TLC mobile phase for important classes of phytoconstituents [15].
\r\n\tThis book intends to cover major mineral deficiency problems such as calcium, iron, magnesium, sodium, potassium and zinc. These minerals have very important task either on intracellular or extracellular level as well as regulatory functions in maintaining body homeostasis.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tBoth macrominerals and trace minerals (microminerals) are equally important, but trace minerals are needed in smaller amounts than major minerals. The measurements of these minerals quite differ. Mineral levels depend on their uptake, metabolism, consumption, absorption, lifestyle, medical drug therapies, physical activities etc.
\r\n\tAs a self-contained collection of scholarly papers, the book will target an audience of practicing researchers, academics, PhD students and other scientists. Since it will be published as an Open Access publication, it will allow unrestricted online access to chapters with no reading or subscription fees.
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This situation has been exacerbated by the fact that both academic and nonacademic staff members’ technological skills are neither non-existing nor obsolete, while manual and physical interaction is discouraged by the budget cuts. These universities run the further risk of being irrelevant to students, society, industry, donors and government conversely discouraging economic success in the country.
Hill et al. [1] opines that universities are celebrated as a vehicle for economic success through digitalization which has increased student access into these institutions of higher learning. Previously published literature by a plethora of researchers suggests that the digitalization of universities have created inequality amongst students. For instance, [2] explored a proposal for an off-line e-learning platform that will provide a bridge for digitally unconnected students and educators to join the contemporary information- and communication technology-intensive world. The author observed that individual remote and unconnected learners encounter challenges for engaging with contemporary e-learning offerings and on ICT-intensified learning materials. The latter conundrum has been confirmed by [3] that the digital divide has narrowed with regard to one definition of access to technology by taking into consideration the binary view of the “haves” and “have not”. Students in this epoch students are being perceived as “digital natives” referring to those growing up with technology in the 1980s and 1990s by a plethora of researchers [4, 5], “digital immigrants” those who were born into the digital world [4] and with a globally accepted concept as called “digital leaners” [6]. The aforementioned research literature mainly focusses on the e-learning and its challenges in universities which is not associated with the application of digital leadership in universities with an emphasis on its benefits, challenges and risks. This book chapter is therefore closing a void in the research literature by espousing benefits which is associated with digital leadership as an approach in implementing e-learning and other digital strategies in South African universities in this era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. It further interrogates emerging digital trends, risks and mitigating strategies on universities’ digitalization.
The application of the digital leadership approach is desperately needed in South African universities to improve communication amongst the key stakeholders including students: promote team work, accountability, transparency and productivity and eliminate wastage. The digital age has influenced the entire society to be reliant on technology. [7] ponders that university leaders should harness opportunities that are driven by digital technological advancements. Such digital tools have advantages as they are creating digitally driven university cultures, as well as an inspiring, engaging, relevant and transparent environment. Technological advancement reforms challenging ill-informed conceptions associated with technology, outmoded practices, systems, standardization and the status quo are needed. This technology-focussed era ensures that the university systems, business processes and practices are client (student), employee and society focussed.
In this epoch, university students are clients who pay for the service rendered and expect the return on investment and to see the value for money that has been invested. These digital learners have a set of expectations and demands which the university should meet. The digital revolution has brought new challenges and opportunities which have not been harnessed by end users in the value chain. Meanwhile, a plethora of services and core businesses has gone digital in universities including learning and teaching, research and working conditions, and rewards have changed dramatically.
What follows next is the perspective on digital leadership as a concept in relationship to other leadership styles, the Fourth Industrial Revolution and the digitalization of campuses effects, benefits, barriers and risk associated with digital leadership. This chapter concludes by providing pertinent conclusions, recommendations, limitations and advice for future researchers.
Digital leadership encompasses nurturing a knowledge society and the dissemination of research aimed at influencing global policy and practice, whereas digital leadership is perceived in universities as a chance savvy which is aimed at enhancing leaders’ professional practice to change and augment university culture through the utilization of technology. It also combines mind-set, behaviors and skills in order to enhance leadership to transform practices, systems and the business processes through the use of technology. The digital leadership approach which is seminal in this epoch acknowledges change as building universities to be ubiquitous, to increase connectivity, to provide open sources technology and to utilize mobile devices and personalization of data.
Meanwhile, digital leadership borrows some facets of other leadership styles such as transformational. It is centered on enabling leaders to provide direction, influence subordinates and other leaders to perform better, establish internal and external relationships with stakeholders and initiate sustainable change through the access to information. Meanwhile, [8] defines “digital leadership as requiring reflection on online self-awareness and congruence, grappling with the controversy that comes with cyber civility and how to be a digital citizen prepared to inspire positive social change”.
Figure 1 depicts the facets of digital leadership in conjunction with the features of leadership and the leadership styles that are prevalent in universities. The digital leadership is in cahoots with themes central to the concept of leadership, as well as other leadership styles, which influence employees to achieve organizational goals. However, digital leadership is unique as it provides direction, initiating sustainable change, as well as establishing relationships amongst key stakeholders. While digital leadership partly influences employees, its locus and focus are on changing the university culture by creating and sustaining a digital culture. Prevalent leadership styles in universities’ goals are on behavioral change, performance, freedom of expression, knowledge acquisition and distribution and exchange of rewards, the digital leader ensures that there is a relationship of trust between students and academics; learning and teaching are digitally led by creativity, problem-solving and novelty with employees possessing adequate skills for the university to succeed in the epoch of the Fourth Industrial Revolution.
Leadership, leadership styles prevalent in universities and digital leadership.
This digital period in history is triggered by the Fourth Industrial Revolution which necessitates the university system to transform in order to tap into opportunities that are brought about by this era. While the global community is driven by the Fourth Industrial Revolution with first-world countries and some leading emerging economies driving the agenda, South Africa is no exception although it is partly trapped, limited and imbibed to brick and mortar. This has been exemplified by an increase in building new universities and new campuses as well as extending the existing ones while the university funding shrinks. This epoch is characterized by a fusion of technologies which is transforming the political and economic landscape, business and society. The digital revolution has improved information and communication skills which necessitate universities to adapt to technology. A number of jobs nowadays are performed by intelligence systems which mandate academics to interrogate current curriculum, teaching strategies, philosophies and the graduate attributes which will determine the graduate profile that universities aim to produce. This era equips students to be creative with advanced skills in maths and statistics and the capability to preprocess and analyze data. Creativity and innovation are at the center stage of this revolution where graduates can create models, frameworks and designs. Furthermore, this digital revolution converges multidisciplines and makes graduates multi-skilled, entrepreneurial and employable. Students with artificial intelligence are marketable and control the world with their organizations that have the edge over their competitors as data is crucial.
Digital technology influences and disrupts both academic and nonacademic staff members’ systems, business processes and practices, as well as the pedagogy on how students learn and are taught. In South Africa, meanwhile, there is a dire need for digital technology in learning and teaching, research, community engagement, administration, management and leadership. During and in the aftermath of the broadly publicized student riots which were triggered by a plethora of movements such as the “Fees Must Fall”, “Decolonized Curriculum” and “Rhodes must Fall”, the need for digitalizing an academic enterprise was aroused. During the latter chaotic and turbulent period in the history of the South African universities, it was difficult for the academics to have contact with students as there were anarchy and riots on the campuses. This situation was perpetuated by the available digital tools which favored students who were economically viable and sustainable, hence, disadvantaging the “poor students” (previously disadvantaged). Universities in South Africa are exploring appropriate and user-friendly technologies (digital) which can accommodate highly diverse students with diverse economic and social backgrounds. Hence, universities are also grappling with implementing and making digital technology to the administrative staff members as they are also diverse as the majority of universities are merged and incorporated between the previously advantaged and disadvantaged institutions with unrealizable lofty goals. Furthermore, the biographical profile for the staff members is diverse in terms of age groups with younger employees being digital native as compared to their old counterparts.
Universities across the globe are competing for students, attracting quality staffing and funding with their clear focus to those who leverage new digital capabilities. These competitive universities are mostly internationally ranked and attract quality students, and academics have adopted new emerging business models including digital leadership. These universities have embarked on the development of digital strategies and linked them to the university strategic plans. The digitalization of the university enterprise is driven by the university leadership through their digitally orientated strategic vision (refer to Figure 2).
A digital blueprint in universities. Source: Author.
There is a multiplicity of digital technologies which form part of digital leadership including social media. Social media enhances traditional aspects of leadership in the form of management, instruction and commination which directly initiate change, thus transforming institutions. A leading player in the knowledge economy in this epoch has been the convergence of social media, mobile and the web which is called “digital”. Mobile technology is necessary in universities as more than half of the world’s population own technological devices such as smartphones. Due to the fact that a plethora of university-based applications of digital leadership exists, the latter leadership style cannot be escaped. Figure 2 depicts various digital leadership applications which include student and employee’s recruitment, selection and experiences. The digital leadership is considered to be output-orientated in South African universities as it is focusing on the digitally driven student recruitment and selection, as well as delivery of the learning and teaching, academic enterprise and the student life experience. The chapter draws on the experience of university leaders within student support services who have reinvented the way they engage students in view of the latest technologies. This is coupled with concerted efforts made by South African faculty leaders to utilize social media and the latest teaching and learning technologies to respond to student needs.
South African universities have explored and implemented a plethora of digital learning platforms which have been invented by the South African EdTech companies. These digital platforms include GetSmarter, Obami and Suits and Sneakers University. Such digital platforms are intended to provide modern course content. Hence, the unavailability of the free internet or hotspots and areas with Wi-Fi and data at exorbitant prices by the mobile networks makes it impossible to utilize such platforms. Students in universities are no longer restricted to campus, school programmes, textbooks and desks as the digital revolution is infinite. The smooth application of digital tools is practical and user-friendly in geographical areas where there are accessible and reliable internet connectivity or hotspots, as well as to financially viable students.
A number of student movements in South Africa such as the “Fees Must Fall”, Rhodes Must Fall” and “Decolonizing Curriculum” have influenced university academic leaders to use technology as a form of innovative teaching techniques that are underpinned by digital technologies. Some public universities have embarked on massive online open courses (MOOCs) which have attracted a number of students. Students have taken this opportunity of using such new digital tools including social media and apps. The digitalization of academia has yielded good results such as improved academic performance, employability rates, student retention and throughput and increased employees’ productivity. These new and emerging technologies such as Smart mobile, wearable devices and sensors, cloud-based IT and advanced analytics have transformed the university industry. While the universities in South Africa have failed to intertwine digital technologies into their transformation agenda, and the academic enterprise is digitally inclined, universities have not yet considered the digital epoch as a major player in transforming universities during this period of contested space and political-infested institutions.
These new technologies have improved student life on campuses, residences through activities including teaching and learning, research and working on with other virtual universities and partner organizations including donors, research collaborators and investors, for instance, a “Digital Campus” which serves when students, tutors, professors and other university staff are on and off campus. Innovative teaching techniques such as flipped classrooms, distance learning experiences and hybrid teaching models have been enabled by digital technology. In the South African context, universities have invested in learning platforms such as Blackboard, Canvas or Moodle.
Universities are embarking on branding their faculties and departments in order for their clients (students) to embrace, recognize and support which is significant to the success of the digital footprint. For instance, social media has been utilized to stamp for academic departments footprints and create a brand. Students in various settings have engaged in technology-rich aspects which have changed the trajectory for both rural and urban universities. The use of social media by these universities have enhanced and effectively communicated with the community of stakeholders including business with students seeing digital footprint and resources flourishing. Digital leadership transforms a leader’s way of thinking and approach on things during this turbulent period in South African universities. It further provides lecturers as leaders to have autonomy in the lecture halls and the lecturers’ application of concepts, seek their methodologies and technological applications and bring stakeholders to a better place.
Academics as leaders in their own right should adapt and rethink how to acquire, develop, transform and share knowledge in the digital era. The academic enterprise should prepare students to be digitally orientated which would increase their employability. The World Economic Forum suggests that more than 1.5 million jobs by 2020 will be digitally based. In the era of a digital economy, academics are perceived as very significant in playing leading and productive roles as they are employed to plan and prepare students for the digital economy. Major trends have emerged such as the “virtual university” which is digitalized and requires leaders with very strong information and communication technology (ICT) capabilities. [8] suggests that to have a competitive edge, collaboration, strategic partners, joint ventures and managed networks are pivotal in universities. These authors further argue that the digitalization of universities requires a leadership style that is distinctive and cooperative as opposed to the vertically integrated style seen in universities which are informed by the hierarchical structures. The traditional university is often seen as an institution with library facilities, where teaching takes place in face-to-face settings, where there are residential facilities for students who are mainly based in a particular residential area organized according to faculties. However, there is a rise in virtual organizations that encourage students to learn anywhere and at any time. This is coupled with rapid and easy access to information from different parts of the world. Institutions of higher learning have a responsibility to harness these developments for the benefit of society and the world as a whole and require leaders who are not only aware but who appreciate and value emerging organizational models.
There is an acknowledgement that different eras in history produce or require a different set of leadership styles. As the world transitions from the Third Industrial Revolution to the Fourth Industrial Revolution, there is more emphasis on not just access to technology but also quality use of technology. The question that is being asked is how leaders should respond to the current challenges which include global competitiveness in a digitalized world, new technological literacies, resistance to technological changes by academics, meaningful application of technological advances in education and how to transform education by employing technology. [9] argues that “it seems a great irony that while it espouses to be a society’s epicenter of new information and ideas, the education sector continues to represent a condition of stasis that has remained outside a long period of innovation within other sectors”. This view underlines one of the main challenges that are faced by leaders in higher education which is to align higher education institution with the rapidly changing technological advances. Whereas the application of the digital leadership style in universities has been overlooked, Figure 3 depicts its impact in the university context.
Digital leadership impact in the university context. Source: Author.
Figure 3 suggests that the application of the digital leadership in universities have a multiplicity of effects which includes research knowledge dissemination and intelligence, influencing global thinking, responsiveness and sharing of good practices by using digital platforms.
Social media applications, including Facebook, Twitter and Instagram, are utilized in universities in South Africa by different stakeholders and are mainstreamed into daily business operations, challenging roles and responsibilities globally and without boundaries. Hence, there are deficiencies in university leaders in transforming universities and leading change using social media. This necessitates the university leaders to be capacitated and possess digital competencies to their practices. Social media as a powerful digital instrument has an opportunity and a potential to change, transform and reform a university leader’s pathway. The university leaders should have leadership capabilities and must be orientated to digital trends, emerging tools and media platforms in order to achieve their institutional vision and goals.
Furthermore, emerging digital tools and trends and social media platforms should be ingrained in leadership development programmes and practices. Meanwhile, academics have a task to assist students in universities to employ social media as instruments that educate and strengthen commitments and contribute to social change. University leaders can have a digital impact in universities in South Africa by being digitally literate. Digital literacy should be central to the leaders’ daily operations in order to attain digital skills. Digital literacies can enable university leaders to master the new semiotic language for communication, to acclimatize to newly invented and emerged technologies. The digital literacy encapsulates an intersection of technical (online interfaces, applications), cognitive (critical thinking) and social–emotional (netiquette, safety) dimensions.
Moreover, digital citizenship enables university leaders to make a digital impact. The university leaders should enrol a curriculum called digital citizenship which is an extension to leadership development evolving around digital technologies. The digital citizenship dimensions include digital etiquette, communication, access, literacy, commerce, law, rights and responsibilities, health and wellness and digital security. The following competencies should be possessed by leaders in universities [10]:
Emerging/new technological/digital tools and platforms.
Digital content analysis skills.
False or misinterpreted information sorted and ensure that data is accurate and with quality.
Digital profile should reflect a leader’s true reflection.
Develop personal boundaries including wellness, privacy and time management.
Establishing online branding which is professional, strategic and diplomatic.
Establishing a personal learning network through collaboration.
Leadership in the university to be integrated with digital technologies.
Resolution and mediation on cyber conflict.
Constructive, authentic and positive digital decision-making.
Social media utilization for citizenship (social good).
The latest South African Social Media Landscape Report for 2018 has shared the latest local figures for the biggest social media platforms in the country for 2016–2017. The use of Facebook increased to 16.0 million in 2017 from 13.5 million in 2016; Twitter 8.0 million (2017) from 7.7 million (2016); LinkedIn 6.1 million from 5.5 million (2016) and Instagram 3.8 million (2017) from 3.5 million (2016). The South African high-tech student in 2013 conducted a research study amongst 1425 university and college students. The research findings espoused that over 59% of students have confirmed that they were addicted to social media and 16% very addicted. A total of 85% indicated that the use of social media improved their studies and 83% enhanced their social lives.
The digital leadership is founded on very balanced pillars which are ingrained on management and leadership principles. These pillars include the following:
Communication: providing key stakeholders with relevant and up-to-date information through devices.
Public relations: leaders to be storytellers through using free social media tools.
Branding: a positive brand to be created by social media tools.
Student engagement or learning: student’s crucial skills are enhanced by issuing integrated and effective technology that is cost-effective.
Problem-solving, critical thinking and analysis, connectedness globally, literacy on media, collaboration and creativity as well as communication.
Professional growth/development:
Leaders forming their personal learning networks (PLN)
Acquisition of resources
Accessibility to both tacit and explicit knowledge
Provide and receive continuous feedback
Establish partnership with subject experts and community of practice
Digital leadership style’s application in universities in South Africa has yielded a range of benefits to the learning and teaching, research, community engagement, management and administration. The universities subscribed to the style of leadership saw leaders and managers embrace change, demonstrate transparency, increase engagement, embrace collaboration, knowledge and resource sharing, developed international networks and dialogues and contributed to society. Digital leadership brought a myriad of benefits to universities which include, inter alia:
Harnessing the power of digital technologies
Providing a strategic mind-set
Shifts leadership to be grounded on empowerment, support and embracement
Leaders’ preparedness to digital application
Leadership’s mastering of the fear of the unknown, misinformation and misconception of the utilization of technology including the social media and digital devices
Leadership facets improvement by developing a vision for effective, efficient and appropriate utilization of technology and digital tools
Increased educational technology
Enhancing learning and teaching technology
Community engagement benefiting communities
Improving communication with students
In addition to the above benefits, digital leadership enable university leaders to have access to the new and emerging digital tools and trends, research and new knowledge in the discipline.
Digital education is essential to university leaders as the country as a whole is clinging to an outmoded and fragmented education system with some unresponsive curricula at the core.
While there are widely shared benefits and opportunities of the digitalization of the university academic enterprise, there are also equal risks. For instance, by digitalizing the academic enterprise could lead to fragmentation of the curriculum, as well as increasing disparities amongst students as they come from diverse socio-economic and geographical backgrounds.
The universities in South Africa mostly invest in IT systems that failed to harness the benefits and outcomes that are well-known in other sectors that are business orientated. Such failure is associated with the lack of the digitally orientated strategic vision, university capabilities, commitment and buy-in by different stakeholders to implement new technologies effectively, efficiently and economically. Furthermore, the universities de-marry university strategies and digital strategies which makes the business strategy a misfit for the digital age. To achieve sustainable change in universities is not feasible, as a plethora of key stakeholders including students and employees lack digital literacy perpetuated by absent support networks. Another hindrance is the university leadership’s failure to equip themselves to adapt to the digital era.
Universities including in South Africa are failing to understand a new breed of their clients including students, partners, donors and funders. They also fail to scan the environment in order to determine the digital strengths of their competitors. This situation is worsened by the aforementioned key stakeholder’s lack of clarity of vision of the effect of the digital era and their failure to respond to the distinct needs of the university. Furthermore, universities are failing to concurrently adapt and evolve from the AS-IS business processes and practices into the new digitally orientated techniques, tools and capabilities. Failure by the universities to adapt is exacerbated by aging leaders, occupying strategic positions in universities, who lack trust in digital services and cloud technologies and fear the unknown, reliability, security, risks and resilience of the new technological inventions. Both academic and nonacademic staff members fear the use of digital tools, with the older members lacking confidence and being uncomfortable and nervous about engaging in digital spaces.
The majority of the academic staff members are digitally illiterate in terms of knowledge, skills and competencies. They also feel disadvantaged by students who are regarded as “digital natives/indigenous” who are informed of digital transformation. The conundrum which is presented above is aggravated by inflexible policies, aging infrastructure and inexperience with working digital technologies. This conundrum further hampers initiatives taking place amongst the academic staff and students who try to use technology. Such inventions are discouraged by unreliable, unethical and ineffective IT departments at universities which are mostly underfunded. Both staff and students are not afforded an opportunity for autonomy and flexibility in applying digital technology. The staff members mostly do not use technologies, including social media, for the benefit of the university and its clients. The university clients who mostly are students are destructive towards the university and its staff members on social media platforms which discourage employees from participating in such platforms. There are also no control measures to track and discipline those who are abusing the digital tools to further their personal vendettas.
The digital leadership as a style is found to share similar characteristics with other leadership styles although it is distinct as it is central to sustaining a “digital culture” at universities. Universities with a competitive edge to others leverage new digital capabilities in attracting both quality students and staff members. This chapter concludes by suggesting that university leaders should have digital competencies and that digital tools should be ingrained into leadership development programmes.
This chapter concludes that South African universities attract digitally native or immigrant students (or later digital learners) who demand digital channels, while leaders are digitally obsolete and illiterate. This negatively impacts on students’ academic performance, as well as on their quality of life on campuses as their value for money and return on investments are not realized. This implies that academics as leaders can play a pivotal role in applying digital tools in their learning and teaching strategies with direct impacts to learners’ academic performance, marketability and employability. Furthermore, digital leaders sustain a digital culture on campuses through building relationship of trust between students and academics. What is noteworthy in this book chapter are the leaders who are preaching digitalization while practices, systems, business processes and educational models are being outmoded. This implies that digital technologies are not ingrained in the university strategic plans nor centralized by senior management with the minimal chances of being cascaded to lower levels. The latter originates from the fragmented and vertical university structures which paralyzes digital movement which is influenced by the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Conversely, the social media has been observed in this book chapter to have been utilized in universities in South Africa which have transformed the university landscape by increasing students’ flexibility as digital tools are infinite as well as the academic performance and retention. Moreover, academic staff members should transform the curriculum and infuse digital technologies into it with clear digitally orientated graduate attributes for all qualifications. Such radical transformation will increase student’s creativity, problem-solving skills and novelty which will drastically change the country’s political and economic landscape.
Furthermore, university strategic plans should be intertwined with technology and should be digitally led. This book chapter acknowledges risks associated with emerging digital tools at universities. Such risks are aggravated by a reactionary approach by university leaders to capacitate employees in all employment categories (senior, middle and junior) on how to manage risks which are brought by digital technologies on campuses. However, the risks associated with digital technologies do not supersede its benefits to students, employees, internal and external stakeholders which are immense and immeasurable. The university leaders in different employment categories should conduct a digital knowledge, skills and competencies audit to all staff members in order to identify the digital deficiencies. Universities in South Africa should develop an instrument in order to test the digital competencies for all leaders in different employment categories.
A significant limitation of this book chapter is methodological as it is not empirical which necessitates future researchers to conduct empirical studies at universities in South Africa on the student and academic staff members’ perceptions and experiences on digitalization of learning, content and assessment. Furthermore, this research study is not informed by any theory which is a further limitation of this study. Future researchers should conduct empirical studies at universities on employees’ readiness to apply digital tools in their daily operations.
Natural products and traditional medicines are of great importance. Natural products and their derivatives have been recognized for many years as a source of therapeutic agents and structural diversity. Natural products have a wide range of diversity of multidimensional chemical structures; in the meantime, the utility of natural products as biological function modifiers has also won considerable attention [1].
Drug discovery is leading to be a challenging scientific task to find robust and viable lead candidates, which is nothing but the process flow from a screening of natural product to a new isolate that requires expertise and experience. However, in addition to their chemical structure diversity and their biodiversity, the development of new technologies has revolutionized the screening of natural products in discovering new drugs [2]. Applying these technologies offers a unique opportunity to reestablish natural products as a major source for drug discovery. The present article attempts to describe the process of isolation, characterization, and utilization of bioactive compounds derived from natural products as drug candidates called as lead, which focus on the success of pharmacological activity in the process of finding new and effective drug compounds; this process is commonly referred to as “natural product in drug discovery.”
Natural products played a vital role on this earth, so man’s existence has been made possible. The outstanding phenomenon of nature always stands as golden mark for achieving the herbal drug discovery [3].
From earlier decades medicinal plants existed on earth. Thus, medicinal herbs are of global and paramount importance. The world is decorated with medicinal herbs, which is a rich wealth of endurance. Every plant is identified by its own different therapeutic properties due to active bioactive molecule. In the modern system of medicine, natural drug substances are reported to be vital and have appreciable roles. Their therapeutic role was justified by the presence of their bioactive molecules. Due to disease-inhibiting capabilities, they are extremely useful as natural drugs, provide basic bioactive compounds that are less toxic and more effective, and bring biological and chemical means of modification and extraction of natural products into potent drug.
The raw materials for Ayurvedic medicines were mostly obtained from plant sources in the form of crude drugs such as dried herbal powders or their extracts or mixture of products. Apart from these systems, there has been a rich heritage of ethnobotanical usage of herbs by various colorful tribal communities in the country [4].
It has been estimated that nearly 75,000 species of higher plants exist on the earth, and only 10% have been used in traditional medicine. Only 1 to 5% have been studied scientifically and are known to have therapeutic value [5].
Around the globe, herbal medicine is based on traditional medicine. As per the oral survey made in many regions of the world, it has been said that traditional medicines have their own importance and basic philosophy. So exploration of the chemical constituents of the plants and their pharmacological screening may provide us the basis for developing a lead molecule through herbal drug discovery. The very important life-saving drugs have been provided by herbs in modern medicine. But among the estimated 4-lakh plant species, only 6% have been studied for their activity and very less not more than of 20% have been investigated phytochemically [6]. Thus, there is a need of investigating the various bioactive fractions and the phytoanalysis and phytopharmacological evaluation of herbal drugs for achieving the dreams of herbal drug discovery.
Working role of every green herbal drugs from plant source and synthesis of bioactive products in their own way as God’s gift and preserve them within which are extractable and used raw material as and when required through various scientific process for various scientific investigations and study of herbal drug discovery. Many pharmaceutical compounds contain secondary metabolites of plants that are of vital importance in drug designing. However, in order to have a good supply of the source material, some factors like environmental changes, diverse geographical distribution, labor cost, and selection of the superior plant should be taken care of by green plant developers so that good plants will be beneficial to pharmaceutical industry to develop good-quality herbal drugs [7].
Natural products have played, and will continue to play, a key role in drug discovery and are therefore traditionally claimed as the cornerstones of drug discovery and development. Many drugs that are available in market today were discovered from natural sources [8]. An important example is the analgesic activity of aspirin [22], which is so far the world’s best known and most universally used medicinal agent. Its origin is from the plant genera Salix spp. and Populus spp. and it is related to salicin. A good example is serendipitous discovery of the antibiotic penicillin [22] in the laboratory from the fungus Penicillium notatum.
Many other examples show the value and importance of natural products from plants and microorganisms in modern days. Paclitaxel (Taxol [22]), which was first isolated from the bark of the Pacific yew tree Taxus brevifolia (Taxaceae), is the most recent example of an important natural product that has made an impact in medicine. Activity against a variety of retroviruses, including HIV, two compounds isolated from Hypericum perforatum (Guttiferae) are hypericin and pseudohypericin. They are of paramount importance due to inhibition of release of reverse transcriptase by stabilizing the structure of the HIV capsid and thus preventing the uncoating process [9, 10].
In four different ways, medicinal plants having good therapeutic properties are valuable for modern system of herbal and natural drug discovery.
They are used as direct sources of therapeutic and bioactive agents.
Bioactive fractions serve as raw material base for the elaboration and development of herbal-based more complex semisynthetic chemical compounds.
The isolated structures derived from herbal plant species can be used as lead for new drug discovery in developing herbal compounds.
Lastly, plants can be used as bioactive markers for the spectroscopic and chromatographic analysis along with the discovery of new compounds.
Various strategies for the discovery of drugs from natural resources can be seen in Figure 1.
Various strategies for the discovery of drugs from natural resources.
Phytochemistry or phytoanalysis of natural product in chemistry research is the backbone and pillar of herbal pharmaceutical as well as food industry. To achieve success in natural drug discovery and use of herbals in modern medicine, the steps to be followed are listed below [11]:
Extraction, isolation with chromatographic separation, purification, and characterization of new phytoconstituents having good bioactivity
Use of newly isolated phytoconstituents as “lead” compound for designing of new analogues with either improved therapeutic activity or reduced toxicity
Conversation of lead phytoconstituents into medicinally important drugs by herbal drug discovery and herbal drugs used by common people showing socioeconomic benefit
The following facets represent outlook of the stages involved in the development of bioactive molecule as pure drug from a plant source [12].
Collection and identification of the plant, authentication, and deposition of sample in herbarium like the botanical survey of India
Literature survey and analysis on the plant species along with the activity present in the selected plants for studies
Extraction of nonpolar to polar solvent and preparation of extracts for phytochemical analysis and their biological testing [13]
Evaluation of plant extracts by judging of different biological test methods
Chromatographic analysis by activity-guided fractionation of the extract, monitoring each chromatographic fraction, its isolation calculating Rf values,area as per the computer based software’s and comparison with available bioactive markers which leads to the investigation
Structure elucidation using spectroscopic techniques of bioactive isolates using chemical methods
Testing of each bioactive compound in all in vitro and in vivo phytopharmacological test methods, in order to determine potency and selectivity of the herbal extract or isolates for the discovery of herbal drugs
Performing molecular modeling studies and preparing derivatives of the active compound of interest
When total synthesis is not practical, carrying out large-scale reisolation of interesting active compounds for toxicological and pharmacological studies
Clinical trials (phase I–III).
General procedure for obtaining active principles from plants.
First of all, in order to study medicinal plants, selection of plant and which type of pharmacological activity is to be studied should be clear to the researcher. Five principles of selection of plants are very important to know which are the random, the taxonomic, the phytochemical, the ethno-medical and the information-managed approach (Figure 2)[14].
In the random selection, collection of all available plants in the area, which is to be studied, is collected based only on visualization and observation without having knowledge and experience about the selected plants.
In the taxonomic approach, prior knowledge about the plants of interest with their specific genus or family and their different locations should be known.
The phytochemical (chemotaxonomic) approach is based on the knowledge of bioactive chemical type for treating particular disease of interest should be known and are collected. Taxonomic and the phytochemical approaches are interrelated.
In the ethnomedical approach, selection is totally based on the information of the medicinal use of that particular plant in various areas.
Lastly, information managed approach is basically collection of plants based on survey and use of plants from their local area that gives prior idea about their usage and activity and then their evaluation scientifically.
In the current era, new and newer diseases are causing threat to common people around the world. Thus, disease percentage differs in every part of the world, but diseases are not new; due to global warming, they are detected newly. Prevention is better than cure, so WHO had taken the vouch of providing “Health for all” by 2000 AD.
Multidisciplinary research on plants has led to many new drugs, as well as prototype active molecules and biological tools; for examples, see [14].
Himalaya herbals are developed herbal product from Boswellia, which are a pure herb extract. The bioactive molecule constituent in the gum resin of Shallaki or Boswellia serrata was boswellic acid. Pyrazoline as a lead molecule is present in boswellic acid. It acts through the mechanism of supporting the body’s natural immune response and preventing inflammation and providing healthy joints and muscle. Boswellia is a natural and safe herb for joint health, as it gently cares for it. Boswellia is a good promoter of healthy cholesterol and triglyceride levels and provides broad health and immune-modulating benefits. Boswellia has been used extensively in Ayurveda for arthritis and to provide an overall sense of well-being.
From long years ago, herbal medicine has paid hats off to ginger due to its ability to boost the immune system. It is believed that ginger is used in day-to-day life because it plays an important role in warming the body. It can help to clean our body from accumulated toxins by its break down in your body. It’s also known to cleanse the lymphatic system, our body’s sewage system. Ginger prevents the accumulation of toxins and a person’s body is highly safe guarded from viral, fungal, and bacterial infections. Medicinal plant ginger also shows many health benefits. It is specially used as natural remedy for nausea and pain alleviation and for its anti-inflammatory properties and inhibiting diabetes.
Licorice is becoming evident and lighten up in various researches for treatment and prevention of diseases like hepatitis C, HIV, and influenza. From a study, it confirms the antiviral activity of licorice root due to its triterpenoid content. It notes that licorice’s antioxidant, free radical-scavenging and immuno-stimulating effects. Licorice root benefits also include pain relief.
The olive leaf has antiviral properties, giving it the ability to treat the common cold and dangerous viruses.
Oregano oil benefits are lightening up to be more superior to some antibiotics, with no harmful side effects on health, and can be used in day-to-day life. Carvacrol and thymol are the bioactive molecules isolated and studied and reported to have powerful properties and uses. They act upon viral infections, as well as allergies, tumors, parasites and disease-causing inflammation.
In the current era, in many developed countries, priorities has been given to scientific research on medicinal plants is growing need of an hour in various research institutes, universities and pharmaceutical laboratories as well as in the clinics thereof. This research is put forward in mainly two directions: first, bioactive molecule of plants that have long been known and used for their healing properties based on the prior knowledge of the survey and literature. The second phase of basic research has led to the discovery of new medicinal plants with new bioactive molecules, new bioactivity, and new drugs from the more remote regions of the world [15].
Drugs of Ayurveda, Unani, and Siddha need scientific investigation of each and every traditional medicine, which should be put forward for testing and validation. Many government and private companies like CSIR, New Delhi, are already involved in this filed and have validated about thousands of formulations for different activities. This is a welcome trend and it plays a vital role to correlate the traditional practice with modern knowledge for the betterment of health. WHO has emphasized the need to ensure the quality control of herbs and herbal formulations by using modern techniques. Almost many countries have their own herbal pharmacopeias and make time to time amendments for new monographs and procedures to maintain their quality of herbal products that are benefited by common man. Example Ayurvedic pharmacopeia of India includes many basic quality parameters, isolation techniques, separation, and spectroscopic identification for more than hundred common herbal drugs.
It plays an eminent role in herbal natural drug discovery, and without analytical methodologies, it is hardly impossible. Spectroscopic characterization is the backbone and pillar of herbal drug discovery. The knowledge of this plays an important role in developing the new lead, which can be used for designing new molecules with short modification. The important steps are the extraction, isolation, and characterization of active ingredients from herbal plants [16]. Different techniques of extraction are well known as extraction is the most important step toward the analysis of bioactive constituents. Microwave-assisted extraction and conventional extraction should be studied specifically, which give the ideas about the yield obtained. Further, it highlights the isolation of active molecules by chromatographic techniques like TLC, column chromatography. The most important step toward analysis of bioactive compounds present in the plant extracts is characterization, which includes phytochemical screening assays that give ideas about the presence of secondary metabolites used to cure the health problems. Highly sophisticated techniques for structure identification of lead molecule bioactive fraction are high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). These techniques are the heart and key challenges in research of natural drug discovery giving rise to natural products in drug discovery.
The combination of various types of bioactive compound or phytochemicals is usually present in different plant extracts. The different bioactive compounds have different polarities. Separation, identification, and characterization of bioactive compounds are a big challenging job in the herbal drug development process.
Phytochemical screening assay is a simple, quick, and inexpensive procedure that tells about various types of phytochemicals in a mixture and an important tool in bioactive compound analyses. Phytochemical examinations are carried out for all extracts as per the standard methods [15].
Preparation of test solution: the test extract was prepared by dissolving with water. Add 1 volume of 2 N HCl so that it gets hydrolyzed and is further subjected to the following chemical tests:
Molisch’s test (general test): take 2 ml of extract, add two drops of α-naphthol solution in the alcohol and shake, and then add five drops of concentrated H2SO4 to the sides of the test tube to observe violet ring at the junction of two liquids.
Fehling’s test: in a test tube, add 1 ml Fehling’s A and 1 ml Fehling’s B solutions and mix and boil for 1 min. Add equal volume (2 ml) of test solution. Heat in boiling water bath for 5 min. Observe for yellow and then brick red precipitate.
Benedict’s test: add 1 ml of Benedict’s reagent and 1 ml of test solution in a test tube and then mix well. Heat in boiling water bath for 5 min. The solution may appear green, yellow, or red depending on the amount of reducing sugar present in test solution.
Barfoed’s test: add 1 ml of Barfoed’s reagent and 1 ml of test solution in the test tube. Heat for 1–2 min, in boiling water bath, and cool. Observe for red precipitate.
Biuret test (general test): for a 2 ml test solution, add two drops of 4% NaOH and two drops of 1% CuSO4 solution, and observe for violet or pink color.
Millon’s test (for proteins): add 2 ml of TS and mix with 4 ml of Millon’s reagent; observe for white precipitate. Precipitate if warm, turns brick red or precipitate dissolves giving red color.
Xanthoproteic test (for protein containing tyrosine or tryptophan): mix 2 ml TS with 0.5 ml concentrated H2SO4, and observe for white precipitate.
Ninhydrin test (general test): add 2 ml TS and two drops of 5% ninhydrin solution, and heat in boiling water bath for 5 min. Observe for purple or bluish color.
Test for tyrosine: add 2 ml TS and two drops of Millon’s reagent. Heat the solution and observe for dark red color.
Test for tryptophan: add 2 ml of TS and 2 drops of glyoxylic acid and concentrated H2SO4 and observe for reddish violet ring at the junction of the two layers.
Test for cysteine: add 2 ml of TS and few drops of 40% sodium hydroxide and 10% lead acetate solution. Boil. Black ppt. of lead sulfate is formed.
Salkowski reaction: add 3 ml of extract, 3 ml of chloroform, and 3 ml of concentrated H2SO4 in a test tube; shake well; and observe whether chloroform layer appeared red and acid layer showed greenish yellow fluorescence.
Liebermann-Burchard reaction: add 2 ml extract with 2 ml of chloroform and add 1–2 ml acetic anhydride and 2 drops of concentration H2SO4 from the side of test tube. Observe for first red, then blue, and finally green color.
Liebermann’s reaction: add 3 ml of extract with 3 ml acetic anhydride. Heat and cool. Add few drops of concentrated H2SO4 and observe for blue color.
Preparation of test solution: the test solution was prepared by dissolving extract in the alcohol or hydro-alcoholic solution.
Tests for cardiac glycosides:
Baljet’s test: add a test solution with 1 ml of sodium picrate and observe for yellow to orange color.
Legal’s test (for cardenolides): to 1 ml of test solution, add 1 ml pyridine and 1 ml sodium nitroprusside. Observe for pink to red color.
Test for deoxysugars (Keller-Kiliani test): to 2 ml extract, add 0.5 ml glacial acetic acid, one drop of 5% FeCl3, and concentrated H2SO4. Observe for reddish brown color at the junction of the two liquid and upper layers bluish green.
Liebermann’s test (for bufadienolides): add 2 ml extract to 2 ml acetic anhydride. Heat and cool. Add few drops of concentrated H2SO4 and observe for blue color.
Tests for saponin glycosides:
Foam test: the extract was mixed with water and shaken vigorously. Persistent foam was observed.
Hemolytic test: add test solution to one drop of blood placed on the glass slide. Hemolytic zone appears.
Tests for anthraquinone glycosides:
Borntrager’s test: to 3 ml extract, add dil. H2SO4. Boil and filter. To cold filtrate, add equal volume benzene or chloroform. Shake well. Separate the organic solvent. Add ammonia. Ammoniacal layer turns pink or red.
Modified Borntrager’s test: to 3 ml extract, add 3 ml 5% FeCl3 and 3 ml dil. HCl. Heat for 5 min in boiling water bath. Cool and add benzene, shake well, and separate organic layer. Add equal volume dil. ammonia in organic layer. Ammoniacal layer shows pinkish red color.
Flavonoids are present in hydrolyzed plant extracts. Its presence is maximum in parts of the leaves and they are highly soluble in methanol. The flavonoids are all derived structurally from the important substance called flavone. The flavonoids occur in the free form as well as bound to sugars as glycosides. Flavonoids are found maximum in herbal plants and have good phytopharmacological activities.
Preparation of test solution:
To 1 ml of extract, equal volume of 2 M HCl was added and heated in a test tube for 30 to 40 min. at 100°C.
The cooled extract was filtered, and extracted with ethyl acetate.
The ethyl acetate extract was concentrated to dryness and used to test for flavonoids.
Shinoda test: to 2 ml of extract, add 5 ml of 95% ethanol, 5 drops of concentrated HCl, and 0.5 g magnesium turnings. Pink color was observed. To small quantity of residue, acetate solution was added and observed for yellow colored precipitate. Addition of sodium hydroxide to the residue showed yellow coloration, which was decolorized after addition of dilute hydrochloric acid.
Ferric chloride test: to 2 ml of test solution, add few drops of ferric chloride solution, which shows intense green color.
Alkaline reagent test: 2 ml of test solution was treated with 2 ml of sodium hydroxide solution, which showed intense yellow color that became colorless on addition of few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid.
Lead acetate solution test: 2 ml of test solution with few drops of lead acetate solution (10%) gives yellow precipitates.
Mayer’s test: test solution treated with Mayer’s reagent (potassium mercuric iodide); cream colored precipitate was not obtained.
Wagner’s reagent: the test solution treated with Wagner’s reagent (iodine in potassium iodide); brown precipitate was not obtained.
Hager’s test: the test solution treated with Hager’s reagent (saturated picric acid solution); gives yellow precipitate.
Dragendorff’s test: the test solution treated with Dragendorff’s reagent (potassium bismuth iodide); reddish brown precipitate was not obtained.
To 2–3 ml of extract, add few drops of the following reagents:
5% FeCl3 solution shows deep blue-black coloration.
Addition of lead acetate solution shows white precipitate.
Addition of gelatin solution shows white precipitate.
Addition of bromine water shows decoloration of bromine water.
Addition of acetic acid solution shows red colored solution.
Addition of dilute iodine solution shows transient red color.
Addition of dilute HNO3 shows reddish to yellow color.
Addition of dilute KMnO4 shows disappearance of Pink color.
Chromatography is a technique where the molecules are separated based on their shape, size, and charge. In any extract, there are hundreds of unknown components and many of them are in very low amount. During chromatography, analyte in solvent and move through solid phase that acts as a sieving material. As molecule proceeds further through molecular sieve, it gets separated. Moreover, there usually exists variability within the same herbal materials. Hence, it is very important to obtain reliable chromatographic fingerprints that represent pharmacologically active and chemically characteristic components of the herbal medicine. Thin layer chromatography is a chromatographic technique that readily provides qualitative information and through which it becomes possible to obtain quantitative data [17].
Stahl gave the first practical application of thin layer chromatography. TLC is a most versatile technique and it shows its separation with good speed. Advantage of TLC is its sensitivity. TLC works on the principle of an adsorption chromatography in which samples were separated. Separation is based on the interaction between a thin layer of adsorbent attached on the plate and solvent system. The technique is mostly used for the separation of low molecular weight compounds. Many different adsorbents are used in TLC like silica gel, aluminum, cellulose powder, starch, etc. and can be used to separate various compounds like amino acids, alkaloids, phenols, steroids, vitamins, etc.
It is being implemented extensively due to the following reasons:
It carries out good speedy separation and rapid analysis of herbal extracts.
It shows with minimum sample clean-up requirement.
It has the ability for calculating qualitative and semiquantitative information of the separated compounds with Rf values.
It enables the quantification of chemical constituents (Table 1).
Plant constituents | Stationary phase | Mobile phase | Detection |
---|---|---|---|
Carbohydrates | Silica gel | Ethyl acetate:toluene(1:1) | 10% ethanolic sulfuric acid |
Alkaloids/phenanthrenes | Silica gel | Toluene:ethyl acetate:diethylamine(7:2:1) | Dragendorff reagent |
Flavonoids | Silica gel | Ethyl acetate:formic acid:glacial acetic acid:water(10:1.1:1.1:2.6) | UV 254 nm or 366 nm |
Tannins | Silica gel | Ethyl acetate:formic acid:glacial acetic acid:water(7.5:0.3:0.2:2) | Vanillin sulfuric acid reagent |
Saponin glycoside | Silica gel | Chloroform:glacial acetic acid:methanol:water(6.4:3.2:1.2:0.8) | Vanillin sulfuric acid reagent |
Specific Mobile phases | |||
Betasitosterol | Silica gel | Benzene:ethylacetate(9:1) | Vanillin sulfuric acid reagent |
Rutin | Silica gel | Ethyl acetate:formic acid:glacial acetic acid:water(10:1.1:1.1:2.6) | UV 254 nm or 366 nm |
Curcumin | Silica gel | Chloroform:methanol(9.8:0.2) | Visible light |
Gingerol | Silica gel | Toluene:ethylacetate(9.3:0.7) | Vanillin sulfuric acid reagent |
Stigmasterol | Silica gel | Petroleum ether:ethyl acetate(7:3) | Vanillin sulfuric acid reagent |
TLC mobile phase for important classes of phytoconstituents [15].
HPTLC is a more powerful separation tool for quantitative analysis and it uses the technique in a more optimized way. High performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) is based on the principle of planar chromatography where separation of sample components is achieved on high performance layers with detection and data evaluation. These high performance layers on TLC plates are precoated with an adsorbent of 6 micron particle size and a 160 microns layer thickness. The lesser the thickness of layer and particle size results in increased plate efficiency as well as nature of separation. HPTLC has an ability to show its performance on graphical representation in the form of chromatogram. Separation can be easily visualized by pictorial representation, which is possible only in case of HPTLC. The procedure used is as follows: silica gel 60 F254 precoated plates (20 × 10 cm) are used with any developed solvent system. Different extracts are to be spotted on precoated HPTLC plates. Spots of different concentration (l μL) was applied on HPTLC plates to study the exact separation of spots. Saturation time will be 20 min and room temperature 25°C ± 2°C. TLC plates were developed up to 8 cm. After air drying, a plate was heated at 110°C for 2–3 min. In TLC fingerprinting analysis, the information can be stored and recorded using specific highly sophisticated instruments like high performance TLC scanner. It gives information about the chromatogram, retardation factor (Rf) values, the color of the separated bands, their absorption spectra, and λ max. After derivatization and using different visualization reagents, snaps of TLC plates can be obtained and saved for further process. Thus, this represents TLC fingerprint profile of the provided sample. The information so generated has a potential application in the identification of an authentic drug when compared with bioactive marker and it helps in maintaining the quality and consistency of the isolates or herbal drugs in natural drug discovery [18].
Column chromatography works on the principle of ion exchange, molecular sieves, and adsorption phenomenon. CC is a most useful technique for separation of active constituents with larger concentration. Sometimes fractions require another step for concentration. Displacement chromatography is a newer method that contains elution of bioactive compounds that have great affinity for the adsorbent. Fractions of elute materials can be more concentrated than the original solution placed in column. The column was prepared using silica for column chromatography. The fraction was dissolved in smallest possible volume of solvent and it was mixed with 2 gms of silica for column chromatography. Wet column or dry column packing can be done. Packing of column plays an important role in good quality separation. The mixture was dried to obtain free flowing powder and it was added to column. Then, the column was eluted with solvent of various proportions. Every eluent was collected in properly cleaned test tube separately for further studies to be carried out.
High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) plays a mandatory role in isolation of natural products. It is a versatile and widely used technique for the isolation and identification. In the modern era, HPLC technique is becoming popular for studying separation, identification, and fingerprinting study for the quality control of herbal plants. Currently, this technique works as the main choice for research scientists. The multicomponent samples on both an analytical and preparative scale can be separated and studied more easily by HPLC. Thus resolving power of HPLC is ideally used for the rapid processing of herbal extracts. HPLC instruments are designed in modular ways and they contain delivery pump for solvents and manual injection valve along with an auto-sampler. As sample is introduced in autosample, it carries toward the important part or heart of HPLC that is an analytical column, a guard column. Further, a detector, recorder, and printer are used to show a graphical representation on the software based or installed computer device. In every chemical separation, the working and result production differ due to the fact that certain compounds have different migration rates, which can be fulfilled using HPLC by utilizing a particular column and mobile phase as per the requirement for separations. Trial and error concept is applied for developing new mobile phase along with prior knowledge of separation, its structure, and required solvent polarity or nonpolarity. Thus, the extent or degree of separation is based upon the choice of stationary phase or mobile phase. Generally, the identification and separation of phytochemicals can be achieved by using isocratic system that is using single mobile phase. Gradient elution sometimes can be used in which the proportion is altered from organic solvent to water. It also depends on time, and it may be desirable if more than one sample component is studied. Or it also differs from each other significantly in retention of components with column as per the conditions achieved. Identification of compounds by HPLC is a crucial part of HPLC assay. Identification of any bioactive compound by HPLC selection of detector is again the next important step. Once the detector is selected and the setting is done, the assay may be developed by trial and error of solvent system. Once the sharpness of the peak of known sample is obtained, the solvent system can be selected. The important parameters of this assay is that a clean sharp peak of the known sample is observed from the chromatograph. The reasonable retention time of identifying peak should be there. The extraneous peaks at the detection levels should be well separated from the main sharp peak. At maximum time, UV detectors are popularly used in HPLC detection. UV detectors are used among all the detectors because they have high sensitivity and UV absorbance of majority of naturally occurring compounds is possible at low wavelengths of 200–210 nm. If bioactive compound needed to be isolated is only present in small amounts within the sample, then the high sensitivity of UV detection is a bonus in herbal natural drug discovery. Liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC/MS) is also a powerful technique for the analysis of complex botanical extracts. It offers accurate determination of molecular weight of proteins, peptides. Isotopes pattern can also be detected by this technique. A recent advance includes electrospray, thermospray, and ionspray ionization techniques, which offer unique advantages of high detection sensitivity and specificity [19].
HPLC when combined with mass spectrometry (MSn) gives lot of information for structural elucidation of the compounds because its ability of recognition increases and separation with structure identification becomes very easy. Therefore, when a biomarker which is of a pure standard is unavailable, fast and accurate identification of bioactive chemical compounds in medicinal herbs is possible due to the combination of HPLC and MS. In order to count the overall success of natural product in isolation and separation, the most important is processing of raw material further to provide a sample suitable for HPLC analysis. The significant bearing is on the choice of solvent for sample active compounds identification. The source material that is dried powdered herbal plant material should be studied very efficiently in earlier stages and steps: first, its dried form and second to learn about its chemical structural part that is the powder’s ability to release the bioactive compound of interest into the solution. In such cases, mobile phase development initially using TLC and having idea about the solvent system before applying to HPLC saves your time. Thus, in normal case of extraction, dried plant material is treated with an organic solvent methanol, chloroform. After extraction, extracts are dried over rotary evaporator and powdered extracts are concentrated and injected into HPLC for separation and analysis. HPLC is useful for compounds that cannot be vaporized or that decompose under high temperature, and it provides a good complement to gas chromatography for detection of compounds.
FTIR has proven to be a valuable tool for the characterization and identification of compounds or functional groups (chemical bonds) present in an unknown mixture of plant extracts. It helps for identification and structure determination of the molecule. In addition, FTIR spectra of bioactive compounds are usually so unique that they are called as a molecular “fingerprint.” Once the isolation of bioactive compound is possible, then drying of extract and isolates using rotary evaporator is done. Dried powdered plant extract spectrum can be obtained from FTIR. FTIR software contains library of known compounds, and thus, the spectrum of an unknown compound can be identified by its comparison. Preparation of samples for FTIR analysis can be done in different ways. In earlier years, solid herbal plant extract powder was milled with potassium bromide (KBr) with good trituration techniques and then compressed into a thin pellet, which can be analyzed. Now due to new advancements, only solid or liquid sample is available and you only have to place one drop or one pinch of sample between two plates and the drop or sample forms a thin film between the plates. It is the easiest way for performing FTIR, and graphs and wave number are recorded by using computer-based software. The region in IR spectrum above 1200 cm−1 shows spectral bands or peaks due to the vibrations of individual bonds or functional groups under examination. The region below 1200 cm−1 is known as the ‘fingerprint region.’ It indicates bands due to the vibrations of the complete bioactive molecule. Complexity of compounds is seen in fingerprint region. Intensities of the various bands in FTIR are recorded specifically on a simple scale as strong (S), medium (M), or weak (W). And as per new techniques developed, the advanced instruments of company bruker, jasco has made easier by application of one drop or pinch of sample on the instruments and this software will give the results. Lastly, the advantage is that samples can be reused.
Mass spectrometry plays a vital role and works as a powerful analytical technique. It is the only technique used for identification of unknown compounds for its molecular weight. Thus, the quantification of known compounds and elucidation of the structure and chemical properties of molecules are possible due to MS. The most powerful MS spectrum gives an idea about the molecular weight of sample, which can be determined. The value of the technique is that it requires only microgram amounts of material and that it can provide an accurate molecular weight and that it may yield a complex fragmentation pattern, which is often characteristic of that particular compound. This technique works successfully for the structural elucidation of herbal extracts and organic compounds, for peptide or oligonucleotide sequencing. MS helps in monitoring the characterization of compounds in complex mixtures with a high specificity by defining both the molecular weight and a diagnostic fragment of the molecule simultaneously. Gas chromatography equipment can be directly coupled with rapid scan mass spectrometer (GCMS) of various types. High resolution analysis can be performed due to coupling of equipment.
Liquid chromatography–mass spectroscopy (LC–MS) offers accurate determination of molecular weight of proteins and peptides. Isotopes pattern can also be detected by this technique. Recent advances include electrospray, thermospray, and ionspray ionization techniques, which offer unique advantages of high detection sensitivity and specificity.
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy gives physical, chemical, and biological properties of matter. C13 NMR is used to identify the types of carbon present in the compound. H1-NMR is used to find out the types of hydrogen present in the compound and to find out how the hydrogen atoms are connected. Proton NMR spectroscopy basically works on principle by measuring the magnetic moments of its hydrogen atoms and it provides a method for determining the structure of an organic compound. In almost all compounds, hydrogen atoms are present, which are attached to different groups such as -CH2-, -CH-, -CHO, -NH2, -CHOH-, etc. The graphical representation of proton NMR spectrum provides a record of the number of hydrogen atoms in these different situations. It gives information only about the number of hydrogen atoms in the compound but not the number of carbon atoms. However, direct information on the nature of the carbon skeleton of the molecule can only be obtained by carbon 13 NMR spectroscopy. 13C-NMR spectroscopy works hand in hand with proton NMR and thus the combination of the results of two methods provides very useful information for identification of unknown compound. It is a powerful means of structural elucidation for new terpenoids, alkaloids, or flavonoids. It is also useful in the identification or analysis of glycosides, in indicating the linkage between sugar moieties and their configurations. Many proteins or other macromolecules can be identified by both proton and 13C-NMR. For NMR analysis, very small amount of sample is needed for analysis and that sample can be reused for further analysis. For examples, NMR instrument cost much so there are many sophisticated analytical instrumentation technical analysis are available to perform your research work. Scientist handling NMR has good hands on working of NMR. In order to get high resolution, the new technique is liquid chromatography–nuclear magnetic resonance (LC-NMR). It is a combination of chromatographic separation technique for isolation of active fraction and its number of hydrogen or carbon atom identification with NMR spectroscopy. It is one of the most powerful and time-saving method for the separation and structural elucidation of unknown compounds and mixtures, especially for the structure elucidation of herbal plant extracts and their isolates in herbal natural drug discovery.
Nature is a God’s gift for finding new herbal drugs for carrying out research scientifically. A new driving force for screening of novel drugs, biologically active metabolites from these products derived from nature which leads to the success of drugs. The chemistry is a branch where the new technologies are emerging in which pharmaceutical chemistry is very important because it deals with the health of common people. Combinatorial chemistry, high-throughput screening, bioinformatics, proteomics, and genomics are newer techniques that have emerged widely in the field of pharmaceutical discovery research. All drug discovery research and technologies have enormous potential to make use of the chemical and natural diversity of products. Newly developed techniques are growing rapidly with good outputs in natural drug discovery [20]. These include molecular diversity, compound-library design, protein 3D structures, NMR-based screening, 3D-QSAR in modern drug design, physicochemical concepts, and computer-aided drug design using different software, its prediction of drug toxicity, and metabolism [21]. New approaches to improve and accelerate the joint drug discovery and development processes are expected to take place mainly from the innovation in drug target elucidation and lead structure discovery. Powerful new technologies are revolutionizing drug discovery. Some software will be useful in performing studies, which are freely available such as
Technologies for drug discovery advanced and diversified greatly [22]. NPDD (natural product drug discovery) activities work hand in hand and make use strongly with HTS, combinatorial chemistry, and genomics. New approaches have proved to show improvement and accelerate the joint drug discovery and development processes. New techniques are emerging and take place mainly from the innovation in drug target elucidation. It finally leads to lead structure discovery. Powerful new technologies are revolutionizing natural herbal drug discovery.
High-throughput screening (HTS) is a specially deigned technique in herbal drug discovery that is a standard method for hit discovery based on identification through stored libraries. HTS is relevant to the fields of biology and chemistry and helps for scientific experimentation especially used in drug discovery.
HTS is using data processing and control software and sensitive detectors that help researchers to carry out the research scientifically for designing and developing new structure from herbal drug discovery. It is robotics and allows a researcher to quickly conduct various biochemical, genetic, or phytopharmacological tests. Through HTS, one can rapidly identify bioactive compounds that can be useful in a particular biomolecular pathway in inhibiting the diseased condition. Thus, biomolecular pathway provides information about the mechanism of drug as well as internal way of diseased condition person. The knowledge and the results of these experiments provide starting points for designing a drug and for understanding the interaction or role of a particular biochemical process in biology.
HTS is a relatively recent innovation and it requires high-speed computer technology. It works on the principle of high-throughput screening of large amount of natural compounds using computer-based technology, which is more easy and more time saving. Knowledge can be further utilized for new herbal drug discovery. Interest of research can be generated in natural drug discovery through all these newer techniques. Many well-developed countries have highly specialized and expensive screening labs to run an HTS operation. However, the countries having interest of working in research that cases a small-to-moderately sized research institution will use the existing HTS facility as per their convenience rather than full set up.
With growing interest in herbal drug development with minimum side effects, there are better opportunities to explore the medicinal and other biological properties of previously inaccessible natural products. To establish its usefulness, it is mandatory to focus on visualization and identification of unused herbal plants over the world. Then, it is emphasized on extraction, its isolation, and characterization of phytochemicals, which is a gift of nature in a rational and scientific way. There is an unmet need for utilization of the natural products for the benefit of human kind and development of new lead for drug discovery. Once the phytochemical is obtained, this can be used for further exploration through QSAR studies, molecular modeling, and animal studies followed by clinical trial. The success of natural products in drug discovery essentially for pharmaceutical companies and research institutes is essentially related to their ability and benefits to common person that is socio-economic benefits for well-being of common person its health is important for the world rather than all coming come to your hands if health is top priority. Natural products contain complex chemical structures, which differ according to their various species in nature, and when the existing high technology methods that are available are applied, it can lead to new discovery of drugs, benefitting the whole world. Thus, the world is always gifted with nature, and man is gifted with brain, so let us make use of it to discover new entities that will be available to common people in economical rate and we will be happy to lead a life on this earth. Moreover, natural products have been, and will be, important sources of new pharmaceutical compounds. Many years ago life was made possible or was prolonged only due to natural herbs as per the references that can be obtained in literature. In the new era of twenty-first century, no life is possible on earth without herbal drugs or products that are obtained through natural herbal drug discovery. Hats off to it!
The Internet has irrevocably changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing. Consequently, we find it necessary to indicate, unambiguously, our definition of what we consider to be a published scientific work.
",metaTitle:"Prior Publication Policy",metaDescription:"Prior Publication Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/prior-publication-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\\n\\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\\n\\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\\n\\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\\n\\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\\n\\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\\n\\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\\n\\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\\n\\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\\n\\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\\n\\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\\n\\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\\n\\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\\n\\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\\n\\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\\n\\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\\n\\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\\n\\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\\n\\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\\n\\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\\n\\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\n\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\n\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\n\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\n\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\n\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\n\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\n\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\n\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\n\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\n\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\n\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\n\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\n\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\n\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\n\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\n\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\n\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\n\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\n\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\n\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\n\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"105746",title:"Dr.",name:"A.W.M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Koopman-van Gemert",slug:"a.w.m.m.-koopman-van-gemert",fullName:"A.W.M.M. Koopman-van Gemert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105746/images/5803_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Anna Wilhelmina Margaretha Maria Koopman-van Gemert MD, PhD, became anaesthesiologist-intensivist from the Radboud University Nijmegen (the Netherlands) in 1987. She worked for a couple of years also as a blood bank director in Nijmegen and introduced in the Netherlands the Cell Saver and blood transfusion alternatives. She performed research in perioperative autotransfusion and obtained the degree of PhD in 1993 publishing Peri-operative autotransfusion by means of a blood cell separator.\nBlood transfusion had her special interest being the president of the Haemovigilance Chamber TRIP and performing several tasks in local and national blood bank and anticoagulant-blood transfusion guidelines committees. Currently, she is working as an associate professor and up till recently was the dean at the Albert Schweitzer Hospital Dordrecht. She performed (inter)national tasks as vice-president of the Concilium Anaesthesia and related committees. \nShe performed research in several fields, with over 100 publications in (inter)national journals and numerous papers on scientific conferences. \nShe received several awards and is a member of Honour of the Dutch Society of Anaesthesia.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Albert Schweitzer Hospital",country:{name:"Gabon"}}},{id:"83089",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Ojule",slug:"aaron-ojule",fullName:"Aaron Ojule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Port Harcourt",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"295748",title:"Mr.",name:"Abayomi",middleName:null,surname:"Modupe",slug:"abayomi-modupe",fullName:"Abayomi Modupe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Landmark University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"94191",title:"Prof.",name:"Abbas",middleName:null,surname:"Moustafa",slug:"abbas-moustafa",fullName:"Abbas Moustafa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94191/images/96_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Moustafa got his doctoral degree in earthquake engineering and structural safety from Indian Institute of Science in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at Department of Civil Engineering, Minia University, Egypt and the chairman of Department of Civil Engineering, High Institute of Engineering and Technology, Giza, Egypt. He is also a consultant engineer and head of structural group at Hamza Associates, Giza, Egypt. Dr. Moustafa was a senior research associate at Vanderbilt University and a JSPS fellow at Kyoto and Nagasaki Universities. He has more than 40 research papers published in international journals and conferences. He acts as an editorial board member and a reviewer for several regional and international journals. His research interest includes earthquake engineering, seismic design, nonlinear dynamics, random vibration, structural reliability, structural health monitoring and uncertainty modeling.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Minia University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"84562",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbyssinia",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"abbyssinia-mushunje",fullName:"Abbyssinia Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Fort Hare",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"202206",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abd Elmoniem",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Elzain",slug:"abd-elmoniem-elzain",fullName:"Abd Elmoniem Elzain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kassala University",country:{name:"Sudan"}}},{id:"98127",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdallah",middleName:null,surname:"Handoura",slug:"abdallah-handoura",fullName:"Abdallah Handoura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Supérieure des Télécommunications",country:{name:"Morocco"}}},{id:"91404",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdecharif",middleName:null,surname:"Boumaza",slug:"abdecharif-boumaza",fullName:"Abdecharif Boumaza",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Abbès Laghrour University of Khenchela",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"105795",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Ghani",middleName:null,surname:"Aissaoui",slug:"abdel-ghani-aissaoui",fullName:"Abdel Ghani Aissaoui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105795/images/system/105795.jpeg",biography:"Abdel Ghani AISSAOUI is a Full Professor of electrical engineering at University of Bechar (ALGERIA). He was born in 1969 in Naama, Algeria. He received his BS degree in 1993, the MS degree in 1997, the PhD degree in 2007 from the Electrical Engineering Institute of Djilali Liabes University of Sidi Bel Abbes (ALGERIA). He is an active member of IRECOM (Interaction Réseaux Electriques - COnvertisseurs Machines) Laboratory and IEEE senior member. He is an editor member for many international journals (IJET, RSE, MER, IJECE, etc.), he serves as a reviewer in international journals (IJAC, ECPS, COMPEL, etc.). He serves as member in technical committee (TPC) and reviewer in international conferences (CHUSER 2011, SHUSER 2012, PECON 2012, SAI 2013, SCSE2013, SDM2014, SEB2014, PEMC2014, PEAM2014, SEB (2014, 2015), ICRERA (2015, 2016, 2017, 2018,-2019), etc.). His current research interest includes power electronics, control of electrical machines, artificial intelligence and Renewable energies.",institutionString:"University of Béchar",institution:{name:"University of Béchar",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"99749",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel Hafid",middleName:null,surname:"Essadki",slug:"abdel-hafid-essadki",fullName:"Abdel Hafid Essadki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Nationale Supérieure de Technologie",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"101208",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Karim",middleName:"Mohamad",surname:"El Hemaly",slug:"abdel-karim-el-hemaly",fullName:"Abdel Karim El Hemaly",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101208/images/733_n.jpg",biography:"OBGYN.net Editorial Advisor Urogynecology.\nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly, MRCOG, FRCS � Egypt.\n \nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly\nProfessor OB/GYN & Urogynecology\nFaculty of medicine, Al-Azhar University \nPersonal Information: \nMarried with two children\nWife: Professor Laila A. Moussa MD.\nSons: Mohamad A. M. El-Hemaly Jr. MD. Died March 25-2007\nMostafa A. M. El-Hemaly, Computer Scientist working at Microsoft Seatle, USA. \nQualifications: \n1.\tM.B.-Bch Cairo Univ. June 1963. \n2.\tDiploma Ob./Gyn. Cairo Univ. April 1966. \n3.\tDiploma Surgery Cairo Univ. Oct. 1966. \n4.\tMRCOG London Feb. 1975. \n5.\tF.R.C.S. Glasgow June 1976. \n6.\tPopulation Study Johns Hopkins 1981. \n7.\tGyn. Oncology Johns Hopkins 1983. \n8.\tAdvanced Laparoscopic Surgery, with Prof. Paulson, Alexandria, Virginia USA 1993. \nSocieties & Associations: \n1.\t Member of the Royal College of Ob./Gyn. London. \n2.\tFellow of the Royal College of Surgeons Glasgow UK. \n3.\tMember of the advisory board on urogyn. FIGO. \n4.\tMember of the New York Academy of Sciences. \n5.\tMember of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. \n6.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in the World� from the 16th edition to the 20th edition. \n7.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in Science and Engineering� in the 7th edition. \n8.\tMember of the Egyptian Fertility & Sterility Society. \n9.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Ob./Gyn. \n10.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Urogyn. \n\nScientific Publications & Communications:\n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asim Kurjak, Ahmad G. Serour, Laila A. S. Mousa, Amr M. Zaied, Khalid Z. El Sheikha. \nImaging the Internal Urethral Sphincter and the Vagina in Normal Women and Women Suffering from Stress Urinary Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol18, No 4; 169-286 October-December 2009.\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nFecal Incontinence, A Novel Concept: The Role of the internal Anal sphincter (IAS) in defecation and fecal incontinence. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 2; 79-85 April -June 2010.\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nSurgical Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, Fecal Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse By A Novel Operation \n"Urethro-Ano-Vaginoplasty"\n Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 3; 129-188 July-September 2010.\n4- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n5- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n6- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n7-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n9-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n10-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n11-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n12- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n13-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n15-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n\n16-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n17- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n18-Maternal Mortality in Egypt, a cry for help and attention. The Second International Conference of the African Society of Organization & Gestosis, 1998, 3rd Annual International Conference of Ob/Gyn Department � Sohag Faculty of Medicine University. Feb. 11-13. Luxor, Egypt. \n19-Postmenopausal Osteprosis. The 2nd annual conference of Health Insurance Organization on Family Planning and its role in primary health care. Zagaziz, Egypt, February 26-27, 1997, Center of Complementary Services for Maternity and childhood care. \n20-Laparoscopic Assisted vaginal hysterectomy. 10th International Annual Congress Modern Trends in Reproductive Techniques 23-24 March 1995. Alexandria, Egypt. \n21-Immunological Studies in Pre-eclamptic Toxaemia. Proceedings of 10th Annual Ain Shams Medical Congress. Cairo, Egypt, March 6-10, 1987. \n22-Socio-demographic factorse affecting acceptability of the long-acting contraceptive injections in a rural Egyptian community. Journal of Biosocial Science 29:305, 1987. \n23-Plasma fibronectin levels hypertension during pregnancy. The Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 13:1, 17-21, Jan. 1987. \n24-Effect of smoking on pregnancy. Journal of Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 111-121, Sept 1986. \n25-Socio-demographic aspects of nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 35-42, Sept. 1986. \n26-Effect of intrapartum oxygen inhalation on maternofetal blood gases and pH. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 57-64, Sept. 1986. \n27-The effect of severe pre-eclampsia on serum transaminases. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 479-485, 1986. \n28-A study of placental immunoreceptors in pre-eclampsia. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 211-216, 1986. \n29-Serum human placental lactogen (hpl) in normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women, during pregnancy and its relation to the outcome of pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:2, 11-23, May 1986. \n30-Pregnancy specific B1 Glycoprotein and free estriol in the serum of normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women during pregnancy and after delivery. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:1, 63-70, Jan. 1986. Also was accepted and presented at Xith World Congress of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Berlin (West), September 15-20, 1985. \n31-Pregnancy and labor in women over the age of forty years. Accepted and presented at Al-Azhar International Medical Conference, Cairo 28-31 Dec. 1985. \n32-Effect of Copper T intra-uterine device on cervico-vaginal flora. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 23:2, 153-156, April 1985. \n33-Factors affecting the occurrence of post-Caesarean section febrile morbidity. Population Sciences, 6, 139-149, 1985. \n34-Pre-eclamptic toxaemia and its relation to H.L.A. system. Population Sciences, 6, 131-139, 1985. \n35-The menstrual pattern and occurrence of pregnancy one year after discontinuation of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as a postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 105-111, 1985. \n36-The menstrual pattern and side effects of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 97-105, 1985. \n37-Actinomyces in the vaginas of women with and without intrauterine contraceptive devices. Population Sciences, 6, 77-85, 1985. \n38-Comparative efficacy of ibuprofen and etamsylate in the treatment of I.U.D. menorrhagia. Population Sciences, 6, 63-77, 1985. \n39-Changes in cervical mucus copper and zinc in women using I.U.D.�s. Population Sciences, 6, 35-41, 1985. \n40-Histochemical study of the endometrium of infertile women. Egypt. J. Histol. 8(1) 63-66, 1985. \n41-Genital flora in pre- and post-menopausal women. Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 4(2), 165-172, 1983. \n42-Evaluation of the vaginal rugae and thickness in 8 different groups. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 9:2, 101-114, May 1983. \n43-The effect of menopausal status and conjugated oestrogen therapy on serum cholesterol, triglycerides and electrophoretic lipoprotein patterns. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 12:2, 113-119, April 1983. \n44-Laparoscopic ventrosuspension: A New Technique. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet., 20, 129-31, 1982. \n45-The laparoscope: A useful diagnostic tool in general surgery. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:4, 397-401, Oct. 1982. \n46-The value of the laparoscope in the diagnosis of polycystic ovary. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:2, 153-159, April 1982. \n47-An anaesthetic approach to the management of eclampsia. Ain Shams Medical Journal, accepted for publication 1981. \n48-Laparoscopy on patients with previous lower abdominal surgery. Fertility management edited by E. Osman and M. Wahba 1981. \n49-Heart diseases with pregnancy. Population Sciences, 11, 121-130, 1981. \n50-A study of the biosocial factors affecting perinatal mortality in an Egyptian maternity hospital. Population Sciences, 6, 71-90, 1981. \n51-Pregnancy Wastage. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 11:3, 57-67, Sept. 1980. \n52-Analysis of maternal deaths in Egyptian maternity hospitals. Population Sciences, 1, 59-65, 1979. \nArticles published on OBGYN.net: \n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n4-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n5-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n6-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n7-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n9- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n10-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n11- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n12-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n13-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. 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