiency. [12]
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In the decision conflict between energy efficiency in buildings and adequate ventilation, EPBD has put an increasing pressure on governmental agencies in the member states to lower the standards for ventilation and air quality in existing building codes and ventilation regulations (see discussion in Section 2.3). [12] From a ventilation perspective, the standards for air quality should rather become more stringent when the buildings become tighter. There is a balance between the existing ventilation regulations in a country and the air leakages in its building stock because these air leakages contribute to the indoor ventilation, albeit uncontrollably. Legislative regulations on the performance of ventilation systems are also important counter balances to the quest for energy efficiency in buildings. The pressing question is what must, or should, be regulated to ensure an adequate indoor environment that is comfortable and healthy for the occupants. The aim of Section 2 of this chapter is to investigate possible answers to this question and put them in a wider perspective.
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Another effect, of the coming EPBD renovation wave, is probably that the number of buildings with natural ventilation systems will decrease. [8] Many of the older buildings have some kind of natural ventilation system, whereas most new buildings have mechanical ventilation systems. Because heat recovery is such an important ingredient in NZE buildings, mechanical ventilation systems will be chosen more frequently in spite of the fact that some of the energy recovered will be offset by the energy used by the fans. In a milder climate, a balanced mechanical ventilation system with heat recovery will probably save very little energy and would be costly from a life cycle perspective. [16] Fully functional older buildings with natural ventilation systems will perhaps be retrofitted with mechanical ventilation systems and lose some of their aesthetical or cultural heritage values. On the other side of the spectrum, if such a building cannot satisfy the building code regulations, it may be declared unfit for use and demolished. [17] It would naively appear that natural ventilation, where natural driving forces for air flows are used to ventilate the building, is a more sustainable solution than mechanical ventilation, where electrical energy is used to power fans that generate air flows with high pressures. While even the older natural ventilation systems have many advantages regarding occupant satisfaction, they have some difficulties to compete with the mechanical systems when it comes to predictability, controllability, and heat recovery. [16, 18] Nevertheless, natural ventilation systems are considered the more sustainable options in many research initiatives. [19, 20, 21, 22]
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From this perspective, a revival of the use of natural ventilation systems, rather than the projected decline outlined above, would be desired. There are a number of new promising innovations and old, forgotten, know-how is rediscovered, e.g. wind towers, evaporative cooling, solar chimneys and box windows to name a few. [23] The thermal performances of many ancient buildings, with natural ventilation systems, are far superior to many modern buildings, with mechanical ventilation systems. The list could probably be made very long, but some selected examples are: the “baadgir” in the Dolatabaad garden in Yazd, Iran, that uses several of the mentioned techniques [24]; the Villas at Costozza, Italy, use cool air from nearby caves; the Palazzo Pitti in Florence, Italy, use the cooler air from the Boboli gardens and further cool it underground; the cloister Palazzo Marchese in Palermo, Italy, cool the air underground and augment the effect using underground rivers. [23] Natural ventilation systems thus display many good properties, but their drawbacks will prevent them from fulfilling all ventilation needs. The future of sustainable ventilation will probably be centered on optimal combinations of natural and mechanical ventilation techniques instead, i.e. hybrid ventilation systems.
\n
While there are many good modern examples of buildings with natural and hybrid ventilation systems, [21] there are at least three important hurdles to cross. One hurdle is that the local building codes and the ventilation regulations in many instances are written with mechanical ventilation systems in mind, which makes it difficult for natural ventilation systems to comply. The second hurdle is that architects and builders may consider natural ventilation systems as a more risky option than mechanical ventilation systems. Describing the low pressure systems of natural ventilation is inherently more difficult than to describe the high pressure systems of mechanical ventilation. The most diligent Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) description of natural ventilation can be completely transformed when occupants are moving or closing doors. To cross this hurdle, better tools for design of larger buildings with natural or hybrid ventilation are needed. [16, 25] The third hurdle is urbanization. Many effects of urbanization: pollution, “heat islands”, and wind obstruction, favor the use of mechanical ventilation systems. [20] Ventilation requires the outdoor air to be healthy, otherwise it must be cleaned at a considerable cost of energy. There are many issues concerning natural ventilation to discuss, but in this chapter, there is only a brief discussion (at the end of Section 2) on the hurdles for natural ventilation systems in the local building codes and ventilation regulations.
\n
\n
\n
2. Requirements for ventilation
\n
The purpose of building ventilation is to provide a healthy and comfortable environment for the occupants. However, the human perception of the conditions that constitute a healthy and comfortable environment depends on many factors. [26, 27] The section starts with a historical perspective on the evolution of different ideas concerning the relationship between ventilation and human health and comfort. This is followed by a theoretical treatment of ventilation that hopefully will give the reader some insights into how a good ventilation system performance may be specified. The section finishes with a critical examination of how legislative regulations of ventilation are specified and some suggestions on how it may be modified to facilitate the use of natural and hybrid ventilation systems.
\n
\n
2.1 A short history of ventilation and health effects
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The notion that “bad air” leads to health problems has a long history. The name for the disease malaria is derived from the Italian mala aria that literally means “bad air”. The origin of the word, used in the sense that the surrounding air in wet, and swampy locations is a cause of disease, can be traced back as far as the ancient Greeks and Romans. Another word for “bad air”, first used in 1655, is “miasma” that is derived from the Greek minainein “to pollute”. In the advent of urbanization in the late eighteen hundreds, medical doctors observed that diseases were more common in the poorer areas of cities. These areas were often overcrowded and situated in unsuitable damp areas. Two battling theories were put forth: the miasma-theory preached that diseases were caused by locally generated emissions (or antropotoxins); the contagium-theory preached that diseases were caused by poisonous particles that were transferred between humans. The father of ventilation science, Max von Pettenkofer, was a front figure for the miasma-theory and suggested increased air flows into the dwellings to remove the locally generated emissions. [28] A leader of the contagium-theory (from Latin contagio “contact”), i.e. the father of clinical microbiology Robert Koch, instead suggested measures to limit the spread of the supposed contagium: isolation, quarantine, and border control [29]. The scientific battle was infected by political undertones. The latter measures were unpopular among the trade-friendly industrialists that were politically opposed to the more isolation-friendly local land owners at this time. [30] It was a heated battle, where von Pettenkofer scored some political points when he in 1892 drank a cocktail of cholera bacteria without catching the disease. [31] He was probably immune. [30] By 1900, bacteria were firmly established as the contagium-vehicle. It was a landslide victory to the point where most of von Pettenkofers academic contributions were practically erased. He continued to maintain that miasma ought to be an aiding factor in the spread of diseases, until he killed himself with a pistol head shot in 1901. [30]
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Today this issue may not be altogether black or white. Ventilation and overcrowding have been shown to indirectly influence the spread of diseases. [32] It becomes difficult to conduct good scientific work when political polarization and strong emotions enter the scientific discussion. The historical lessons are not so easy to adopt, as evidenced by more recent heated scientific battles such as global warming or the present Covid-19 battles (see for example [33]).
\n
A remaining miasma-related question concerned the rising sense of discomfort experienced by humans in overcrowded rooms. It was well known at the time that enclosing people in a room with very little ventilation lead to symptoms like headache, nausea and dizziness. In severe cases it could even lead to unconsciousness and death. The father of chemistry, Antoine Lavoisier, in cooperation with Laplace had demonstrated in 1783 that the cause of death could not be attributed to lack of oxygen molecules, but probably to an excess of carbon dioxide [34]. Exhaled air of humans contain approximately 44 000 ppm of metabolic CO2. [35] This means that the excess CO2 in the blood cannot be expelled at exposures to CO2 concentrations above that. Accumulation of CO2 in the blood cause the pH to progressively decrease, and in turn this leads to a series of bodily malfunctions. Death by drowning is caused by the increasing acidity of the blood (acidosis) as the CO2 concentration accumulates and not by too few oxygen molecules in the lungs. Exposure to 20 000 ppm CO2 leads to headache and shortness of breath after a few hours. Exposure to 70 000–100 000 ppm CO2 leads to unconsciousness after a few minutes. Exposure to >170 000 ppm CO2 causes death in humans within one minute from first inhalation. [36] To illustrate how high these concentrations are: a human hermetically enclosed in a 2.5 m3 box would probably still be barely conscious after 24 hours, assuming an exhalation rate equivalent to 0.018 m3 h−1 pure CO2. [35] Pettenkofer had dismissed CO2 as the cause of diseases, but had developed simple methods to measure it and suggested that the concentration of CO2 could be used as a proxy for the supposed antropotoxins. While investigating public venues in Munich, he had found values as high as 7100 ppm CO2. [31] Pettenkofer noticed that human odours were clearly perceptible around 1000 ppm CO2 (now known as the Pettenkofer number) and proposed this as a “safe” target to strive for.
\n
The final blow to the miasma-theories was dealt by Carl Flügge in 1905. [37] He devised a series of experiments enclosing humans in glass boxes. The air supply to the breathing zone and to the rest of the box could be controlled separately, as well as other parameters such as temperature and relative humidity. Among other parameters, Flügge varied the odors in the air supply, e.g. air from sewage etc. He found that only the appetite of the subjects was adversely affected, otherwise the subjects adapted to the foul smells. The only “contaminant” that had any adverse effect on the comfort of the subjects was temperature. [38] These experiments totally obliterated the contemporary ventilation philosophy and turned it on its head. There appeared to be no evidence for regulating ventilation from a chemical perspective, as long as the physical parameters (like temperature and relative humidity) were within acceptable comfort-limits. The purpose of a window quickly changed from letting fresh air in to letting heat out. However, some practitioners argued (on the basis of proven experience) that it might be wise to retain some ventilation flows into buildings. [30] It took several years before new ventilation standards were proposed. [38]
\n
The need for ventilation, and the chemical perspective, slowly crept back via odor-control. The human nose is in fact very sensitive to certain indoor odors. From an evolutionary perspective, it appears to have been advantageous for humans to judge a dwelling by its smell. While the human nose may adapt, people were not comfortable with entering a room with foul smells. This angle provided an incentive for new and fruitful experiments on ventilation requirements. In 1936, Yaglou et al. [40] extended some experiments performed by Lehmberg et al. [41] the year before. They conducted a series of experiments on a group of people to determine their subjective acceptance of the perceived air quality upon entering a test chamber. By varying a number of parameters in the test chamber, Yaglou et al. demonstrated a correlation between the degree of acceptance, the pollution load, and the ventilation air flow into the test chamber. Their results were immediately, but cautiously, adopted by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). [38]
\n
\n\nFigure 1\n (inspired by Awbi [35]) shows a compilation of the ventilation requirements historically recommended by ASHRAE, including its predecessors. [38] The news of Flügge’s experiments hit like a bomb when it was presented at the ASHRAE 1911-meeting. [30] All previously accepted ventilation requirements were for all practical purposes under reevaluation until 1936. [37] (The reason why the old high ventilation requirements were maintained for some time (as shown in \nFigure 1\n) had to do with the fact that the previous requirements were included in many state laws. [37]) Yaglou also studied the ventilation requirements in relation to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS). [42] As non-smokers are very sensitive to any remaining smoke odor, he found that very high ventilation rates were required to reach acceptance (from them). Smoking was very common at the time. In 1965, 43% of U.S. adults were regular smokers. [43] As health concerns in U.S.A. regarding smoking and indoor ETS were starting to be officially recognized from 1964 and onwards, the question of ventilation requirements started to become a hot topic again. [43] In the ASHRAE Standard 62 (1981), two ventilation requirements for offices were proposed (shown in red in \nFigure 1\n). The lower one applied to offices without smokers and the higher one to offices where smoking was allowed. This was immediately perceived as a business threat by the tobacco industry. A memorandum circulated at Philip Morris concludes that adopting and enforcing this standard would at least double the maintenance costs for a workplace that allow smoking. [44] In the end, neither the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), nor the Building and Official Code Administrators adopted the 1981 standard as it was considered “controversial”. Therefore, the standard was never enforced. In the next “revised” standard that was accepted by ANSI, i.e. ASHRAE 62 (1989), the lower ventilation requirement was retained and moderate smoking was allowed. [44] The tobacco industry succeeded to block the enforcement of new ASHRAE standards until 2000. [44] The recent decreases in the recommended ventilation requirements, shown in \nFigure 1\n, can probably also be interpreted as energy-saving measures.
\n
Figure 1.
Ventilation requirements recommended by ASHRAE and predecessors. From 1936 and forward (grey) the required flow per person in a standard office is shown. The earlier values (blue) are per room. The red shows the unadopted ASHRAE 62 (1981).
\n
Note that the lower limit proposed in ASHRAE Standard 62 (1981) (red in \nFigure 1\n) essentially is a revocation to the lowest ventilation requirements proposed in 1836. The guidelines for ventilation requirements are in fact influenced by a number societal parameters. By this time a fair amount of the newer buildings were mechanically ventilated. In Sweden, mechanical ventilation was primarily used in industrial buildings before 1947, but the invention of the less noisy radial fans opened the market for ventilating other buildings. [30] When the energy crisis hit in 1973, the energy used for ventilating buildings suddenly became a liability. The lowered ventilation requirements in the standard of 1981 can therefore be understood in terms of the corresponding decrease in the energy use for the fans in mechanical ventilation and for heating (or cooling) the air supplied. The air supplied into dwellings was further reduced by efforts to reduce air leakages through the building envelope, particularly in the Nordic countries. After a while, reports of occupant discomfort started pouring in. It appeared that up to 30% of the newly built office buildings had an unusually high amount of complaints. In some cases, causal relations to ill-health could be found: e.g. in the use of new materials, moisture damage, or improperly performed building techniques. [39, 45] A large group of diffuse symptoms such as headache, fatigue, lack of concentration and irritation of the skin and mucous membranes remained unexplained. In 1984 the WHO Regional Office for Europe collectively referred to these symptoms as a new medical diagnosis: Sick Building Syndrome (SBS). [46] The onset of constructing tighter building envelopes seemed to be a likely cause. This sparked a renewed research interest in finding the optimal ventilation requirements.
\n
Fanger and coworkers repeated the Yaglou experiments, but with a much larger sample size in the 1980s. [47] In addition, Fanger attempted to quantify the perceived emissions from the human body and suggested a new subjective, relative unit: olf, the emission rate of air pollutants (bio-effluents) from a standard person (from Latin olfactus “smelling”). The idea of relative units related to standard people came from previous studies of thermal comfort. Fanger’s standard person was characterized as a sedentary white-collar worker (or student) aged 18–30 with a hygienic standard corresponding to 0.7 baths/day and changing underwear daily. Deodorants were used by 80% and some were smokers, but the proportion is not specified. By varying the test chamber ventilation rate (q) in a cohort study of 1000 people judged by 168 “judges” (probably from the same cohort), Fanger found the following correlation (r\n2 = 0.79 and valid for q ≥ 0.32 L s−1 per person, or olf):
where PD is the percent dissatisfied “judges”, q is the ventilation rate (L s−1) per person, L is liters [dm\n3\n] and s is seconds. \nFigure 2\n shows the correlation curve given by Eq. (1). These results corresponded well with contemporary measurements. [48] In field studies in 15 office buildings, using a similar experimental method, Fanger et al. found that the sources of disagreeable indoor air pollutants were definitely not limited to human bio-effluents. The olf-equivalents attributed to other indoor sources were: indoor materials, 1–2 olf;: the mechanical ventilation system itself, 3 olf;: tobacco smoking, 2 olf. [49] These and other studies highlighted the necessity to control all indoor air pollution sources in order to reach an acceptable indoor environment in terms of perceived air quality. In a large study of school workers by Smedje et al. [27], it was also shown that their perceptions of the air quality at work were confounded by personal, psychosocial and domestic factors. In short, studying human perception is complicated by many factors and pose some challenges on experimental design.
\n
Figure 2.
Fanger’s correlation between the required ventilation rate per person (or olf) and the percent dissatisfied judges upon entering the test chamber. The numbers in the figure correspond to the required ventilation rates for the 10%, 20%, and 30% levels of the percent dissatisfied judges.
\n
No single factor causing SBS has yet found any consensus. Sometime after its last official document on SBS in 1995, WHO discontinued the use of SBS as a medical diagnose. A contemporary search on the homepage of WHO yields zero hits. However, that a correlation seem to exist between SBS-related issues and some ventilation parameters receives some consensus in the multidisciplinary field concerned with healthy buildings. In 2001 [50], Jan Sundell managed to convene several European principal researchers in the field to search for consensus on the connection between ventilation and health. There are few well-designed studies that adequately account for all the multiple factors that are encountered when assessing indoor environments. Out of the selected 105 scientific papers in peer-reviewed journals only 30 were deemed conclusive for the question at hand. The consensus statement include the conclusions that there is:
\n
“a strong association between ventilation and comfort (as indicated by perceived air quality) and health (as indicated by SBS symptoms, inflammation, infections, asthma, allergy, short- term sick leave). … also indicates that there is an association between ventilation rate and productivity (as indicated by performance of office work).” [50].
\n
A similar exercise, with a larger geographical spread of the researchers, was initiated by Jan Sundell and Hal Levin in 2010. Many conclusions were similar, but it should be noted that the panel members were divided as to whether the association between ventilation and health outcomes (excluding SBS) was strong or simply suggestive. [51] Both studies conclude that air change rates (see Section 2.2) below 0.5 h−1 leads to increased infestations of house dust mites in the Nordic countries. The latter was deemed important, since there is a plausible link between exposures to the feces of house dust mites and the prevalence of asthma and allergic rhinitis. [52]
\n
This concludes the selective short history of ventilation. The idea that ventilation promotes health by removing harmful substances has been a lingering and recurring theme. The effects of indoor exposure to harmful substances are typically studied as dose–response assessments. [39] The relevant exposure dose is the concentration of the harmful substance in the indoor air and the responses are the measureable effects on humans. When adverse health effects are established, the exposures of those harmful substances are usually regulated or their use simply forbidden. [39] This also means that, in principle, there should be no known harmful substances to be removed by ventilation in the indoor environment. As will be evident in Section 2.3, most guidelines for ventilation requirements are based on perceived indoor air quality, and not health, criteria.
\n
Nevertheless, there is a case for using ventilation as a precautionary measure to prevent adverse health effects caused by the indoor environment. There has been a significant increase in the number of chemicals never before encountered in the indoor environment, particularly in the last fifty years. [43] Today, literally thousands of chemicals are present in the indoor air (see for example [53]). Since most studies of dose–response assessments focus on one single substance at the time, the effects of mixtures of substances are largely unknown. [54] In addition, a majority of these new indoor chemicals have not been studied for health effects. When a harmful substance is forbidden, it is often substituted for new substances with (as yet) unknown health effects. In light of these known unknowns, it may be prudent to specify some minimum ventilation requirements as a precautionary health measure.
\n
\n
\n
2.2 Some insights from the theory of ventilation
\n
Before critically examining the existing guidelines for ventilation requirements a few theoretical explanations of the salient points are needed. Consider first the One-zone model as shown in \nFigure 3a\n. The flows of air supply to, and air exhaust from, the zone are equal. An air pollutant is emitted at a constant rate into the zone. The assumption for now is that the zone is fully mixed, i.e. the concentration of air pollutant is exactly the same everywhere in the zone. The validity of this assumption, and other assumptions, will be discussed below.
\n
Assuming that the initial concentration of air pollutant is zero and no air pollutant enters via the air supply (\n\n\nc\n0\n\n=\n\nc\next\n\n=\n0\n\n), the mass balance equation for the air pollutant in the zone is
\n
Figure 3.
Simple zone models. (a) One-zone model. (b) Two-zone model.
where V [m3] is the volume of the zone, \n\n\nm\n·\n\n\n [kg h−1] is the constant emission rate of air pollutant, \n\n\nc\nt\n\n\n [kg m−3] is the concentration c of air pollutant in the zone at time t [h], and Q [m3 h−1] is the rate of air flow into and out of the zone. (The conversion factor between Q [m3 h−1] and q [L s−1] is \n\nQ\n=\n3.6\nq\n\n). The steady state solution of Eq. (2) is obtained when a constant equilibrium concentration is established in the fully mixed zone. Setting the left hand side to zero gives
\n
\n\n\nc\n∞\n\n=\n\n\nm\n·\n\nQ\n\n\nE3
\n
where \n\n\nc\n∞\n\n\n is the constant equilibrium concentration at \n\nt\n=\n∞\n\n. This is an important result. It appears that, given a constant emission rate of an air pollutant, it is the ventilation rate that determines the final concentration of air pollutant in the zone (i.e. the exposure to the air pollutant). However, this conclusion is only valid provided that the zone is completely mixed at all times.
\n
For the case of a hermetically closed zone, i.e. when \n\nQ\n=\n0\n\n in Eq. (2), it can be solved by integration to yield
\n
\n\n\nc\nt\n\n=\n\n\nm\n·\n\nV\n\nt\n.\n\nE4
\n
\nEq. (4) shows that the air pollutant concentration will increase linearly with time in a hermetically closed zone. Note that the volume of the zone (V) buffers the rate of concentration increase in the zone. The larger the volume, the slower the rate of increase of the air pollutant concentration in the zone.
\n
Another illustrative one-zone case is obtained by allowing an initial concentration \n\n\nc\n0\n\n\n of the pollutant in the zone at \n\nt\n=\n0\n\n and assuming that \n\n\nm\n·\n\n=\n\nc\next\n\n=\n0\n\n. Solving for the concentration gives
where the hourly air change rate (ACH) for a completely mixed zone is defined as \n\nN\n=\nQ\n/\nV\n\n. Eq. (5) means that for any temporary emission of air pollutant in the zone, its concentration will decay exponentially with time. The rate of decay is gauged by the air change rate N. A higher air change rate means a faster decay.
\n
The simple One-zone model of ventilation presented above has two main problems: (i) Emission sources are not evenly distributed in the zone volume. They are local and confined to surfaces, objects or humans. (ii) Complete mixing of a zone is difficult to achieve. Both points can be illustrated with a simple Two-zone model, originally proposed by Etheridge and Sandberg [55], as shown in \nFigure 3b\n. In the Two-zone model, emission sources are allowed to be slightly more local and the required mixing air flows are made slightly more explicit in terms of the inter-zonal air flows. Inter-zonal air flows are given as \n\nβQ\n\n, so when \n\nβ\n=\n1\n\n the inter zonal air flows have the same magnitudes as the supply and extract air flows. For simplicity, complete mixing of both zones are assumed. The mass balance equations in each zone for the case \n\n\nc\next\n\n=\n\nc\n10\n\n=\n\nc\n20\n\n=\n\n\nm\n·\n\n1\n\n=\n0\n\n becomes
Note that the steady state result for c1\n in Eq. (7) is the same as for the completely mixed One-zone model in Eq. (3). If nothing is known about the distribution of concentrations within the zone, the proper interpretation of steady state in Eqs. (2) and (3) is that the emitted amount equals the exhausted amount and that the accumulation of air pollutant in the zone has stopped. The interpretation that the concentration is constant in the zone is not correct. Unless, of course, complete mixing is established by other measurements. In general the concentrations are not equal, as is evident in \nFigure 4\n where the dimensionless quotient \n\n\nc\n2\n\n/\n\nc\n1\n\n\n of the steady state concentrations from Eq. (7) are plotted against β. Note that c2\n approaches c1\n very slowly as β increases in \nFigure 4\n. In order to reach complete mixing the inter-zonal air flows must be much larger than the supply and extract flows. In experiments where complete mixing of the whole zone is important, e.g. using the decay in Eq. (5) to measure the air change rate using tracer gases, several extra fans are employed to come as close as possible to the ideal case of complete mixing. It is also clear from \nFigure 4\n that the concentration of air pollutant in the lower zone rises very quickly as β decreases below unity. From an exposure point of view, it is problematic that concentrations of air pollutants may differ considerably within a room when mixing is incomplete.
\n
Figure 4.
Increase in the relative concentration in the lower zone (2) as a function of the interzonal flows. When β = 1 the interzonal flows are equal to the air supply.
\n
The special case when the fresh air from the supply flow never enters the lower zone and directly exits by the extract is called ventilation short-circuiting. In this case, β is zero and the lower zone essentially behaves as a hermetically closed zone (Eq. (4)) and the concentrations of all air pollutants emitted in the lower zone rise without bounds. To be fair, ventilation systems are designed to deliver fresh air to occupants and complete short-circuiting is rare. However, poorly designed systems do exist. One example is shown in \nFigure 5\n. Typical situations when short-circuiting may occur are: if inlet and exhaust devices are close to each other; if there are obstacles in the flow path of a mechanical ventilation air inlet; if the air supplied is warmer than the air in the room and the extract is near the roof.
\n
Figure 5.
Retrofit of cooling beam (with attached light fixture) leading to a high degree of ventilation short-circuiting. Air supply device to the left and air exhaust to the right.
\n
In a more general theoretical approach, allowing for non-homogeneous concentration distributions in the zone, all possible paths of a very small package of air from the inlet to the outlet are considered (see Etheridge and Sandberg [55] for a complete treatment). A long and tortuous path for the package or air will result in a long residence time for the package within the zone, whereas a short path corresponding to a ventilation short-circuit would lead to a very short residence time. At the outlet, packages of air escaping the zone in every instance of time will represent many different residence times. At steady state, in a similar manner as in Eqs. (3) and (7), the distribution of residence times will converge to a constant average residence time \n\n\n\nτ\nr\n\n\n\n for the air packages. The average residence time can also be interpreted as an average age of the air packages exiting the zone, if the age of an air package is set to zero as it enters into the zone through the inlet. This concept of ages of air packages is useful when examining the interior of the zone.
\n
The simple process of plug (or piston) flow illustrates the age concept well. It is the most efficient method to ventilate and is used in so called “clean rooms”. The idea is to achieve a laminar flow by supplying slightly colder air from the roof and letting it fall vertically to the floor where it is extracted. Ideally, all air packages entering from the whole area of the roof fall at the same speed and reach the floor simultaneously. This means that all air packages have exactly the same residence time in the zone. It is easy to show that the residence time only depends on Q and V, regardless of the shape of the zone, and is given by
where the nominal time constant of the ventilation system \n\n\nτ\nn\n\n\n is defined. For plug flow the average residence time is equal to the nominal time constant. Since the air packages follow the shortest route from the roof to the floor in plug flow, the nominal time constant can be interpreted as the shortest possible residence time. It is also easy to determine the local age of the air packages in the interior of the zone. It must increase linearly from age zero at the roof to an age equal to the residence time at the floor. Consider an arbitrarily small volume element within the zone. It will contain many air packages with ages that vary linearly with height. The local mean age of air \n\n\nτ\n¯\n\n\n is defined as the average age of the air packages within the small volume element. The local mean age of air can be interpreted in terms of how well the ventilation system delivers fresh air to the volume element. As the packages of air enters the zone, they start to equilibrate by diffusion with the concentrations of contaminants in the local environment and start to become less fresh. The older the air, the less fresh it is. Now let the volume element be as small as one package of air. The average local mean age of air with respect to the entire zone must then be equal to the local mean age at half the height. Think of a process where all volume elements with a low age above the middle height can be paired with volume elements with a high age below the middle height so that their average is exactly the local mean age of air at half height giving
This result can be generalized since the residence time and the local mean age of air of an arbitrary path of the air packages are related by
\n
\n\n\nτ\ni\n\n+\n\nτ\nrl\n\n=\n\nτ\nr\n\n\nE10
\n
where τr\n is the residence time of the path, τi\n is the time already spent in the interior of the zone (i.e. the local mean age of air of the air package) and τrl\n is the residual life time until the air package exit the zone. This is obviously valid for all paths and all air packages will eventually complete their paths to the exit. It will therefore always be possible to pair air packages (with the same residence time), so that their average local mean age is exactly half the residence time. Taking the average of all possible paths, a generally valid relation is given by
Note that the averages of the local mean age of air over all paths or over the zone space give the same results.
\n
Since no other ventilation process can be more efficient than plug flow, the average local mean age of air for other ventilation processes cannot be lower than that for plug flow. It therefore seems natural to assign a 100% air change efficiency to plug flow and consequently define the general air change efficiency in a zone as
For the case of complete mixing, the paths of all air packages should reach any volume element within the zone with the same probability. Complete mixing may also be viewed as a process where all volume elements in the zone are instantaneously considered identical at all times. All volume elements have identical characteristics, such as the same concentrations of molecules and the same local mean age of air. Air entering through the inlet will therefore, in theory, simultaneously enter all volume elements. Within each volume element, air packages with increasing ages will continue to accumulate until the steady state is reached and the local mean age of air stays constant. In analogy, the mass balance given in Eq. (2), describes how a contaminant is accumulated in each volume element until a steady state concentration is reached. Since the mixing conditions are the same, the accumulation of ages and of concentration, respectively, follow the same time evolution. Solving for ct\n in Eq. (2) gives
where Eqs.(3) and (8) were used. In the field of statistics, \n\n\nc\nt\n\n/\n\nc\n∞\n\n\n is an example of a cumulative distribution function. By analogy, it is also the cumulative distribution function for the ages of the air packages. A probability distribution function is obtained by taking the time derivative of the cumulative distribution function. Thus, it is evident that, for a completely mixed zone, the ages of the individual air packages accumulated within a volume element at steady state are exponentially distributed according to
Now the average local mean age of air for a volume element (and for the whole zone) can be evaluated to τn\n. This gives the following relations for a completely mixed system
The average air change efficiency of a mixing ventilation system is at best 50% as compared to plug flow. In analogy with the nominal air change rate N (or ACH) being given as the inverse of the nominal time constant τn\n as
\n
\n\nN\n=\n\nQ\nV\n\n=\n\n1\n\nτ\nn\n\n\n,\n\nE16
\n
An effective local air exchange rate of the zone can be defined as
\n
\n\n\nN\neff\n\n=\n\n1\n\n\nτ\n¯\n\n\n\n\nE17
\n
where Neff\n is the effective air exchange rate and note that the local mean age of air average is spatial and taken over the zone. It can be interpreted as the local ability of the ventilation system to dilute contaminants with fresh outdoor air in the point p. This an important property from an exposure viewpoint.
\n
The aim of the above theoretical exercises for two mixing models is mainly to introduce the concept of local mean age of air and its properties. The fact that it is a local property that can be determined experimentally by tracer gas techniques [55] means that interior points of any ventilated zone can be characterized by it. In particular, in means that the distribution of fresh air to the occupied volumes of a zone can be tested.
\n
The insights from this subsection can now be summarized. It has been shown that requiring a specific ventilation rate is not a guarantee for good performance of a ventilation system. The supplied air must also be distributed efficiently and this capacity should be evaluated. Possibilities for ventilation short-circuiting should be eliminated. Finally, a large zone volume can be a strategy to prevent build-up of concentrations from transient sources of air pollutants.
\n
\n
\n
2.3 A critical examination of guidelines for ventilation requirements
\n
Most of the contemporary legislative guidelines for ventilation requirements are based on criteria for perceived air quality, as concluded in Section 2.1. For more than 20 years, the basic guidelines in the U.S.A. (and also in Europe) have been based on the recommendation that no more than 20% of the occupants should be dissatisfied with the perceived indoor air quality. [56] Nevertheless, the adaptation of the human nose adds a dimension and there is a difference between the philosophy in Europe and the U.S.A on how perceived air quality should be measured. The guidelines in Europe (following Fanger et al. [49]) are based on the perceived air quality as judged by an un-adapted visitor to the room, whereas the guidelines in the U.S.A. (ASHRAE) are based on the perceived air quality by a judge that has been allowed to adapt to the room air for 15 minutes. [5] The American guidelines therefore recommend lower ventilation rates than the European guidelines at the same level of dissatisfied judges. [5]
\n
Comparison of the work place ventilation rates required per sedentary person in \nTable 1\n (i.e. 7 L⋅s−1/person) with the ventilation rates given in \nFigure 2\n, show that The Swedish Work Environment Authority appears to follow the European philosophy in the old, [57] as well as in the new, guidelines. [58] In line with the findings of Fanger et al. [49], many guidelines assume that all other indoor emissions of pollutants (e.g. from building materials and human activities, such as smoking, cleaning, and cooking) should be added to the emissions of bio-effluents from the occupants. All these emissions are lumped into a floor-area-based emission rate. The total required ventilation rate is then the sum of two contributions as shown in Eq. (18).
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
\n
FoHMFS 2014:18
\n
AFS 2009:2
\n
AFS 2020:1
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Air supply/person
\n
≥ 4 L⋅s−1\n ≥ 7 L⋅s−1 (schools)
\n
≥ 7 L⋅s−1\n
\n
≥ 7 L⋅s−1\n
\n
\n
\n
Air supply/m2\n
\n
≥ 0.35 L⋅s−1\n + 0.35 L⋅s−1 (schools)
\n
+ 0.35 L⋅s−1\n
\n
+ 0.35 L⋅s−1\n
\n
\n
\n
Air change rate
\n
≥ 0.5 h−1\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
CO2 concentration
\n
Normally < 1000 ppm
\n
Normally < 1000 ppm
\n
Normally < 1000 ppm
\n
\n
\n
Air change efficiency
\n
\n
≥ 40 %
\n
≥ 40 %
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Values are extracted from the official Swedish guidelines for ventilation requirements and air quality. FoHMFS are the ventilation guidelines issued by The Public Health Agency of Sweden. [59] AFS are the old [57] and the new guidelines (valid from 1 January, 2021) [58] issued by The Swedish Work Environment Authority. The +-sign signifies that the required air supply per m2 must be added to the air supply per person.
where qtot\n is the total required room ventilation rate [L⋅s−1], np\n is the number of occupants, qp\n is the required ventilation rate per person [L⋅s−1/person], A is the room area [m2], and qA\n is the required ventilation rate per square meter [L⋅s−1⋅m2]. The required qA\n in \nTable 1\n are based on a room with very low emitting materials and no smoking. The Pettenkofer number (1000 ppm CO2) can also be recognized in the guidelines in \nTable 1\n. However, the lowest required qp\n (4 L⋅s−1/person) from The Public Health Agency of Sweden [59] can only keep the CO2 concentrations below 1500 ppm in most realistic scenarios. [60] The Public Health Agency of Sweden is the only government agency recommending a specified air change rate of 0.5 h−1. [59] Note that the floor area based ventilation rate 0.35 L⋅s−1⋅m2 corresponds to an air change rate (N) equal to 0.5 h−1 if the room height is 2.5 m (a common room height in the Swedish building stock). While there are common elements between the required ventilation rates in \nTable 1\n, it is clear that the more generally valid recommendations from The Public Health Agency of Sweden prescribe lower ventilations rates than the recommendations from The Swedish Work Environment Authority that are valid only in nonresidential buildings.
\n
There are mutual dependencies between the ventilation rates presently required by government agencies and the properties of the existing building stock. [8] If the building stock can be shown to cause health problems that can be traced to inadequate ventilation, then the government agencies will try to improve the situation by requiring higher ventilation rates. On the other hand, if air leakages through the building envelopes provide ample contributions to the ventilation of the building stock, in addition to the controllable ventilation rates, then the required ventilation rates need not be as stringent because the total ventilation rate will be sufficient anyway. The point here is to highlight plausible dependencies on average, even though there may be a wide spectrum of properties in the building stock. Thus, changes in the properties of the building stock will lead to changes in the ventilation requirements recommended by government agencies.
\n
The EPBD objective to transform the building stock to NZE- buildings with tighter building envelopes should, with the above logic, lead to a more stringent requirements for ventilation rates. [8] However, as mentioned in the Introduction, the “energy efficiency first” principle in EPBD [12] pushes other incentives towards their minimum legal limits when they are in conflict with the efforts to improve the energy performance of buildings. Maintaining a good indoor air quality by ventilation is such an incentive, and therefore ventilation rates will be pushed towards their minimum legal limits. As a consequence, in the coming EPBD transformation of the building stock, the minimum legally required ventilation rates play a critical role as counterbalances to prevent a decline in indoor air quality. The required ventilation rates will probably need to be increased to maintain the present levels of indoor air quality in the building stock.
\n
It is therefore doubly worrying that the ventilation requirements in the standards on the European level recently have been lowered as shown in \nTable 2\n. For example, in a standard 10 m2 office for one person, the required ventilation rate (qtot\n) is lowered by 43% from 10.5 L⋅s−1 in the old guideline CEN-EN15251:2006 [61] to 6 L⋅s−1 in the new guideline CEN-EN16798:2019. [62] The change corresponds to recommending 30% dissatisfied un-adapted judges in the new guidelines as compared to 20% in the old guidelines. The guidelines in the European Standards provide the “floor” upon which the legal requirements of the member countries rests. Lowering the required ventilation rates in the European Standard opens for a corresponding lowering in the legislation of the member states. While it is slightly encouraging that the Swedish legislation is unchanged at the moment, as seen in \nTable 1\n, it is obvious that the risk of EPBD creating unhealthy indoor environments will be augmented. The present levels of indoor air quality in the building stock risk being lowered by the combined effect of tighter building envelopes and the prospect of lower required ventilation rates.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Category
\n
CEN EN 15251:2006
\n
CEN EN 16278.1:2019
\n
\n
\n
\n
Expected Percent Dissatisfied [%]
\n
Airflow per person [L⋅s−1/person]
\n
Expected Percent Dissatisfied
\n
Airflow per person L⋅s−1/person
\n
\n\n\n
\n
I
\n
10
\n
10
\n
10
\n
10
\n
\n
\n
II
\n
\n20\n
\n
\n7\n
\n
20
\n
7
\n
\n
\n
III
\n
30
\n
\n
\n30\n
\n
\n4\n
\n
\n
\n
IV
\n
< 30
\n
< 4
\n
40
\n
2.5
\n
\n
\n
\n
\nExpected Percent Dissatisfied [%]\n
\n
\nVery low polluting building [L⋅s−1/m2]\n
\n
\nExpected Percent Dissatisfied\n
\n
\nVery low polluting building [L⋅s−1/m2]\n
\n
\n
\n
I
\n
10
\n
0.5
\n
10
\n
0.5
\n
\n
\n
II
\n
\n20\n
\n
\n0.35\n
\n
20
\n
0.35
\n
\n
\n
III
\n
30
\n
\n
\n30\n
\n
\n0.2\n
\n
\n
\n
IV
\n
< 30
\n
<0.2
\n
40
\n
0.15
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Values are extracted from the official European guidelines for ventilation requirements and air quality. CEN EN 15251:2006 are the old guidelines from 2006 [61] and CEN EN 16278.1:2019 are the new guidelines (valid from 8 May, 2019) [62] issued by European Committee for Standardization. The bold figures are the recommended values.
\n
As concluded in the previous section, simply specifying required ventilation rates cannot guarantee an adequately low exposure to indoor pollutants. [63] Legislation also need to address the air distribution. In the European Standard [62] and in the ASHRAE Standard [56], the given ventilation rates assume complete mixing in the room. Thus, they presuppose a mixing mechanical ventilation system. Other ventilation systems are accommodated by dividing with a correction factor. ASHRAE [26] proposes a correction factor called the air change effectiveness defined as \n\n\nε\nI\n\n=\n\nτ\nn\n\n/\n\n\nτ\n¯\n\n\n\n evaluated in the breathing zone. [56] For mixing ventilation this gives \n\n\nε\n\nI\n,\nmixed\n\n\n=\n1\n\n and for plug flow \n\n\nε\n\nI\n,\nplugflow\n\n\n=\n2\n\n. The correction factor in the European Standard is similarly defined, but evaluated as a room average, and is called ventilation effectiveness εv\n. (The nomenclature for the correction factors is a bit confusing and may be easily mixed-up with the air change efficiency defined in Eq. (12).) If the system is not fully mixed, the correction factor is less than unity and the required ventilation rate should be correspondingly increased. If displacement or plug flow ventilation systems are used, that are more efficient than mixing ventilation, the correction factor is larger than unity and the required ventilation rates may be correspondingly decreased.
\n
Legal ventilation requirements also address air distribution, but rephrased into requirements that newly installed ventilation should be shown to function as designed, that the ventilation rate should be sufficient, or by requiring a specified air change efficiency as in \nTable 1\n. I have the impression that air change efficiency is seldom tested in the field. The control of newly installed ventilation systems mostly consist of ensuring that the design ventilation flows are obtained, otherwise the ventilation system components are assumed to function with the same efficiency as in laboratory tests. However, there are a number of factors that may lower the ventilation system efficiency in a real building. Some of these factors were mentioned in connection with ventilation short-circuiting in previous section (see also \nFigure 5\n); ventilation systems may be very complex and design choices may have unforeseeable consequences; a ventilation designer may enter late in the planning process and may be forced to make suboptimal choices, e.g. inlets vents may end up too close to outlet vents; or occupants may tamper with the intended function of the ventilation components to minimize perceived draft. It may be prudent to verify that air is distributed with the intended efficiency in new and old ventilation installations.
\n
The above standards clearly favor mechanical ventilation systems where ventilation rate is an easy parameter to measure. It is not that easy to measure ventilation rate for natural ventilation systems. It is more difficult to demonstrate that natural ventilation systems are in compliance with the legal requirements than it is for mechanical ventilation systems. In addition, rooms with natural ventilation systems typically have higher room heights, than rooms with mechanical ventilation systems. Naturally ventilated rooms require larger room volumes to prevent concentration build-up of transient pollution sources to offset the natural fluctuations in the ventilation rate. Historically, the introduction of mechanical ventilation systems allowed building entrepreneurs to squeeze in three floors in the same volume where previously there would be two floors in older naturally ventilated buildings. [30] Using this observation, rooms with natural ventilation are roughly estimated to be 50% larger than rooms with mechanical ventilation. If there is a legally required air change rate or a required ventilation rate per floor area (as exemplified in \nTable 1\n), the prescribed ventilation rates will also be 50% larger for naturally ventilated rooms, as compared to a mechanically ventilated room. This increase is probably unnecessary and it arises because the legal requirements does not consider the different ventilation strategies used in natural ventilation systems. It would be desirable that all ventilation strategies should be treated equally in the eyes of the law, with the same objective requirements for adequate indoor air quality.
\n
If the objective of the legal regulations is to ensure that 80% of the occupants find the perceived air quality to be acceptable, as it appears to be, then it would be more fitting to simply require that less than 20% of the occupants are feeling uncomfortable. This could be tested in a questionnaire. Note that this approach is suggested in some environmental certification systems for buildings, e.g. the level GULD in Miljöbyggnad 3.1. [64] The problem with such an approach is that other factors, than the actual air quality, may affect the outcome. [27] Alternatively, the regulations should apply specifically to the occupied zone of a room. This would lead to more balanced demands on natural ventilation systems as compared to the demands on mechanical ventilation systems. To specify concentration limits in the occupied zone would be preferable because of the direct link to exposure, but the challenge is that the human nose is very sensitive so some substances and there may be difficulties to measure such low concentrations at the present time. An indirect approach would be to specify some local ventilation parameter, such as the local mean age of air, in the occupied zone.
\n
The fact that ventilation requirements primarily targets occupant comfort, does not mean that ventilation is irrelevant for the health of the occupants. Adverse health effects caused by exposure to indoor air pollution have been estimated to cause that approximately two million disability-adjusted lifetime years (DALYs) are lost annually, based on the population in 26 European countries. In economic terms this corresponds to a societal cost exceeding €200 billion. [60] It is very likely that the combined effect of the lower ventilation requirements and tighter building envelopes due to EPBD will increase this societal cost considerably. The prospect of turning buildings into unhealthy containers for the occupants certainly tempers my enthusiasm for the projected EPBD energy savings.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Conclusions
\n
Most legislations concerning ventilation are based on perceived air quality, but ventilation is also important for the health of the occupants. Perceived air quality can be viewed as a pragmatic tool to achieve an adequate ventilation for precautionary health measures. From a perceived air quality and health perspective, the ventilation rate and an efficient air distribution are both important for achieving a healthy and comfortable indoor environment. Yet, most legislative requirements focus on the ventilation rate. This is not enough, and it is recommended that legislation also address the air distribution with equal zeal. In particular, verifying the efficient distribution of fresh air to the occupied zones or the concentrations of pollutants in the occupied zones.
\n
Because there are clear links between ventilation and health, [3, 4, 50, 51, 60], it is extremely worrying that the “energy efficiency first” principle advocated in EPBD has led to decreasing ventilation requirements in the EU legislations, at the same time as the objective is to aggressively tighten the envelopes of the building stock. A second consequence of EPBD is probably that many naturally ventilated buildings will be retrofitted with mechanical ventilation systems. It is not clear that this would be the more sustainable solution in the long run.
\n
Every citizen’s right to a healthy indoor environment has been suggested to be a basic Human Right by WHO. [65] Adequate ventilation is at the heart of the solutions to reach this commendable goal. The mantra “build tight – ventilate right” [66] is a good one, but do not forget the second part!
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The author wishes to acknowledge helpful discussions with Jan Sundell. He will be missed.
\n
Conflict of interest
The author also works as a ventilation consultant.
\n',keywords:"ventilation requirements, ventilation rates, air distribution, air change rate, local mean age of air, air change efficiency, indoor air quality, EPBD, natural ventilation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76623.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/76623.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76623",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76623",totalDownloads:156,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 1st 2020",dateReviewed:"April 14th 2021",datePrePublished:"May 6th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"May 6th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Most legislations concerning ventilation are based on perceived air quality criteria, but ventilation is also important for the health of the occupants. The perceived air quality criteria can be viewed as a pragmatic tool to achieve an adequate ventilation for precautionary health measures. From a comfort and health perspective, the ventilation rate and an efficient air distribution are both important for achieving a healthy and comfortable indoor environment. Yet, most legislative requirements focus on the ventilation rate. This is not enough, and it is recommended that legislation also address the air distribution with the same zeal. In particular, the efficient distribution of fresh air to the occupied zones or lowering the concentrations of pollutants in the occupied zones. Because there are clear links between ventilation and health, it is extremely worrying that the “energy efficiency first” principle advocated in the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) has led to decreasing ventilation requirements in the European Union legislations, at the same time as the objective is to aggressively tighten the envelopes of the building stock. A second consequence of EPBD is probably that many naturally ventilated buildings will be retrofitted with mechanical ventilation systems. It is not clear that this would be the more sustainable solution in the long run.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76623",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76623",signatures:"Mikael Björling",book:{id:"10811",type:"book",title:"Urban Transition - Perspectives on Urban Systems and Environments",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Urban Transition - Perspectives on Urban Systems and Environments",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Marita Wallhagen and Dr. Mathias Cehlin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10811.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83962-413-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-412-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-414-8",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"337569",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Marita",middleName:null,surname:"Wallhagen",slug:"marita-wallhagen",fullName:"Marita Wallhagen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Requirements for ventilation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 A short history of ventilation and health effects",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Some insights from the theory of ventilation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 A critical examination of guidelines for ventilation requirements",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nEuropean Union. The Directive 2010/31/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 May 2010 on the energy performance of buildings. Official Journal of the European Union, 53. Brussels, Belgium: European Union; 2010. Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2010:153:0013:0035:EN:PDF. [Accessed: 2021-02-05]\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nAllen J. The Nexus of Buildings, Global Health, and the U.N. 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Available from: http://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/environmental_risks/docs/scher_o_155.pdf [Accessed: 2021-02-05]\n'},{id:"B55",body:'\nEtheridge DW, Sandberg M. Building ventilation: theory and measurement. Chichester: Wiley; 1996\n'},{id:"B56",body:'\nVentilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality; ASHRAE Standard 62.1. Atlanta, GA, USA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers; 2017\n'},{id:"B57",body:'\nWorkplace design: Provisions of the Swedish Work Environment Authority on workplace design and general recommendations on the implementation of the provisions (AFS 2009:2) [Internet]. Stockholm: The Swedish Work Environment Authority. Available from: https://www.av.se/globalassets/filer/publikationer/foreskrifter/engelska/workplace-design-provisions-afs2009-2.pdf [Accessed: 2021-02-05]\n'},{id:"B58",body:'\nArbetsplatsens utformning (AFS 2021:1) [Internet]. Stockholm: The Swedish Work Environment Authority. 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Brussels, Belgium: European Committee for Standardization; 2007\n'},{id:"B62",body:'\nEnergy performance of buildings – Ventilation for buildings –Part 1: Indoor environmental input parameters for design and assessment of energy performance of buildings addressing indoor air quality, thermal environment, lighting and acoustics –Module M1-6; EN 16798.1. Brussels, Belgium: European Committee for Standardization; 2019\n'},{id:"B63",body:'\nFanger PO. New principles for a future ventilation standard. In: Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate; 29 July-3 August 1990; Toronto. Canada: ISIAQ; 1990. p. 353–363\n'},{id:"B64",body:'\nSweden Green Building Council. Miljöbyggnad 3.1. Available from: https://www.sgbc.se/app/uploads/2020/05/Milj%C3%B6byggnad-3.1-Nybyggnad.pdf [Accessed: 2021-02-05]\n'},{id:"B65",body:'\nWorld Health Organization. The Right to Healthy Indoor Air. In: Proceedings of the WHO Meeting, Bilthoven, The Netherlands, 15–17 May 2000; Copenhagen, Denmark: WHO Regional Office for Europe; 2000\n'},{id:"B66",body:'\nPerera E, Parkins L. Build tight – ventilate right. London: Building Services, Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers;1992\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Mikael Björling",address:"mikael.bjorling@hig.se",affiliation:'
Department of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Science, Faculty of Engineering and Sustainable Development, University of Gävle, Gävle, Sweden
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Customers have the right to terminate the contract without giving any reason (written notice of termination). The deadline for said termination is fourteen (14) days from the date of receipt of goods. Returns are at the expense of the Customer and must be made within the fourteen (14) days from the date of the written notice of termination. Intech Limited will process refunds to the Customer without undue delay.
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In the event that the Publisher ships damaged or misbound copies of products, or duplicate or incorrect copies of the products are received by the Customer, the Publisher will accept returns at the Publisher's expense, provided notice of such damaged or incorrect shipment is given to the Publisher within fourteen (14) working days from the date of receipt.
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Venous Thromboembolism in Neonates, Renal Disease and Cancer Patients",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"be0025c7b271840b95d54511f2783fc5",slug:"pathophysiology-and-clinical-aspects-of-venous-thromboembolism-in-neonates-renal-disease-and-cancer-patients",bookSignature:"Mohamed A. Abdelaal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/832.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"106431",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdelaal",slug:"mohamed-a.-abdelaal",fullName:"Mohamed A. Abdelaal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1830",title:"Hematology",subtitle:"Science and Practice",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5bcd8875467e51b02e0ea4aec429ad51",slug:"hematology-science-and-practice",bookSignature:"Charles H. Lawrie",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1830.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103158",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Lawrie",slug:"charles-lawrie",fullName:"Charles Lawrie"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:9,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"31178",doi:"10.5772/38961",title:"Physiological Factors in the Interpretation of Equine Hematological Profile",slug:"haematological-profile-of-the-horse-phisiological-factors-influencing-equine-haematology",totalDownloads:10779,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:35,abstract:null,book:{id:"1830",slug:"hematology-science-and-practice",title:"Hematology",fullTitle:"Hematology - Science and Practice"},signatures:"K. Satué, A. Hernández and A. Muñoz",authors:[{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo"}]},{id:"37047",doi:"10.5772/32080",title:"Microparticles: Role in Haemostasis and Venous Thromboembolism",slug:"microparticles-role-in-haemostasis-and-venous-thromboembolism",totalDownloads:2455,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"832",slug:"pathophysiology-and-clinical-aspects-of-venous-thromboembolism-in-neonates-renal-disease-and-cancer-patients",title:"Pathophysiology and Clinical Aspects of Venous Thromboembolism in Neonates, Renal Disease and Cancer Patients",fullTitle:"Pathophysiology and Clinical Aspects of Venous Thromboembolism in Neonates, Renal Disease and Cancer Patients"},signatures:"Anoop K. Enjeti and Michael Seldon",authors:[{id:"90071",title:"Dr.",name:"Anoop",middleName:null,surname:"Enjeti",slug:"anoop-enjeti",fullName:"Anoop Enjeti"},{id:"151786",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Seldon",slug:"michael-seldon",fullName:"Michael Seldon"}]},{id:"59051",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70937",title:"Acute Myeloid Leukemia in Pediatric Patients: A Review About Current Diagnostic and Treatment Approaches",slug:"acute-myeloid-leukemia-in-pediatric-patients-a-review-about-current-diagnostic-and-treatment-approac",totalDownloads:1565,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Acute leukemia is the most common childhood malignancy, accounting for almost 35% of all childhood cancers. Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) represents 15–20% of pediatric acute leukemia. Majority of AML cases appear de novo, however a minority of cases can present as a secondary malignancy. AML is a highly heterogeneous disease and its diagnosis involves a combination of diagnostic analyses including morphology, immunophenotyping, cytochemistry, and leukemic blasts derived from peripheral blood or bone marrow demonstrating cytogenic and molecular characteristics. Through the identification of recurrent genetic mutations, it has been made possible to refine individual prognosis and guide therapeutic management. The current survival rate of children with AML is approximately 70%. The standard therapeutic regimen is a combination of cytarabine- and anthracycline-based regimens with allogenic stem cell transplantation in appropriate patients. Relapse in pediatric patients suffering from AML occurs in approximately 30% of cases, whereas death occurs in 5–10% of patients as a result of disease complications or chemotherapeutic side effects. In understanding the genetic basis of AML, targeted therapies will have the ability to reduce treatment-related morbidity and mortality. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of AML, its biology, diagnosis and therapeutic management in pediatric patients.",book:{id:"6261",slug:"myeloid-leukemia",title:"Myeloid Leukemia",fullTitle:"Myeloid Leukemia"},signatures:"Katarzyna Derwich, Dorothy Mitkowski and Jolanta Skalska-\nSadowska",authors:[{id:"205540",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Derwich",slug:"katarzyna-derwich",fullName:"Katarzyna Derwich"},{id:"214057",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorothy",middleName:null,surname:"Mitkowski",slug:"dorothy-mitkowski",fullName:"Dorothy Mitkowski"},{id:"214058",title:"Dr.",name:"Jolanta",middleName:null,surname:"Skalska-Sadowska",slug:"jolanta-skalska-sadowska",fullName:"Jolanta Skalska-Sadowska"}]},{id:"61695",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76931",title:"Angiogenesis and Antiangiogenesis in Multiple Myeloma",slug:"angiogenesis-and-antiangiogenesis-in-multiple-myeloma",totalDownloads:1183,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Multiple myeloma progression is characterized by a dense interaction between cancer cells and bone marrow microenvironment. The interactions of myeloma cells with various stromal cells and extracellular matrix components are the main regulator of the biological processes that underlie the progression of the disease and of the classic symptomatology correlated. The bone marrow of myeloma patients has recognized autocrine and paracrine loops that regulate multiple signaling pathways and the malignant phenotype of plasma cells. One of the pivotal biological processes which are responsible for myeloma progression is the formation of new vessels from existing ones, known as angiogenesis. It represents a constant hallmark of disease progression and a characteristic feature of the active phase of the disease. Near angiogenesis, other two ancestral processes were active in the bone marrow: vasculogenesis and vasculogenic mimicry. These processes are mediated by the angiogenic cytokines, interleukins, and inflammatory cytokines directly secreted by plasma cells and stromal cells. Neovascularization is also mediated by direct interaction between plasma cells and the various components of bone marrow microenvironment. The observation of the increased bone marrow angiogenesis in multiple myeloma and its correlation with disease activity and overall survival led to consider angiogenesis as a new target in the treatment of multiple myeloma.",book:{id:"6710",slug:"update-on-multiple-myeloma",title:"Update on Multiple Myeloma",fullTitle:"Update on Multiple Myeloma"},signatures:"Roberto Ria, Antonio Solimando, Assunta Melaccio, Azzurra\nSportelli and Angelo Vacca",authors:null},{id:"31163",doi:"10.5772/35840",title:"Intravascular Leukocyte Chemotaxis: The Rules of Attraction",slug:"intravascular-leukocyte-chemotaxis-the-rules-of-attraction",totalDownloads:2342,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"1830",slug:"hematology-science-and-practice",title:"Hematology",fullTitle:"Hematology - Science and Practice"},signatures:"Sara Massena and Mia Phillipson",authors:[{id:"106058",title:"Dr.",name:"Mia",middleName:null,surname:"Phillipson",slug:"mia-phillipson",fullName:"Mia Phillipson"},{id:"106366",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Massena",slug:"sara-massena",fullName:"Sara Massena"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64871",title:"Diagnosis and Classification of Myelodysplastic Syndrome",slug:"diagnosis-and-classification-of-myelodysplastic-syndrome",totalDownloads:3255,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) is a clonal hematopoietic stem cell disorder characterized by morphological dysplastic changes in one or more of the major hematopoietic cell lines. MDS can present with varying degrees of single or multiple cytopenias including neutropenia, anemia and thrombocytopenia. Presentation of MDS can range from asymptomatic to life threatening. MDS diagnosis and classification present important challenges, particularly in the distinction from benign conditions. French-American-British (FAB) classification proposed a classification based on easily obtainable laboratory information and was recommended in early and as modified by guidelines of new classification of World Health Organization (WHO). The strategy of diagnostic laboratory in MDS depends on morphological changes and is based on existence of dysplastic changes in the peripheral blood and bone marrow including peripheral blood smear, bone marrow aspirate smear and bone marrow trephine biopsy. The correct morphological interpretation and the use of cytogenetics, immunophenotyping, immunohistochemistry and molecular analysis will give valuable information on diagnosis and prognosis.",book:{id:"7138",slug:"recent-developments-in-myelodysplastic-syndromes",title:"Recent Developments in Myelodysplastic Syndromes",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Myelodysplastic Syndromes"},signatures:"Gamal Abdul Hamid, Abdul Wahab Al-Nehmi and Safa Shukry",authors:[{id:"36487",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hamid",slug:"gamal-abdul-hamid",fullName:"Gamal Abdul Hamid"},{id:"273724",title:"Dr.",name:"Safa",middleName:null,surname:"Shukry",slug:"safa-shukry",fullName:"Safa Shukry"},{id:"277511",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulwahab",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Nehmi",slug:"abdulwahab-al-nehmi",fullName:"Abdulwahab Al-Nehmi"}]},{id:"60442",title:"Invasive and Noninvasive Approaches in Prenatal Diagnosis of Thalassemias",slug:"invasive-and-noninvasive-approaches-in-prenatal-diagnosis-of-thalassemias",totalDownloads:1778,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Thalassemia is a significant health problem worldwide. There are two main classifications, α- and β-thalassemias, which are usually caused by the defective synthesis of the α-globin, and which are commonly caused by different mutations of the β-globin chain. Different hemoglobin mutations have been identified to date. Thalassemias can result in profound anemia from early life and, if not treated with regular blood transfusions, can lead to death in the first year. Prenatal diagnosis of thalassemia is the essential part of preventive medicine and is currently dependent on the use of invasive diagnostic tests within the first 2 months of pregnancy. These diagnostic techniques carry a small but significant risk of fetal loss up to 1%. Molecular diagnostic methods have been developed for genotyping thalassemias based on PCR techniques and high-throughput technologies. Noninvasive tests using cell-free DNA (cfDNA) from a maternal blood sample is also an alternative method, thus eliminating the risk of miscarriage. This chapter summarizes the current invasive approaches and the noninvasive methods using cell-free fetal DNA as new molecular diagnostic methods for genotypic diagnosis of thalassemia in clinical practice. Prevention strategies that encompass carrier screening, genetic counseling, and prenatal diagnosis are discussed.",book:{id:"6210",slug:"thalassemia-and-other-hemolytic-anemias",title:"Thalassemia and Other Hemolytic Anemias",fullTitle:"Thalassemia and Other Hemolytic Anemias"},signatures:"Abdullah Tuli and Ebru Dündar Yenilmez",authors:[{id:"183998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ebru",middleName:null,surname:"Dündar Yenilmez",slug:"ebru-dundar-yenilmez",fullName:"Ebru Dündar Yenilmez"},{id:"215677",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Tuli",slug:"abdullah-tuli",fullName:"Abdullah Tuli"}]},{id:"62044",title:"Sickle Cell Disease: A Genetic Disorder of Beta-Globin",slug:"sickle-cell-disease-a-genetic-disorder-of-beta-globin",totalDownloads:1816,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a structural and monogenetic genetic disorder due to a mutation that occurs in the globin β-chain, resulting in the formation of hemoglobin S (Hb S), a protein composed of two normal, and two β-type mutant chains. Estimates indicate that the prevalence among live births is 4.4% in the world. The difficulty in circulating the sickle cell, its interaction with endothelial cells, leukocytes, platelets, endothelial dysfunction, and the abnormal expression of adhesion molecules permeate the beginning of the blood vessel occlusion process as well as pathophysiological aspects of SCD. Among the secondary complications are the stroke, pulmonary hypertension, leg ulcer, renal disorders, and all complications associated with vascular dysfunction. Clinical and biochemical markers of disease severity can be used to predict risk, prevent complications, and increase the expectation and quality of life of the SCD population. The entire scenario generated by Hb S has implications for the health and social inclusion of patients, so the treatment of the person with SCD needs an approach focused on the prevention of these complications in an individualized way.",book:{id:"6210",slug:"thalassemia-and-other-hemolytic-anemias",title:"Thalassemia and Other Hemolytic Anemias",fullTitle:"Thalassemia and Other Hemolytic Anemias"},signatures:"Karen Cordovil",authors:[{id:"228575",title:"M.D.",name:"Karen",middleName:null,surname:"Cordovil",slug:"karen-cordovil",fullName:"Karen Cordovil"}]},{id:"66394",title:"Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma",slug:"diffuse-large-b-cell-lymphoma",totalDownloads:2482,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is a heterogenous class of aggressive lymphoma and is considered as the most common subtype of non-Hodgkin lymphomas (NHL). Several genetic anomalies such as point mutations, numerical alterations, and, more rarely, translocations and gene amplifications play a role in the pathogenesis of this class of B-cell lymphoma and have been related to specific histological and immunophenotypic subtypes. On the other hand, the treatment protocol in DLBCL did not witness significant changes during the last two decades. The widespread adoption of rituximab as an important adjuvant to standard chemotherapy protocol in CD20+ cases was a notable exception, which provided significant improvement in disease-free survival and overall survival, with limited toxicity. However, no less than 20% of patients diagnosed with DLBCL exhibit relapse after the initial response to R-CHOP regimen, while more than 15% of the patients exhibit primary refractory disease. This is the reason why a review of all the morphological, clinical, and therapeutic particularities of DLBCL is required.",book:{id:"8316",slug:"normal-and-malignant-b-cell",title:"Normal and Malignant B-Cell",fullTitle:"Normal and Malignant B-Cell"},signatures:"Patrascu Ana Maria, Ionela Rotaru, Valeriu Surlin and Stefan Patrascu",authors:[{id:"158096",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Valeriu",middleName:null,surname:"Surlin",slug:"valeriu-surlin",fullName:"Valeriu Surlin"},{id:"194539",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Patrascu",slug:"stefan-patrascu",fullName:"Stefan Patrascu"},{id:"290810",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Patrascu",slug:"ana-maria-patrascu",fullName:"Ana Maria Patrascu"},{id:"292959",title:"Dr.",name:"Ionela",middleName:null,surname:"Rotaru",slug:"ionela-rotaru",fullName:"Ionela Rotaru"}]},{id:"61929",title:"Idiosyncratic Drug-Induced Severe Neutropenia and Agranulocytosis: State of the Art",slug:"idiosyncratic-drug-induced-severe-neutropenia-and-agranulocytosis-state-of-the-art",totalDownloads:1621,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"In this chapter, we report and discuss the diagnosis and management of idiosyncratic drug-induced, or drug-associated, severe neutropenia, and agranulocytosis (neutrophil count of <0.5 × 109/L). In this setting, neutropenia remains a potentially serious adverse event due to the frequency of severe sepsis, with severe deep tissue infections (e.g., pneumonia), life-threatening infections, septicemia, and septic shock in two-thirds of all hospitalized patients. Recently, several poor prognostic factors, impacting the hematological recovery, the duration of hospitalization, and the outcome have been identified that may be helpful when identifying “frailty” patients. These factors include: old age, poor performance status, septicemia or shock, comorbidities such as renal failure, and a neutrophil count below 0.1 × 109/L. recovery. In this situation, modern management, with broad-spectrum antibiotics in case of any sepsis sign and hematopoietic growth factors (HGF) (particularly G-CSF), is likely to improve the prognosis, with a current mortality rate around 5%.",book:{id:"6439",slug:"hematology-latest-research-and-clinical-advances",title:"Hematology",fullTitle:"Hematology - Latest Research and Clinical Advances"},signatures:"Emmanuel Andrès and Rachel Mourot-Cottet",authors:[{id:"143493",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Andrès",slug:"emmanuel-andres",fullName:"Emmanuel Andrès"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1026",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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\r\n\tIn order to scientifically address significant issues such as climate change, which puts into question our very survival as a species, the current pandemic with its massive physical, socio-economical, and psychological consequences, and the rise of AI which challenges our established economic structures, we need to ask insightful questions: What is truly human? How can humans develop further? The answers to these questions are necessary not only to find new solutions to the current challenges, but also to shape new visions of what can come next.
\r\n
\r\n\tNeuroscientific research linking brain functions has produced a perspective on human development that includes normal, impaired, and enhanced neurophysiological, emotional and cognitive functioning. Human development has been considered the very aim of education and of educative processes. Indeed, the capabilities built through educational training are included in the UN’s human development index, according to which such capabilities are the ultimate criteria to assess the development of a country, rather than economic growth alone. Yet a full understanding of what Human Development truly constitutes, remains open. For example, tackling the question of what distinguishes human beings from other animals, and what humans’ possible development trajectory might look like, calls for a multidisciplinary approach. Consequently, contributions to such an inquiry might come from very different scientific fields, ranging from cognitive neuroscience to socioeconomics. For instance, in the field of neuroscience, self-awareness—the most specific characteristic of human beings—has been investigated in connection with its neural correlates. Recent research points to self-awareness as the particular ability of our species, directly connecting it to our abstract thinking which in turn enables envisioning new possible futures and self-development
\r\n
\r\n\tTo achieve a broad, multidisciplinary perspective on possible human development, subjects will be considered through varied— yet related—approaches. We will provide a complex yet consistent framework through which we will explore a substantial amount and variety of theories and case studies. Our ultimate goal will be to produce useful indications for policy making in diverse contexts, assist teachers and parents with child development in an optimal way, and enhance theoretical and practical knowledge.
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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 3rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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