\r\n\tAbout 25 percent of all foods produced globally are lost due to microbial growth. L. monocytogenes is a microorganism ubiquitously present in the environment and affects animals and humans. L. monocytogenes can enter a factory and is able to survive in biofilms in the food processing environment. The use of adequate sanitation procedures is a prerequisite in risk prevention. Moreover, effective control measures for L. monocytogenes are very important to food operators.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe safety and shelf life maximizing of food products to meet the demand of retailers and consumers is a challenge and a concern of food operators.
\r\n
\r\n\tTo obtain food systems more sustainable, several developments are ongoing to ensure safe food products with an extended shelf life and a reduction of food loss and waste. The problem of antimicrobial resistance is also a great issue that must be taken into consideration.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe implementation of natural antimicrobials, using food cultures, ferments, or bacteriophages, is one approach to control L. monocytogenes in food products that meet the consumer preference for clean label solutions. \r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art about Listeria monocytogenes in terms of occurrence in humans, animals, and food-producing plants. Its control by more natural agents allows for more sustainable food systems and points future directions to transform challenges into opportunities.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-036-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-035-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-037-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"678ca4185133438014939804bf8a05e6",bookSignature:"Prof. Cristina Saraiva, Dr. Sónia Saraiva and Prof. Alexandra Esteves",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11798.jpg",keywords:"Environmental Health, Biodiversity, Public Health, Foodborne Pathogen, Contamination, Listeriosis, Strains, Shelf-Life, Food Safety, Bioactive Agents, Biofilms Reduction, Chemical or Physical Treatment",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 11th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 8th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 7th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 26th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 25th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A researcher in veterinary science, food microbiology, food safety, and quality, former Dean of the Integrated Master in Veterinary Medicine, ECAV, former Director of the Veterinary Sciences Department, ECAV at the Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro and member of the European College of Veterinary Public Health (ECVPH).",coeditorOneBiosketch:"A veterinary scientist with expertise in food safety and technology, Head of Division in the Food and Veterinary Division of Porto (DAV Porto), from the General Directorate of Food and Veterinary (DGAV), Member of the Order of Veterinarians and Member of the Portuguese Association of Animal Behavior and Welfare Therapy.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"A researcher in Food Hygiene and Technology with a degree in Veterinary Medicine from the Technical University of Lisbon, a collaborator with the University of León, and a member and Secretary of the Scientific Council of the School of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences (CC-ECAV).",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"226197",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Saraiva",slug:"cristina-saraiva",fullName:"Cristina Saraiva",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226197/images/system/226197.png",biography:null,institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"467464",title:"Dr.",name:"Sónia",middleName:null,surname:"Saraiva",slug:"sonia-saraiva",fullName:"Sónia Saraiva",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Dr. Saraiva graduated at the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD) in 2005. and carried out a curricular internship within the scope of the Meat Inspection in slaughterhouses of cattle, sheep, goats, and swine in the area of the Regional Directorate of Agriculture of Trás-os-Montes (DRATM). Classification of 18 (eighteen) values. 2009 - Master in Technology, Science, and Food Safety (M-TCSA). Theme: Screening for the presence of Cyclopiazonic Acid in Poultry Feed. Faculty of Sciences of the University of Porto (FC-UP). Final classification of Very Good. In 2011 she worked as a Postgraduate in Animal Behavior and Welfare. Higher Institute of Applied Psychology (ISPA). In 2019 she was awarded her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences – Quality and Food Safety field. Theme: Animal Welfare of Poultry Along the Food Chain. University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD).",institutionString:"Animal and Veterinary Science Research Center",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"283814",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Esteves",slug:"alexandra-esteves",fullName:"Alexandra Esteves",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:'Born in Mirandela, Portuguese. Currently working as an Assistant Professor with Aggregation at the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, full time, of the Department of Veterinary Sciences and External Professor, Faculty of Veterinary (Department of Food Hygiene and Technology), University of León, Spain. In 1991. gained her Degree in Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, from the Technical University of Lisbon with a final grade of 14 (fourteen). In 1997. 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1. Introduction
As is known, the cation exchange capacity (CEC) is the property of a solid to adsorb cations from the liquid phase, exchanging them for an equivalent amount of other cations. In the solid-liquid system, a dynamic equilibrium is established between the cations of the solution and those adsorbed on the active points of the surface of solid [1]. Similarly, a cation exchange capacity (CEC) can be defined as the measurement of the adsorption equilibria of anions. Cations retained in clays can be replaced by other cations; therefore, they are interchangeable.
There are many kinds of materials used for ion exchange of metals; firstly, the natural and synthetic inorganic minerals such as zeolites, clay minerals, and permutites can be considered; secondly, a great variety of organic materials like synthetic resins, polysaccharides, and proteins can be found; and finally, carbonic materials can be found. Among all the above mentioned materials used for ion exchange, natural clays are of great interest because they are cheaper than the synthetic and organic materials; therefore, the evaluation of the ion exchange capability of some clays and natural materials could be of great interest to recover heavy and precious metals and also rare earths elements easily.
Particularly, the word “rare earth” comes from some oxides that are classified as “rare,” not by the difficulty of finding them, but because it was difficult to separate the elements from their minerals. Although rare earths are found in hundreds of minerals, only about 20 have favorable conditions to process them, such as bastnasite, monazite, aluminous clays, xenotima, loparita, and parisita [2]. A group of rare earths belong to a series of elements that are very difficult to separate by traditional techniques, since they have very similar chemical properties. Currently, rare earths are in great demand, because in the study of their properties, and have been discovered multiple industrial and technological applications, which currently have placed them as strategic chemical elements for the development of high-tech products and in high demand [2, 3].
The increasing demand for these elements in modern industry, especially for various advanced technologies, has required obtaining them in a very pure state, impossible to achieve with conventional techniques, which is why a novel researchers and efforts have been carried out, into important development in the different fields of obtaining and recovering rare earths, from the different mineral resources that contain them [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. For the recovery of these elements, there are different processes of separation of rare earths, such as photochemical separation, supercritical extraction, and extraction with solvents and ion exchange [8].
According to heavy metals, almost all of them are too toxic due to their industrial sources and the permitted levels in environment for their discharge. Toxicity of heavy metals depends on their bioaccumulation in environment, that also, depends about the chemical speciation, persistence and tendency of accumulation or bioaccumulation [9]. The classification of the techniques for the treatment of heavy metals in wastewaters depends on different factors, and these technique are conventional and nonconventional, principally. Among the conventional techniques, filtration by membrane, electrodialysis, inverse osmosis, nanofiltration, ultrafiltration, ionic exchange, chemical precipitation, and others can be found [10]. So, ion exchange using natural minerals could be of importance, due to the low cost of these minerals and the possibility of finding a better way to remove heavy metals from contaminated effluents.
According to the precious metals ions, their recovery traditionally was carried out by chemical precipitation; however, the process showed some disadvantages like the formation of toxic subproducts which avoid a complete recovery of the precious metals such as Ag and Au [11]. For the abovementioned, some processes of ion exchange have been developed, using resins and activated carbon, interchanging Ag and Au ions contained in residues or dissolved solutions from cyaniding [12].
On the other hand, various works on the ion exchange of metals with natural adsorbents (aluminosilicates such as zeolites, mineral clays, feldspars, and zeolites) show that these can be good candidates for the recovery of rare earths, as well as heavy and precious metals, taking into consideration some factors that affect the ion exchange such as pH, temperature, contact time, particle size, nature of the cations (size, ionic charge, shape, and concentration), anions associated with the cations in solution, solvent (water, organic solvents) and material selectivity, as well as the ion exchange rate [13, 14, 15, 16].
It is for this reason and due to all the efforts made for the recovery of these metals, extraordinary growth has been generated in the last two decades due to their multiple maps in vital sectors for economic development, such as those of computer science and renewable energies, but they are also of great interest in the defense sector. However, global production of rare earths is dominated by China at an alarming 97%, as well as some derived industries such as refining, obtaining alloys, and, to a lesser extent, manufacturing new generation magnets. Currently, China has slowed down its production and very serious questions for the coming years [2].
According the above, and due to the exploration and discovery of deposits with rare earths contents in the state of Hidalgo, Mexico [17, 18], that studies are proposed for the recovery of these precious and heavy metals, as well as rare earths, through the cationic exchange with natural absorbents such as non-metallic minerals, also occurring in the state of Hidalgo.
According the abovementioned, the main goal of this work is to determine the cationic exchange capacity (CEC) of different non-metallic minerals, for the recovery of precious metals, rare earths elements, and heavy metals from leached liquors. In the same way, the determination of the CEC of these minerals could be of utility for their use in the treatment of waste water containing heavy metals. Although there are some works related to the study of the CEC of diatomite, there are not many studies related with the study of the CEC for the bentonite and phosphorite, leading to an important innovation to this work.
2. Materials and methods
In this section, the minerals and materials used to do the ion exchange for the recovery of heavy and precious metals, as well as rare earths elements, will be described.
2.1 Materials
The minerals used in this work were obtained in different regions of the State of Hidalgo, Mexico. They were collected in the grinding plants from open mines of diatomite, phosphorite, and bentonite. All the minerals were wholly characterized to describe the principal physicochemical characteristics that they have to carry out for the corresponding ion exchange. Basically, the characterization was performed preparing samples of each mineral (bentonite, phosphorite, and diatomite) and crushing and grinding them until obtain a range of particle size less than 100 μm.
2.2 Ion exchange methods
To execute the ion exchange, several experiments were executed using leaching liquors of a SEDEX-type mineral located in the State of Hidalgo, Mexico, containing precious metals and rare earths [17, 18], and previously characterized by ICP-OES. The average chemical composition having these liquors is shown in Table 1.
ICP analysis
Element
Ppm
Au
45.93
Pd
1.92
Pt
0.005
Ce
81.79
Nd
56.97
La
51.89
Yb
33.35
Tb
25
Ge
9
Ga
2.5
Sm
1.75
Er
0.9
Eu
0.35
Table 1.
Chemical composition of the leaching liquors of the SEDEX mineral, done by ICP.
To carry out the ionic exchange with the natural minerals, a two-stage procedure was done as follows: 20 g of each mineral (bentonite, phosphorite, and diatomite), at a −400 mesh particle size, were weighted and then, were added to 500 ml volume of leaching solution containing the elements shown in Table 1. The experiments were executed at a stirring rate of 500 rpm, with a pH of 0.3, which was controlled adding NaOH constantly during all experiment, and the reaction time used was of 24 h. After ending the reaction time, solution was filtered and dried; then, both solids as residual liquors were characterized (ICP-OES, XRD, XRF, and SEM-EDS) to evaluate the capability of ion exchange of each mineral. The analysis done by ICP-OES was executed taking the final liquid after ion exchange, and then sample was diluted taking 1 ml of solution into 100 ml of distilled water having a 1/100 dilution factor. With this, all the elements fell in a range of concentration below 1 ppm for the case of Au, Ce, Nd, L, Tb, Ge, and Yb. For the rest of the elements, a direct sample was taken using standards between 1 and 5 ppm (without dilution).
2.3 Analytical methods
2.3.1 Characterization of minerals
The analytical methods used for the characterizations of the different mineral used to the ion exchange stage were characterized by dry granulometric analysis using a standard sieves (Tyler series); X-ray diffraction using an INEL equinox 2000 equipment was located at the Autonomous University of the State of Hidalgo (AUSH), and the spectra was obtained with a Cu Kα1 radiation of wave length of 1.50056 Å, a voltage of 30 kV, an intensity of 20 mA, and a sweep speed of 22 θ/min, which were then treated with the software MATH to identify the mineral species contained in each material.
2.3.2 Chemical analysis
Then, to determine the chemical composition of standard solutions and leached liquors (before and after ion exchange), an inductively coupled plasma spectrophotometer (ICP-OES) Perkin Elmer brand/model 2100 located at the AUSH was used. In the same way, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to determine morphology and particle type of minerals, using a JEOL brand microscope model JMS6300, having an Energy Dispersive Spectrometer of X-ray (EDS) for chemical microanalysis and also located at the AUSH. And finally, X-ray fluorescence (XRF) was executed to determine the chemical composition of minerals before and after the ion exchange procedure, and for this analysis, a portable spectrophotometer of X-ray brand BRUKER, model S1 TITAN was used, also using the GeoChem calibration software (equipment located at the National Autonomous University of Mexico).
3. Results and discussion
3.1 Characterization of minerals
3.1.1 Bentonite before ion exchange experiments
Bentonite is a rock composed essentially of minerals from the group of smectites, regardless of any genetic connotation. Additionally, it has the ability to inflate and increase its volume by weight several times on contact with water, to form thixotropic gels when added in small quantities. Finally, it can be said that its main interchangeable cations are Na+, Ca2+, K+, Mg2+, Li+, and H+.
Table 2 shows the results obtained by ICP and FRX of the elements contained in the bentonite studied, of which silicon, aluminum, iron, sodium, and potassium are present in the majority among others.
Element (oxide)
ICP (wt.%)
FRX (wt.%)
Na2O
2.66
0.92
MgO
2.71
2.76
Al2O3
14.10
14.92
SiO2
73.10
73.41
K2O
1.32
1.67
CaO
3.11
3.93
TiO2
0.37
0.35
Fe2O3
2.63
2.60
Table 2.
Chemical composition of natural bentonite.
Likewise, in Figure 1, the mineral species identified by X-ray diffraction are observed, in which the presence of majority of mineral phases, such as quartz, anorthoclase, orthoclase, albite, and berlinite, can be seen, as well as sodium silicoaluminates (paragonite and gmelinite).
Figure 1.
X-ray diffractogram of bentonite.
On the other hand, Figure 2 shows an image of a bentonite particle at −400 mesh, analyzed by SEM-EDS, where the semiquantitative and point composition can be observed, showing the presence of elements such as silicon, aluminum, sodium, magnesium, potassium, and iron, which are characteristic in the bentonite (Figure 2a); likewise, the bentonite particle is shown in detail, having a lot of porosity, which is essentially one of the most important physical characteristics for the ion exchange that could be carried out, besides the particle size, offering a large surface and contact area, Figure 2b.
Figure 2.
SEM analysis of bentonite: (a) point microanalysis by SEM-EDS and (b) general image (SEM-SE).
3.1.2 Bentonite after ion exchange experiments
The results obtained after ion exchange experiments are presented as chemical composition of liquors before and after the procedure; Table 3 shows the chemical composition of these liquors obtained by ICP, showing also the efficiency of ion exchange for each element. It can be noticed that for all elements present in original leaching liquor, the efficiency is over 90%.
Element
Content before ion exchange (ppm)
Content after ion exchange (ppm)
Efficiency of the ion exchange (%)
Au
45.93
0.072
99.84
Ce
81.79
0.000
100.00
La
51.89
0.000
100.00
Nd
56.97
0.020
99.96
Pd
1.92
0.108
94.37
Yb
33.35
0.009
99.97
Ge
9
0
100
Gd
1.4
0.111
92.07
Tb
0.25
0
100
Sm
1.75
0
100
Er
0.9
0
100
Eu
0.35
0.011
96.86
Pt
0.005
0
100
Table 3.
Results of the ion exchange done using bentonite (ICP).
After the ion exchange, the solution was filtered and the solid residue of the bentonite was dried and analyzed by XRD. The mineral species identified by X-ray diffraction (Figure 3), are majority mineral phases, such as quartz, anorthoclase, orthoclase, albite, berlinite, and silico-aluminates, typical of bentonite. Likewise, signs indicating the presence of rare earths and precious metals are noted, which corroborates that the exchange of these elements was made to the natural absorbent.
Figure 3.
X-ray diffractogram of bentonite after ion exchange.
Finally, Figure 4 shows the image of a bentonite particle after performing the ion exchange with the leaching liquors of a SEDEX-type mineral, where the semiquantitative composition and the distribution of the elements are shown by X-ray mapping, observing that, indeed, the aforementioned elements were absorbed in the bentonite ore.
Figure 4.
Photomicrographs of bentonite after ion exchange: (a) general microanalysis SEM-EDS; (b) general image, 2000×, SEM-SE; (c) point image where the microanalysis was taken; and (d) distribution mapping of rare earth elements and precious metals in the bentonite.
3.1.3 Phosphorite before ion exchange experiments
Phosphorites are sedimentary rocks that contain at least 20% P2O5 in the form of cryptocrystalline fluorapatite, apatite, or some other minerals containing phosphorus. They usually occur in layers, and it can also be present in the form of crusts, spherulites, and nodules in sedimentary horizons. Rocks with less than 10% phosphate receive the adjective of phosphates. Its main interchangeable cations are: Ca2+, K+, and Mg2+.
Before carrying out the ion exchange experiments, the phosphorite was characterized to know its composition and compare it at the end of the ion exchange experiments, and thus to evaluate its exchange capacity for the elements present in the leaching liquors. Table 4 shows the results obtained by ICP and XRF of the chemical composition for the phosphorite, where the average contents of 36% of P2O5 are shown, as well as the majority of aluminum, calcium, and minor elements such as oxides of sodium, potassium, titanium, and iron.
Element
ICP (wt.%)
XRF (wt.%)
Na2O
0
0.16
Al2O3
2.43
2.40
P2O5
36.03
36.08
K2O
0.15
0.21
CaO
59.99
59.95
TiO2
0.48
0.31
Fe2O3
0.92
0.89
Table 4.
Average chemical composition of phosphorite before ion exchange.
On the other hand, the mineral species identified by X-ray diffraction (Figure 5) are mainly mineral phases of calcium and phosphorus.
Figure 5.
X-ray diffractogram of phosphorite, before ion exchange.
Finally, in Figure 6, an image of phosphorite particles at −400 mesh can be seen, which was analyzed by SEM-EDS, and here, also the presence of major elements of phosphorus, aluminum, and calcium oxides, as well as minor elements of sodium, titanium and iron, can be observed, as is shown in Figure 6a; similarly, the photomicrographs of the phosphorite particle are shown in Figure 6b.
Figure 6.
Photomicrographs of the phosphorite −400 meshes, (a) SEM-EDS microanalysis and (b) general image, 2200×, SEM-SE.
3.1.4 Phosphorite after ion exchange experiments
After carrying out the ion exchange, using phosphorite as an absorbent mineral, the solution was filtered and analyzed by ICP, comparing the results with the initial composition of the leaching liquors. The results are shown in Table 5, where a comparison is made between the original leaching liquors before and after the exchange, as well as the efficiency of the cation exchange of this mineral; it is observed that in all cases, efficiencies are greater than 99% of the elements exchanged, which can determine that phosphorite is a good natural absorbent for rare earths and precious metals.
Element
Content before ion exchange (ppm)
Content after ion exchange (ppm)
Efficiency of the ion exchange (%)
Au
45.93
0
100
Ce
81.79
0.037
99.95
La
51.89
0.017
99.97
Nd
56.97
0.02
99.96
Pd
1.92
0
100
Yb
33.35
0.001
99.99
Ge
9
0
100
Gd
1.4
0.008
99.43
Tb
0.25
0
100
Sm
1.75
0
100
Er
0.9
0
100
Eu
0.35
0
100
Pt
0.005
0
100
Table 5.
Results of the ion exchange done using phosphorite (ICP).
Likewise, the solids obtained after the ion exchange were separated and dried to be later analyzed by XRD. The mineral species identified by X-ray diffraction (Figure 7) are majority phases such as quartz, anorthoclase, orthoclase, albite, berlinite, and silicoaluminates. Similarly, the presence of rare earths, such as lanthanum and cerium, and precious metals that were all adsorbed by this mineral are noted.
Figure 7.
X-ray diffractogram of phosphorite material after ion exchange.
Finally, Figure 8 shows the image of phosphorite particles after performing the ion exchange with the leaching liquors of a SEDEX-type mineral, where the semiquantitative point composition and the X-ray mapping of the elements are shown. This verifies that effectively the aforementioned elements were absorbed in the mineral.
Figure 8.
Photomicrographs of the phosphorite after ion exchange: (a) SEM-EDS microanalysis; (b) general image, 2000×, SEM; (c) point image where the microanalysis was taken; and (d) distribution mapping of rare earth elements and precious metals in the phosphorite.
3.1.5 Diatomite before ion exchange experiments
Diatomite is a siliceous sedimentary rock of biogenic origin, composed of fossilized skeletons of diatomite frustules. It is composed by sedimentary accumulation to form large deposits with a sufficient thickness to have a commercial potential. Its main interchangeable cations are Na+, Ca2+, K+, Mg2+, and Si2+.
Firstly, before carrying out the ion exchange experiments, the diatomite mineral was characterized to evaluate, at the end, its exchange capacity. Table 6 summarizes the results obtained by ICP and XRF of the original elements contained in the diatomite, presenting average contents of 76.68% of silicon, as well as the majority contents of alumina, hematite, potassium oxide, magnesium oxide, calcium oxide, and minor elements such as sodium oxide and titanium.
Element
ICP (wt.%)
XRF (wt.%)
Na2O
0.61
0.923
MgO
1.79
1.87
Al2O3
11.63
7.77
SiO2
76.00
77.36
K2O
2.41
1.2
CaO
0.85
1.04
TiO2
0.50
0.348
Fe2O3
1.95
2.35
Table 6.
Average chemical composition of diatomite before ion exchange.
Likewise, the mineral species present in the diatomite were identified by X-ray diffraction (Figure 9), observing the presence of majority mineral phases such as quartz, albite and berlinite.
Figure 9.
X-ray diffractogram of diatomite material before ion exchange.
Finally, in Figure 10, an image of a diatomite particle at −400 mesh is shown, in which an analysis was carried out by SEM-EDS. The presence of major elements such as silicon, aluminum, sodium, magnesium, potassium, and iron, are characteristic of the diatomite. Likewise, a photomicrograph of the diatomite particle can be seen in Figure 10b where the characteristics properties of the diatoms of the material can be observed.
Figure 10.
Photomicrographs of the diatomite −400 meshes, (a) SEM-EDS microanalysis and (b) general image, 4000×, SEM-SE.
3.1.6 Diatomite after ion exchange experiments
After carrying out the ion exchange, the diatomite mineral was characterized to know the elements exchanged and thus calculate the ion exchange capacity of this mineral. The results are shown in Table 7, where a comparison is made between the original leaching liquors and after the exchange through ICP analysis. Likewise, it shows the % of efficiency of the cation exchange and as a result can be seen that diatomite shows an exchange efficiency for the precious metals of 100%, as well as the Pd, Ge, Tb, Sm, and Er. The other elements show an efficiency superior to 99%, not so for the Gd, since its exchange efficiency is 97.86, which corroborates that the diatomite has an exchange efficiency for these types of metals. On the other hand, the author also has to demonstrate the efficiency of cationic exchange of diatomite, getting 96.46% of efficiency for the removal of As3+, 95.44% for Ni2+, and 98.80% of Pb2+ [13].
Element
Content before ion exchange (ppm)
Content after ion exchange (ppm)
Efficiency of the ion exchange (%)
Au
45.93
0
100
Ce
81.79
0.003
99.996
La
51.89
0.004
99.99
Nd
56.97
0.008
99.99
Pd
1.92
0
100
Yb
33.35
0.001
99.997
Ge
9.0
0
100
Gd
1.4
0.03
97.86
Tb
0.25
0
100
Sm
1.75
0
100
Er
0.9
0
100
Eu
0.35
0.003
99.14
Pt
0.005
0
100
Table 7.
Results of the ion exchange done using diatomite (ICP).
Likewise, the mineral species were identified by X-ray diffraction (Figure 11), observing the presence of majority mineral phases such as quartz, anorthoclase, orthoclase, albite and berlinite; as well as the presence of rare earths such as Er, La, and Eu.
Figure 11.
X-ray diffractogram of diatomite material, after ion exchange.
Finally, Figure 12 shows the image of a diatomite particle after ion exchange with the leaching liquors of a SEDEX type mineral, where can be observed the semiquantitative point composition and the distribution of elements by X-ray mapping, can be concluded that the elements present in the leaching liquors were effectively absorbed into the diatomite particles.
Figure 12.
Photomicrograph of the diatomite −400 meshes, (a) SEM-EDS microanalysis, (b and c) general image, SEM-SE, and (d) mappings.
4. Conclusions
The preliminary results in the cation exchange of heavy metals, precious metals, and rare earths, through the use of non-metallic porous minerals, show a good efficiency since for most of the cases, recoveries over 99% were obtained, except for some elements; in the case of bentonite, for Pd, only 94.37%, for Gd, only 92.09%, and for Eu, only 96.87% absorption were obtained, and in the case of the phosphorite, the lowest value was for Gd with a 99.43% efficiency; in the case of diatomite, Gd presented a 97.86% efficiency in the exchange (Table 8). Therefore, it can be concluded that these natural absorbers can be used with a high efficiency for the exchange of these metals, noting also that for most of the cases, Gd presented recoveries above 90% and for the case of the precious metals, it was above 99% for all the minerals used.
Element
Bentonite % in CEC
Phosphorite % in CEC
Diatomite % in CEC
Au
99.84
100
100
Ce
100.00
99.95
99.996
La
100.00
99.97
99.99
Nd
99.96
99.96
99.99
Pd
94.37
100
100
Yb
99.97
99.99
99.99
Ge
100
100
100
Gd
92.07
99.43
97.86
Tb
100
100
100
Sm
100
100
100
Er
100
100
100
Eu
96.86
100
99.14
Pt
100
100
100
Table 8.
Cation exchange capacity (CEC), per element, of the mineral used for the removal of precious metals, heavy metals and rare earth elements.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the PRODEP-SEP of the government of Mexico for the financial support in the publishing of this chapter. Also thy would like to thank Autonomous University of the State of Hidalgo and the CONACyT for the Master degree scholarship granted to the student Edgar Omar Mejía Serrano who worked this theme, during his thesis project (number 627910).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Notes
This chapter not only shows unpublished preliminary results obtained by the authors where they have evaluated the capacity of ion exchange for some natural minerals found in the state of Hidalgo Mexico, but also exhibits an exhalative sedimentary mineral found by the same authors in the north of the state of Hidalgo, where ore mineral has important contents of precious metals and some rare earths elements.
\n',keywords:"metals removal, cationic exchange, non-metallic minerals, bentonite, phosphorite, diatomite",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69294.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/69294.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69294",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69294",totalDownloads:781,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:32,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 19th 2019",dateReviewed:"July 21st 2019",datePrePublished:"November 1st 2019",datePublished:"January 7th 2021",dateFinished:"September 28th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter is related with the preliminary study of some non-metallic minerals to evaluate their cationic exchange capacity, to remove heavy and precious metals, as well as rare earths elements. The minerals and materials used to execute the ion metals removal were bentonite, phosphorite, and diatomite. The chapter shows the physicochemical behavior of all these minerals, which were used to remove the mentioned elements from solutions coming from ore leaching. It was found that in all cases, the removal of heavy and precious metals, as well as rare earths elements reached over 90%. Although, there were minimal differences in efficiency for all minerals used (bentonite, phosphorite, and diatomite), it could be pointed that the phosphorite has the best results going from 99.43% of removal of Gd, to 99.95–100% for the case of Ce, Nd, La, Yb, Eu, Er, Sm, Tb, Ge, Pd, Pt, and Au.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69294",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69294",book:{id:"9343",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances"},signatures:"Juan Hernandez-Avila, Edgar Omar Serrano-Mejía, Eleazar Salinas-Rodríguez, Eduardo Cerecedo-Sáenz, María Isabel Reyes-Valderrama, María del Pilar Gutiérrez-Amador and Ventura Rodríguez-Lugo",authors:[{id:"99617",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández",fullName:"Juan Hernández",slug:"juan-hernandez",email:"herjuan@uaeh.edu.mx",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"265218",title:"Dr.",name:"Eleazar",middleName:null,surname:"Salinas",fullName:"Eleazar Salinas",slug:"eleazar-salinas",email:"salinasr@uaeh.edu.mx",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"267773",title:"Dr.",name:"Ventura",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez",fullName:"Ventura Rodriguez",slug:"ventura-rodriguez",email:"ventura.rl65@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"267774",title:"Dr.",name:"Ma. Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Reyes",fullName:"Ma. Isabel Reyes",slug:"ma.-isabel-reyes",email:"isareyv@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"267775",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Cerecedo",fullName:"Eduardo Cerecedo",slug:"eduardo-cerecedo",email:"mardenjazz@yahoo.com.mx",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"298963",title:"Mr.",name:"E. Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Serrano-Mejía",fullName:"E. Omar Serrano-Mejía",slug:"e.-omar-serrano-mejia",email:"OMAR4118@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"306127",title:"Dr.",name:"Ma. Pilar",middleName:null,surname:"Gutierrez",fullName:"Ma. Pilar Gutierrez",slug:"ma.-pilar-gutierrez",email:"gutierrezam@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Materials and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Materials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Ion exchange methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Analytical methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.3.1 Characterization of minerals",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.3.2 Chemical analysis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.1 Characterization of minerals",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"Table 3.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"Table 5.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"Table 6.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"Table 7.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Notes",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'López-Acevedo M, Roquerode-Laburu C. Edafología. 3ª ed. Madrid, Spain: Mundi-Prensa; 2003. 234 p. ISBN 84-8476-148-7'},{id:"B2",body:'Martínez-Cortés JI, Del Valle-Giles AV. Las tierras raras: Un sector estratégico para el desarrollo tecnológico de China. National Autonomous University of Mexico—(In Spanish). Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Faculty of Economics Center for Chinese Studies-Mexico. N° 6; 2014'},{id:"B3",body:'Haskin LA, Paster TP. In: Gschneindner KA Jr, Eyring YL, editors. Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths. Vol. 3. Amsterdam: North-Holland; 1979. pp. 1-80. ISBN: 978-0-444-50185-1'},{id:"B4",body:'Bautista RGY, Wong MM. Rare Earths, Extraction, Preparation and Applications. TMS 1989. Las Vegas, Nevada, USA: Warrendale (EEUU); 1989'},{id:"B5",body:'Moldoveanu GA, Papangelakis VG. Recovery of rare earth elements adsorbed on clay minerals: I. Desorption mechanism. Hydrometallurgy. 2012;117-118:71-78. DOI: 10.1016/j.hydromet.2012.02.007'},{id:"B6",body:'Gómez-Caballero A, Elías-Herrera M. Study on Rare Earths in Mexico, Part 1 (in Spanish). Mexico DF: National Autonomous University of Mexico (In Spanish). Bulletin 108 (In Spanish); 1990'},{id:"B7",body:'Alshameri A, He H, Xin C, Zhu J, Xinghu W, Zhu R, et al. Understanding the role of natural clay minerals as effective adsorbents and alternative source of rare earth elements: Adsorption operative parameters. Hydrometallurgy. 2019;189:149-161. DOI: 10.1016/j.hydromet.2019.02.016'},{id:"B8",body:'Awal MR, Jyo A, Ihara T, Seko N, Tamada M, Lim KT. Enhanced trace phosphate removal from water by zirconium (IV) loaded fibrous adsorbent. Water Research. 2011;45:4592-4600. DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2011.06.009'},{id:"B9",body:'Domenech X, Peral J. Environmental Chemistry of Terrestrial Systems (in Spanich). Barcelona, España: Reverté Editorial; 2008. 256 p. ISBN13: 978842919064'},{id:"B10",body:'Caviedes-Rubio DI, Muñoz-Calderón RA, Perdomo-Gualtero A, Rodríguez-Acosta D, Sandoval-Rojas IJ. Treatments for removal of heavy metals commonly founf in industrial wastewaters. A review (in Spanish). Engineering and Regio Journal (In Spanish). 2015;13(1):73-90. DOI: 10.25054/22161325.710'},{id:"B11",body:'Bourges J, Broudic JC, Dauby J, Leboucher I, Leclerc O, Baticle P. Assignors to Commisariat de l’Énergie Atomique, Paris, and Compagnie Générale des Matériels Nucleaires, Valizy—Villacoublary. U.S. Patent 6428679. 2002'},{id:"B12",body:'Petrova TM, Tzaneva B, Fachikov L, Hristov J. Silver recovery from spent photographic solutions by a magnetically assisted particle bed. Chemical Engineering and Processing. 2013;71:83-96. DOI: 10.1016/j.cep.2013.03.014'},{id:"B13",body:'Hernández-Ávila J, Salinas-Rodríguez E, Cerecedo-Sáenz E, Reyes-Valderrama M, Arenas-Flores A, Román-Gutiérrez A, et al. Diatoms and their capability for heavy metal removal by cationic exchange. Metals. 2017;7:169. DOI: 10.3390/met7050169'},{id:"B14",body:'Hernández-Ávila J, Moreno-Pérez F, Espinoza-Borgel I, Salinas-Rodríguez E. Characterization of diatoms from Hidalgo, Mexico. Possible use as absorbent in the decrease of arsenic in drinking water (In Spanish). In: XL Mexican Congress of Chemistry (in Spanish); September 2005; Guadalajara, Jalisco, México. pp. 38-42'},{id:"B15",body:'Kononenko N, Nikonenko V, Grande D, Larchet C, Dammak L, Fomenko M, et al. Porous structure of ion exchange membranes investigated by various techniques. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science. 2017;246:196-216. DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2017.05.007'},{id:"B16",body:'Niftaliev SI, Kozaderova OA, Kim KB. Electroconductance of heterogeneous ion-exchange membranes in aqueous salt solutions. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry. 2017;794:58-63. DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2017.03.046'},{id:"B17",body:'Roldán-Contreras E, Hernández-Ávila J, Cerecedo-Sáenz E, Reyes-Valderrama MI, Salinas-Rodríguez E. Use of the system S2O3(2)-O2 for the leaching of precious metals contained in a mineral from Molango in the state of Hidalgo, Mexico. European Scientific Journal. 2018;14(3):48-54. DOI: 10.19044/esj.2018.v14n3p48'},{id:"B18",body:'Cerecedo-Sáenz E, Rodríguez-Lugo V, Hernández-Ávila J, Mendoza-Anaya D, Reyes-Valderrama MI, Moreno-Pérez E, et al. Mineralization of rare earths, platinum and gold in a sedimentary deposit, found using an indirect method of exploration. Apects in Mining & Mineral Science. 2018;1(2):1-9. DOI: 10.31031/AMMS.2018.01.000510'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Juan Hernandez-Avila",address:null,affiliation:'
Academic Area of Earth Sciences and Materials, Autonomous University of the State of Hidalgo, Mexico
Academic Area of Earth Sciences and Materials, Autonomous University of the State of Hidalgo, Mexico
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1. Introduction
The European Law [1], developed in Spain by the Royal Decrees [2, 3], states that noise maps in cities with a population in excess of 100,000 individuals need to be developed and updated every 5 years.
A noise map can be done just based on a prediction model, that is, without any kind of empirical measurement; but to achieve a minimum accuracy level, a calibration of the model is required through a selected number of in-situ measurement points, which increases the budget to carry out the noise map. Moreover, although specific standards and a good practice guide [4] have been defined to be used in noise maps, each research group defines its own methodology based on its experience and the characteristics of the town. Therefore, a proper balance must be found among the cost of the noise map, its accuracy, and the number of measurement points; that balance can be improved with the use of a road categorization system to achieve representative measurements of all the types of roads to minimize the cost without losing accuracy in the model.
Classically, four sampling methods have been considered: to select the sampling points by laying a grid over a map of the target zone, to define a source-oriented sampling where measurement locations are selected arbitrarily to represent different road and traffic conditions, to define a receptor-oriented sampling in which the noise exposure of a particular class of receptors is investigated, and to select the sampling points using a prior classification of the urban noise [5].
In [6] sampling points were selected, covering all of the representative locations and all of the streets in the area. The sampling points were always in the middle of the street or location-specific. This methodology for selecting sampling points and locations allows performing a detailed study of the area and it is not based on a previous categorization of the streets, but neither is similar to the commonly used grid method.
Preliminary studies of three towns [7, 8, 9] served to adapt and optimize the definition of the categories established in [10]. This definition consisted of six categories:
Class 1: national roads
Class 2: streets that provide access to the major distribution nodes of the town
Class 3: streets that lead to regional roads
Class 4: streets that allow clear communication among the previous types of streets
Class 5: the rest of the streets of the town except walking streets
Class 6: walking streets
The categorization method was later applied in [11] to five medium-sized Spanish towns with populations ranging from 218,000 down to 50,000, and later in [12] to 20 towns with sizes ranging from 2200 to 700,000 inhabitants, and with areas between 0.57 and 59 km2.
In this work, a methodology based on a street typology classification is proposed to carry out noise maps. This methodology, recently validated in [13, 14] allows allocating the mean power and the temporal behavior to each street from its characteristics and the time profiles measured with semi-permanent noise monitoring systems. Because of this, as the streets are classified a priori in different typologies, the number of measurement points is reduced maintaining the accuracy of the noise map and reducing the measurement cost. The proposed methodology has been applied to the noise map of Cuenca.
2. Methodology
2.1 The town of Cuenca
Cuenca is a Spanish town in the Castilla-La Mancha region, capital of the province of the same name. The town’s mean altitude is 946 m above sea level (a.s.l.). The area of the municipality is 911.06 km2, and the total population of the city is 54,898 inhabitants (year 2018) [15].
The town has two different areas: the old town and the new one. The first one is located in the high part of the town, bordered by rivers Júcar in the north and Huécar in the south. The new part of the town is located at the west-south of the old town towards north-south.
Cuenca has an important historical and architectural heritage and many museums in the old town, been considered World Heritage City since 1996.
2.2 Road type definition
To define the street typologies in the town of Cuenca, the following road and urban characteristics (all of them with influence from the acoustic point of view) were taken into account:
Road characteristics:
Number of lanes of the street.
Average daily traffic (ADT)
Average daily speed (ADS)
Urban characteristics:
Road width
Pavements
Main use of the street.
Based on the aforementioned characteristics, seven street typologies were established in this research:
Type 1 (class 1): Motorway.
Type 2 (class 2): Main distribution streets in the town.
Type 3 (class 4): Secondary distribution streets in the town.
Type 4 (class 3): Main distribution streets in a neighborhood. These streets are used for traffic distribution in a neighborhood and are connected with bigger streets.
Type 5 (class 4): Residential distribution streets. These streets are used by people to arrive in a completely residential street (types 6 and 7).
Type 6 (class 5): Residential streets in the town and residential distribution streets in new neighborhoods.
Type 7 (class 5): Completely residential streets. Only the people who live in these areas use these streets.
This street classification allows performing a categorization of the streets in a town based on their acoustics characteristics. Thus, measurements only in some streets of each category are needed, being possible to apply the noise profile obtained for each category to the rest of the streets in the same category during the noise map simulation phase. According to [16] these procedures only generate little deviations from strictly using only real measurement data for all the sampling points.
2.3 Long time measurements
To carry out long measurements, three noise monitoring equipment have been placed in fixed locations during 11 months, and another one has been moved among different locations. This hybrid procedure is quite common to increase the temporal and spatial resolution [17].
The location of two of these fixed equipments has been chosen to take into account the main areas of the town: Old town and Carretería Street. The third has been located to characterize the residential noise of the town (Acacia Uceta Street).
The moving equipment has been located in different places in order to characterize the noise in different kinds of streets in the town. The locations of this equipment were: República Argentina Avenue, 16 (3 months), Mediterráneo Avenue (4 months), Hermanos Valdés Street, 4 (2 months).
The location of each monitoring equipment can be observed in Figure 1, and their accurate location is in Table 1.
Figure 1.
Monitoring equipment locations.
Equipment label
X coord. [m]
Y coord. [m]
Old Town
574,163.64
4,436,764.68
Carretería Street
573,634.63
4,436,174.01
República Argentina Avenue
573,414.85
4,436,005.10
Acacia Uceta Street
572,681.20
4,436,180.54
Mediterráneo Avenue
574,127.48
4,435,221.37
Hermanos Valdés Street
573,619.63
4,436,365.07
Table 1.
Monitoring equipment locations.
The equipment has been installed at 4 m height and 2 m from the facade according to the regulations [18]. For that, a bracket fixed to the facade has been used with an outdoor microphone. In Figure 2 the microphone installation can be observed.
Figure 2.
Microphone installation.
The microphone calibration was checked manually when the equipment was installed when it was removed, and at least once a week. If there was an error, the equipment was repaired or replaced. Moreover, four automatic CIC calibrations per day were configured at 00, 10, 14, and 19 h, which were permanently monitored and checked.
The main acoustic parameters that have been measured were:
LAeq: A-weighed equivalent level.
Ld: Day equivalent level.
Le: Evening equivalent level.
Ln: Night equivalent level.
Lden: Day-evening-night equivalent level.
LN: Percentile levels.
After taking the measurements for a whole month, a validation process was carried out. First of all the automatic calibrations were checked. If there was any error, data between the last correct calibration and the first one (the wrong calibration would be in the middle) were removed because it is not possible to know when the equipment failed. For instance, if calibrations at 10 h and at 19 h were right, and calibration at 14 h was wrong, data from 10 to 19 h were removed.
Then, the meteorological conditions were checked [18]. If it was raining, data for this period of time were removed. Moreover, if the average speed of the wind during a certain day was higher than 4 m/s (it is more restrictive than the regulations −5 m/s-), data for this day were also removed.
After these validations, a more detailed analysis of the LAeq parameter was done. Analyzing the time profile and the audio files, anomalous events have also been removed, for instance, if events in the street that are not representative of the typical behavior of the area took place (parades, parties, etc.).
With this, all the data considered for the studio could be assessed as correct.
Once the data have been validated, three different hour profiles have been obtained each month, the whole month profile, the working day profile, and the non-working day profile. To obtain these profiles, data for each hour have been averaged. The profiles obtained for all the months during the period of time when the equipment was in a certain location were similar. With this, all the hour profiles were also averaged to obtain the typical hour profile of the area.
2.4 Road simulation process
The aim of the noise map simulation is to make up a digital model of the town to obtain the noise propagation levels due to the traffic. The digital model is composed of: a ground digital model with the level curves (Figure 3a); obstacles, mainly buildings (Figure 3b); roads (Figure 3c), and receivers (Figure 3d) to evaluate the noise parameters.
When the digital model has been carried out, the next step consists of defining the characteristics of each one of the layers stated. Concerning roads, the data to define in the model are the ADT and ADS for light and heavy vehicles during the 3 day periods (day, evening, night).
To make this process easier, all the roads in the town have been classified according to the typologies defined in Section 2.2. The map in Figure 4 shows the classification carried out. Then, the simulation results are obtained and compared with those from long time measurements and short-time measurements, and the noise map is adjusted.
Figure 4.
Road classification.
3. Results
In this section, results obtained for the measurements carried out with the noise monitoring systems in each one of the chosen locations are shown, together with the discussion of the whole results.
The street typologies defined in Section 2.2 have been checked out with short time measurements before the installation of the monitoring systems in the proposed locations (type 1 roads are not set, as there were no people living near a motorway). Accordingly, the measurement points can be classified as follows:
República Argentina Avenue: Type 2.
Carretería Street: Type 3.
Old Town: Type 4.
Mediterráneo Avenue: Type 5.
Hermanos Valdés Street: Type 6.
Acacia Uceta Street: Type 7.
As there are very few differences among the measurements for every month, only the averages for the whole measurement time are shown. Figures 5 and 6 illustrate, respectively, the weighed equivalent levels for day and night periods (results for the evening period are almost identical to those of the day period). Figure 7 shows the mean LAeq level in dB(A) for each one of the measurements points. Figures 8 and 9 show the mean LAeq levels during working days (Monday to Friday) and non-working days (weekends and festivities), respectively. Finally, Figure 10 represents the noise climate (L10–L90) and Figure 11 the singular noise events (L1).
Figure 5.
Lday results.
Figure 6.
Lnight results.
Figure 7.
LAeq results.
Figure 8.
LAeq results during working days.
Figure 9.
LAeq results during non-working days.
Figure 10.
Noise climate (L10–L90) results.
Figure 11.
Singular noise events (L1) results.
According to all these results, general and specific statements can be done that prove and justify the approach of using road typologies to simplify noise maps.
Firstly, specific noise profiles can be derived for each road typology, that can be described as follows:
In roads of type 2, the LAeq is almost constant around 72 dB(A) during the day. At 22 h this level starts to decrease, being minimum from 3 to 4 h with 62 dB(A). At this time the noise level starts to increase up to 8 h. Observing the LAeq during working days, a similar trend with levels around 73 dB(A) during the day and a minimum of 60 dB(A) at 3 h can be found out. On non-working days, the level is around 72 dB(A) during the day and the minimum of 64 dB(A) is reached at 4 h.
In type 3 roads, the LAeq is again almost constant close to 70 dB(A) during the day. At 22 h the level starts to go down with the minimum LAeq (60 dB(A)) at 5 h when the level starts to increase. During working days, the same trend can be observed, with levels around 70 dB(A) during the day and a minimum of 58 dB(A) from 3 to 4 h. Concerning non-working days, a more constant profile is obtained, with levels around 67 dB(A) during the day and a minimum of 62 dB(A) at 5 h.
In roads of type 4, the LAeq is around 65 dB(A) from 9 to 21 h. At this time the level decreases to 54 dB(A) at 4 h, increasing from this time to 9 h. On working days, the day levels are around 66 dB(A) from 9 to 17 h, being 50 dB(A) the minimum LAeq at 4 h. Non-working days have an LAeq around 64 dB(A) during the day and a minimum of 56 dB(A) at 5 h.
Type 5 roads show a LAeq between 62 and 64 dB(A) from 8 to 22 h with a minimum during this period from 15 to 16 h. From 22 to 4 h the level diminishes to 51 dB(A), moment when it starts to go up to 8 h. Concerning working days, similar levels are observed from 8 to 22 h, being the minimum of 49 dB(A) at 3 h. Levels during non-working days are lower during the day, with a LAeq from 60 to 63 dB(A) from 9 to 22 h, and higher during the night with a minimum of 54 dB(A) from 3 to 5 h.
The level in type 6 roads is almost constant during the whole day with a LAeq around 61 dB(A). The level decrement is observed from 5 to 6 h with 57 dB(A). Working days have more differences between day and night with a level around 62 dB(A) in the morning (from 7 to 13 h) and around 60 dB(A) in the evening (from 13 to 21 h). At night the LAeq decreases to 49 dB(A) at 4 h. Non-working days have higher levels during the night, around 63 dB(A) than during the day, with levels from 58 to 62 dB(A). This behavior is due to the leisure activities during the night on non-working days.
The level during the day in the 7th type of road is almost constant around 50 dB(A). The maximum level is at 8 h (53 dB(A)) because it is the moment when people go out to work. At night the levels decrease down to 35 dB(A) from 3 to 4 h. Working days have a similar profile, being the minimum LAeq of 34 dB(A) at 4 h. About non-working days, the level decreases during the day and it is more variable (from 43 to 49 dB(A)). At night, the level is higher than during working days with a minimum of 37 dB(A) from 3 to 5 h.
Globally speaking, it is possible to see that the higher the typology of the road, the lower the noise level is, with almost non-existent overlaps among them. In all the types, noise levels are almost constant during the day and start to decrease around 22:00 h, being the quietest hour between 3:00 and 4:00 h. The level at 8:00 and 9:00 h (entrance to works and schools) is almost constant for the whole day and evening.
Therefore, according to the results of Cuenca, its day period embraces from 8:00 to 21:00 h and night period from 21:00 to 8:00 h. Furthermore, it can be stated that the more residential the street is, the higher the noise reduction during the night is. This behavior is due to the fact that in residential areas the traffic during the night is almost non-existent, whereas in other streets there is some more traffic during the night. This fact is also reinforced by the differences in the noise climate between day and night periods.
If working and non-working days are compared, it is possible to state that during the day the LAeq is generally lower during non-working days. At night the noise level in non-working days is increased. This increase in level is due to the increment in traffic because of leisure activities, which many times take place directly in the street.
Noise climate, shows a higher variability during the night period, being quite homogeneous for the day period. This fact, together with the higher noise levels during the day, indicates that there may be a significant number of similar noise sources that contribute to the noise pollution; meanwhile, during the night the number of noise sources is lower but more heterogeneous. Some differences also stand out if the road typology is considered, as those with a heavier traffic intensity (types 2–5) present values for the noise climate higher during the night period than during the day period; on the other hand, the trend is the opposite for the residential road types (6 and 7).
The singular noise events indicator (L1) shows that in the surroundings of Cuenca there are no noise sources with emissions of high noise intensity within a short period of time (aircraft overflights, high-speed trains, booming sources, etc.). Nevertheless, it is stated that for the measurement points with lower LAeq and lower traffic intensity (for instance Acacia Uceta Street—type 7) there is a very significant variation of L1 during the quietest hour (3:00–4:00 h); it means that in residential areas a single noise source can appear as extremely noisy, whereas for areas with more traffic intensity a single noise source is masked among all the noise sources.
Correlating the life in the city of Cuenca with the results, it can be set that the main cause of environmental noise is traffic [19]. The intensity of the traffic and its composition depends on the road typology. Taking into account the proposed road typology, the review of principal traffic noise models of [20] and the traffic intensity massively measured in Cuenca, a finite set of traffic intensity categories could be defined to refine, even more, the prediction model by assigning to each road not only its typology but also its traffic category.
4. Conclusions
In this paper, a road type classification has been developed taking into account road and urban characteristics. With this, seven types of roads have been defined: motorway, main distribution streets in the town, secondary distribution streets in the town, main distribution streets in a neighborhood, residential distribution streets, residential streets, and completely residential streets.
The long-time measurement results showed an almost constant level during the day, which decreases during the night. The more residential the road is, the more the level decrease during the night. Moreover, it can be observed higher level differences between day and night during working days than during non-working days.
This classification has been applied to the noise map of the World Heritage City of Cuenca. For that, a digital model was performed and adjusted with long time measurements carried out in roads classified inside different categories and with short-time measurements.
The methodology proposed allows allocating mean power and temporal behavior to each street from semi-permanent noise monitoring systems, and with this, the measurement cost of the noise map could be lowered, while maintaining a high level of accuracy.
This strategic tool may help to derive action plans to fight against the noise and reduce the number of people exposed to heavy noise.
Acknowledgments
This research has been possible thanks to project LIFE08-ENV/E/000110.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
\n',keywords:"urban noise, noise mapping, noise profiles, street typologies, monitoring system",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81251.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81251.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81251",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81251",totalDownloads:19,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 23rd 2022",dateReviewed:"March 8th 2022",datePrePublished:"April 13th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"April 13th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"According to the European Law, noise maps in cities have to be worked out and updated every 5 years. Because of this, it is interesting to establish new methodologies to develop and update the noise maps in a more efficient way. Although there are specific standards to carry out noise maps and a good practice guide was defined, there is not a common procedure in the definition of the noise map. In each research, a specific methodology is defined based on the experience of the researchers and the characteristics of the town. In this work, a methodology based on a street typology classification is proposed to be applied to noise maps. This methodology allows allocation of the mean power and the temporal behavior to each street from its characteristics and the time profiles measured with semi-permanent noise monitoring systems. The methodology was developed, tested, and validated in the city of Cuenca (Spain) and the results obtained are shown in this chapter.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81251",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81251",signatures:"José A. Ballesteros, María Jesús Ballesteros, Samuel Quintana and Marcos D. Fernandez",book:{id:"11079",type:"book",title:"Noise Control",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Noise Control",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Marco Caniato and Dr. Federica Bettarello",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11079.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-012-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-011-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-013-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"312499",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Caniato",slug:"marco-caniato",fullName:"Marco Caniato"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 The town of Cuenca",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Road type definition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Long time measurements",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Road simulation process",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'European Commission. Directiva 2002/49/CE del Parlamento Europeo y del Consejo, de 25 de junio de 2002 sobre evaluación y gestión del ruido ambiental (Directive 2002/49/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 June 2002 relating to the assessment and management of environmental noise)'},{id:"B2",body:'BOE. Real Decreto 1513/2005 de 16 de diciembre, por el que se desarrolla la Ley 37/2003, de 17 de noviembre, del Ruido, en lo referente a la evaluación y gestión del ruido ambiental (Royal Decree 1513/2005 of December 16th to develop the Law 37/2003, of November 17th, about the noise regarding the assessment and management of the environmental noise)'},{id:"B3",body:'BOE. Real Decreto 1367/2007 de 19 de octubre, por el que se desarrolla la Ley 37/2003, de 17 de noviembre, del Ruido, en lo referente a zonificación acústica, objetivos de calidad y emisiones acústicas (Royal Decree 1367/2007 of October 19th to develop the Law 37/2003, of November 17th, about the noise regarding the acoustic zoning, quality objectives and acoustic emissions)'},{id:"B4",body:'E. C. W. G. A. of Exposure to Noise (WG-AEN). Good practice guide for strategic noise mapping and the production of associated data on noise exposure'},{id:"B5",body:'Brown A, Lam K. Urban noise surveys. Applied Acoustics. 1987;20(1):23-39'},{id:"B6",body:'Gómez V, Barrigón JM, Gozalo GR, Vaquero J, Sierra JM, Vílchez-Gómez R, et al. Acoustical environment of the medieval centre of Cáceres (Spain). Applied Acoustics. 2012;73(6):673-685'},{id:"B7",body:'Barrigón JM, Gómez V, Gutiérrez P, Méndez J. Study of Vitoria-Gasteiz by categorizing roadway characteristics. In: Proceedings of Internoise, Nice, France. 2000. p. 292'},{id:"B8",body:'Barrigón JM, Gómez V, Gutiérrez P, Alejandre L. Study of medium-sized cities of Extremadura by categorizing roadway characteristics. In: Proceedings of the 7th International Congress on Sound and Vibration (ICSV7), Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany. 2000. pp. 2413-2420'},{id:"B9",body:'Barrigón JM, Gómez V, Méndez JA, Vílchez-Gómez R, Trujillo J. An environmental noise study in the city of Cáceres (Spain). Applied Acoustics. 2002;63(10):1061-1070'},{id:"B10",body:'Gómez V, Barrigón JM, Méndez J, Vílchez-Gómez R, Vaquero J. Noise study of Salamanca (Spain) by means of a categorization method. In: Proceedings of Forum Acusticum, Seville, Spain. 2002. pp. 84-87985'},{id:"B11",body:'Barrigón JM, Gómez V, Méndez JA, Vílchez-Gómez R, Vaquero JM, Trujillo J. A categorization method applied to the study of urban road traffic noise. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 2005;117(5):2844-2852'},{id:"B12",body:'Barrigón JM, Gómez V, Gozalo GR, Vílchez-Gómez R. Possible relation of noise levels in streets to the population of the municipalities in which they are located. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 2010;128(2):EL86-EL92'},{id:"B13",body:'Bastián-Monarca N, Suárez E, Arenas JP. Assessment of methods for simplified traffic noise mapping of small cities: Casework of the city of Valdivia (Chile). Science of the Total Environment. 2016;550:439-448'},{id:"B14",body:'Barrigón JM, Montes D, Gómez V, Gozalo GR, Vílchez-Gómez R. A proposal for producing calculated noise mapping defining the sound power levels of roads by street stratification. Environmental Pollution. 2021;270:116080'},{id:"B15",body:'INE. National Institute of Statistics (Instituto Nacional de Estadística) [Internet]. 2018. Available from: http://www.ine.es/ [Accessed: February 18, 2022]'},{id:"B16",body:'De Coensel B, Brown AL, Tomerini D. A road traffic noise pattern simulation model that includes distributions of vehicle sound power levels. Applied Acoustics. 2016;111:170-178'},{id:"B17",body:'De Coensel B, Sun K, Wei W, van Renterghem T, Sineau M, et al. Dynamic noise mapping based on fixed and mobile sound measurements. In: EURONOISE 2015, Maastricht, France. 2015. p. 6'},{id:"B18",body:'ISO 1996-1:2016. Acoustics—Description, measurement and assessment of environmental noise—Part 1: Basic quantities and assessment procedures'},{id:"B19",body:'SICA. Information System about Noise Pollution (Sistema de Información sobre Contaminación Acústica) [Internet]. 2022. Available from: https://sicaweb.cedex.es [Accessed: February 22, 2022]'},{id:"B20",body:'Garg N, Maji S. A critical review of principal traffic noise models: Strategies and implications. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 2014;46:68-81. DOI: 10.1016/j.eiar.2014.02.001'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"José A. Ballesteros",address:"josea.ballesteros@uclm.es",affiliation:'
Escuela Politécnica de Cuenca, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Spain
Escuela Politécnica de Cuenca, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Spain
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Marcos D. Fernandez",address:null,affiliation:'
Escuela Politécnica de Cuenca, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Spain
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IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
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In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
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Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
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If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
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Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
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If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
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\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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H. Gulrez, Saphwan Al-Assaf and Glyn O Phillips",authors:[{id:"58120",title:"Prof.",name:"Saphwan",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Assaf",slug:"saphwan-al-assaf",fullName:"Saphwan Al-Assaf"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"35255",title:"Mechanical Transmissions Parameter Modelling",slug:"mechanical-transmissions-parameter-modelling",totalDownloads:7442,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"1982",slug:"mechanical-engineering",title:"Mechanical Engineering",fullTitle:"Mechanical Engineering"},signatures:"Isad Saric, Nedzad Repcic and Adil Muminovic",authors:[{id:"101313",title:"Prof.",name:"Isad",middleName:null,surname:"Saric",slug:"isad-saric",fullName:"Isad Saric"}]},{id:"68505",title:"Research Design and Methodology",slug:"research-design-and-methodology",totalDownloads:25128,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"There are a number of approaches used in this research method design. The purpose of this chapter is to design the methodology of the research approach through mixed types of research techniques. The research approach also supports the researcher on how to come across the research result findings. In this chapter, the general design of the research and the methods used for data collection are explained in detail. It includes three main parts. The first part gives a highlight about the dissertation design. The second part discusses about qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. The last part illustrates the general research framework. The purpose of this section is to indicate how the research was conducted throughout the study periods.",book:{id:"8511",slug:"cyberspace",title:"Cyberspace",fullTitle:"Cyberspace"},signatures:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew",authors:[{id:"292841",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassu",middleName:null,surname:"Jilcha Sileyew",slug:"kassu-jilcha-sileyew",fullName:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew"}]},{id:"67558",title:"Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): Principle and Applications",slug:"polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr-principle-and-applications",totalDownloads:10667,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"The characterization of the diversity of species living within ecosystems is of major scientific interest to understand the functioning of these ecosystems. It is also becoming a societal issue since it is necessary to implement the conservation or even the restoration of biodiversity. Historically, species have been described and characterized on the basis of morphological criteria, which are closely linked by environmental conditions or which find their limits especially in groups where they are difficult to access, as is the case for many species of microorganisms. The need to understand the molecular mechanisms in species has made the PCR an indispensable tool for understanding the functioning of these biological systems. A number of markers are now available to detect nuclear DNA polymorphisms. In genetic diversity studies, the most frequently used markers are microsatellites. The study of biological complexity is a new frontier that requires high-throughput molecular technology, high speed computer memory, new approaches to data analysis, and the integration of interdisciplinary skills.",book:{id:"7728",slug:"synthetic-biology-new-interdisciplinary-science",title:"Synthetic Biology",fullTitle:"Synthetic Biology - New Interdisciplinary Science"},signatures:"Karim Kadri",authors:[{id:"290766",title:"Dr.",name:"Kadri",middleName:null,surname:"Karim",slug:"kadri-karim",fullName:"Kadri Karim"}]},{id:"62059",title:"Types of HVAC Systems",slug:"types-of-hvac-systems",totalDownloads:12438,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"HVAC systems are milestones of building mechanical systems that provide thermal comfort for occupants accompanied with indoor air quality. HVAC systems can be classified into central and local systems according to multiple zones, location, and distribution. Primary HVAC equipment includes heating equipment, ventilation equipment, and cooling or air-conditioning equipment. Central HVAC systems locate away from buildings in a central equipment room and deliver the conditioned air by a delivery ductwork system. Central HVAC systems contain all-air, air-water, all-water systems. Two systems should be considered as central such as heating and cooling panels and water-source heat pumps. Local HVAC systems can be located inside a conditioned zone or adjacent to it and no requirement for ductwork. Local systems include local heating, local air-conditioning, local ventilation, and split systems.",book:{id:"6807",slug:"hvac-system",title:"HVAC System",fullTitle:"HVAC System"},signatures:"Shaimaa Seyam",authors:[{id:"247650",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"257733",title:"MSc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"395618",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"}]},{id:"70315",title:"Some Basic and Key Issues of Switched-Reluctance Machine Systems",slug:"some-basic-and-key-issues-of-switched-reluctance-machine-systems",totalDownloads:1264,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Although switched-reluctance machine (SRM) possesses many structural advantages and application potential, it is rather difficult to successfully control with high performance being comparable to other machines. Many critical affairs must be properly treated to obtain the improved operating characteristics. This chapter presents the basic and key technologies of switched-reluctance machine in motor and generator operations. The contents in this chapter include: (1) structures and governing equations of SRM; (2) some commonly used SRM converters; (3) estimation of key parameters and performance evaluation of SRM drive; (4) commutation scheme, current control scheme, and speed control scheme of SRM drive; (5) some commonly used front-end converters and their operation controls for SRM drive; (6) reversible and regenerative braking operation controls for SRM drive; (7) some tuning issues for SRM drive; (8) operation control and some tuning issues of switched-reluctance generators; and (9) experimental application exploration for SRM systems—(a) wind generator and microgrid and (b) EV SRM drive.",book:{id:"8899",slug:"modelling-and-control-of-switched-reluctance-machines",title:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines",fullTitle:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines"},signatures:"Chang-Ming Liaw, Min-Ze Lu, Ping-Hong Jhou and Kuan-Yu Chou",authors:[{id:"37616",title:"Prof.",name:"Chang-Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Liaw",slug:"chang-ming-liaw",fullName:"Chang-Ming Liaw"},{id:"306461",title:"Mr.",name:"Min-Ze",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",slug:"min-ze-lu",fullName:"Min-Ze Lu"},{id:"306463",title:"Mr.",name:"Ping-Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Jhou",slug:"ping-hong-jhou",fullName:"Ping-Hong Jhou"},{id:"306464",title:"Mr.",name:"Kuan-Yu",middleName:null,surname:"Chou",slug:"kuan-yu-chou",fullName:"Kuan-Yu Chou"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83011",title:"E-Waste Management in Different Countries: Strategies, Impacts, and Determinants",slug:"e-waste-management-in-different-countries-strategies-impacts-and-determinants",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106644",abstract:"Over the last two decades, the electronic equipment has increased dramatically around the world, which causes increasing in e-waste as well. This increasing has affected the environment badly. E-waste disposal has become one of the most critical issues and concerns have raised of it because most of these products do not biodegrade easily and they are toxic. Different strategies have been followed in many countries in order to solve the e-waste problem. Understanding these strategies can help to plan better for e-waste management correctly. Awareness of people about the e-waste impacts is crucial, because it can ensure people participation in managing the e waste process. This research has carried out in order to introduce to the e-waste impacts on environment and human health, and the importance of people awareness about these impacts. In addition, it shows many strategies that have been used in different countries to manage the e-waste, choosing the successful one to focus in order to benefit from it. Furthermore, a surveying has been carried out to exam people awareness in Iraq about the e-waste impacts. Finally, recommendations to manage e-waste successfully have been added.",book:{id:"11533",title:"Advances in Green Electronics Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11533.jpg"},signatures:"Shireen Ibrahim Mohammed"},{id:"83044",title:"Fatigue Behavior of Reinforced Welded Hand-Holes in Aluminum Light Poles with a Change in Detail Geometry",slug:"fatigue-behavior-of-reinforced-welded-hand-holes-in-aluminum-light-poles-with-a-change-in-detail-geo",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106342",abstract:"Welded aluminum light poles often contain hand-holes. These hand-holes are used to give access for electrical wiring installation and maintenance purposes. Wind load may cause light poles to be loaded in a cyclic manner. This cyclic loading can cause localized fatigue cracking around the hand-hole. Fatigue failure around hand-holes has been observed in the field, but studies surrounding the resistance of the hand-holes are few and far between. This study included four-point bending fatigue tests on welded aluminum poles containing hand-holes. Eight welded aluminum specimens, each with two hand-holes, were tested in fatigue. These 16 details were loaded at the same stress range. Each specimen had a slightly different geometry or treatment applied to the hand hole. These different details mimicked traditional reinforced hand holes, similar to those evaluated in previous studies. Changes in the treatment and/or geometry included milling the inside of hole, milling the inside of the hole as well as the cast insert prior to welding, and milling the cast insert itself prior to welding. Among the 16 details tested, 15 failed as a result of fatigue cracking. It was found that specimen failure would originated in the throat of the fillet weld and then proceeded to propagate into the reinforcement ring/casting. A finite element analysis was used in addition to the experimental study.",book:{id:"12056",title:"Structural Health Monitoring",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12056.jpg"},signatures:"Cameron R. Rusnak and Craig C. Menzemer"},{id:"83048",title:"Structural, Magnetic, and Magnetodielectric Properties of Bi-Based Modified Ceramic Composites",slug:"structural-magnetic-and-magnetodielectric-properties-of-bi-based-modified-ceramic-composites",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106569",abstract:"In this chapter, we introduce a promising composite material, which can be used as a potential candidate in the field of charge storage, sensors, and spintronic devices. The structural, magnetic, and magnetodielectric properties of the pure cum composite samples are investigated. The Rietveld refinement of the X-ray data confirmed the presence of a single (A21am) and mixed phases (A21am + R-3c + Pbam) in the pure and composite sample, correspondingly. The SEM microstructure suggests the contrasting nature of the homogeneous and heterogeneous distribution of grains in the corresponding pure and composite sample. The magnetic properties of the composite sample increase due to the enhanced exchange interaction between the different magnetic ions. The frequency-dependent dielectric subjected to a constant magnetic field indicates the signature of magnetodielectric (MD) coupling for both the samples. The field variation of the MD loop shows the symmetric hysteresis loop in the composite due to the addition of magnetostrictive La0.67Sr0.33MnO3 and the non-collinear antiferromagnetic Bi2Fe4O9 phase. The maximum value of MD% (~0.12%) is enhanced by ~13 times in the composite than in the pure sample. Therefore, the improved MD coupling and symmetric switching of the MD loop of the composite make it a suitable candidate for low power consumption storage devices.",book:{id:"11117",title:"Smart and Advanced Ceramics and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11117.jpg"},signatures:"Rasmita Jena, Kouru Chandrakanta and Anil Kumar Singh"},{id:"83032",title:"Introductory Chapter: Solar Photovoltaic Energy",slug:"introductory-chapter-solar-photovoltaic-energy",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106259",abstract:null,book:{id:"9862",title:"Solar Radiation - Measurements, Modeling and Forecasting for Photovoltaic Solar Energy Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9862.jpg"},signatures:"Mohammadreza Aghaei, Amir Nedaei, Aref Eskandari and Jafar Milimonfared"},{id:"83028",title:"Construction and Modification of Copper Current Collectors for Improved Li Metal Batteries",slug:"construction-and-modification-of-copper-current-collectors-for-improved-li-metal-batteries",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106540",abstract:"Metallic Lithium have gained great attention for its high theoretical specific capacity. But continuous growth of Li dendrites upon cycling might cause low coulombic efficiency and serious security issues. Construction of advanced 3D Cu current collectors to regulate Li plating/stripping and improve battery performance is considered as one effective promising strategy. In this chapter, we will discuss the roles and requirements of current collectors in lithium metal batteries. Then methods (dealloying, powder-sintering and 3D printing) employed for construction of 3D Cu current collector and implementation of surface modification (lithiophilic sites and coating layers) will be illustrated. At last, future opportunities of Cu current collectors will be lifted out.",book:{id:"11179",title:"Lithium-Ion Batteries - Recent Advanced and Emerging Topics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11179.jpg"},signatures:"Shunrui Luo and Kai Pei"},{id:"83021",title:"Valorization of Forest Waste for the Production of Dio-oils for Biofuel and Biodiesel",slug:"valorization-of-forest-waste-for-the-production-of-dio-oils-for-biofuel-and-biodiesel",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105366",abstract:"Biomass is a renewable energy source to generate heat and electricity through the enhancement of various organic materials. Cistus slow pyrolysis of seeds and shells was carried out in a fixed bed reactor to determine the effect of pyrolysis temperature, heating rate, and particle size on the performance of pyrolysis. Therefore, pyrolysis experiments were performed at different temperatures, ranging from 300 to 500°C, with heating rates varying from 10 to 70°C.min−1 for shells and 7 to 28°C.min−1 for seeds. The particle sizes of samples range from 0.3 to 3.5 mm for shells and 0.075 to 1.2 mm for seeds. The highest yield of liquid products (53.31% for shells; 52.24% for seeds) was obtained at a pyrolysis temperature of 450°C and a heating rate of 40°C.min−1 for shells and 21°C.min−1 for seeds. The functional groups and chemical compounds present in the bio-oil obtained under optimal conditions were identified by FTIR. The calorific value of the bio-oil was equal to 37.05 and 37.93 MJ.kg−1 for shells and seeds, respectively. The obtained results show that the bio-oil from the pyrolysis of Cistus shells and seeds could be used as a renewable fuel or a source of pharmaceutical and chemical raw material.",book:{id:"11533",title:"Advances in Green Electronics Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11533.jpg"},signatures:"Hammadi el Farissi"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:806},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tEducation and Human Development is an interdisciplinary research area that aims to shed light on topics related to both learning and development. This Series is intended for researchers, practitioners, and students who are interested in understanding more about these fields and their applications.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/23.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 1st, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"280770",title:"Dr.",name:"Katherine K.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Stavropoulos",slug:"katherine-k.m.-stavropoulos",fullName:"Katherine K.M. Stavropoulos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRdFuQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-24T09:03:48.jpg",biography:"Katherine Stavropoulos received her BA in Psychology from Trinity College, in Connecticut, USA and her Ph.D. in Experimental Psychology from the University of California, San Diego. She completed her postdoctoral work at the Yale Child Study Center with Dr. James McPartland. Dr. Stavropoulos’ doctoral dissertation explored neural correlates of reward anticipation to social versus nonsocial stimuli in children with and without autism spectrum disorders (ASD). She has been a faculty member at the University of California, Riverside in the School of Education since 2016. Her research focuses on translational studies to explore the reward system in ASD, as well as how anxiety contributes to social challenges in ASD. She also investigates how behavioral interventions affect neural activity, behavior, and school performance in children with ASD. She is also involved in the diagnosis of children with ASD and is a licensed clinical psychologist in California. She is the Assistant Director of the SEARCH Center at UCR and is a faculty member in the Graduate Program in Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of California, Riverside",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"89",title:"Education",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/89.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. He has published over 120 articles in international conferences and journals and has served on the program committees of numerous international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:{id:"422488",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ampartzaki",slug:"maria-ampartzaki",fullName:"Maria Ampartzaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/422488/images/system/422488.jpg",biography:"Dr Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"
\r\n\tThe era of antibiotics led us to the illusion that the problem of bacterial infection is over. However, bacterial flexibility and adaptation mechanisms allow them to survive and grow in extreme conditions. The best example is the formation of a sophisticated society of bacteria defined as a biofilm. Understanding the mechanism of bacterial biofilm formation has changed our perception of the development of bacterial infection but successfully eradicating biofilm remains a challenge. Considering the above, it is not surprising that bacteria remain a major public health threat despite the development of many groups of antibiotics. Additionally, increasing prevalence of acquired antibiotic resistance forces us to realize that we are far from controlling the development of bacterial infections. On the other hand, many infections are endogenous and result from an unbalanced relationship between the host and the microorganism. The increasing use of immunosuppressants, such as chemotherapy or organ transplantation, increases the incidence of patients highly susceptible to bacterial infections in the population.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis topic will focus on the current challenges and advantages in the diagnosis and treatment of bacterial infections. We will discuss the host-microbiota relationship, the treatment of chronic infections due to biofilm formation, and the development of new diagnostic tools to rapidly distinguish between colonization and probable infection.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11399,editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",slug:"tomas-jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",biography:"Tomasz Jarzembowski was born in 1968 in Gdansk, Poland. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 2000 from the Medical University of Gdańsk (UG). After specialization in clinical microbiology in 2003, he started studying biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance at the single-cell level. In 2015, he obtained his D.Sc. degree. His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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