\r\n\tCell viability is defined as the number of healthy cells in a sample and proliferation of cells is a vital indicator for understanding the mechanisms inaction of certain genes, proteins, and pathways involved in cell survival or death after exposure to toxic agents. The methods used to determine viability are also common for the detection of cell proliferation. A cell viability assay is performed based on the ratio of live and dead cells. This assay is based on an analysis of cell viability in cell culture for evaluating in vitro drug effects in cell-mediated cytotoxicity assays for monitoring cell proliferation. Various methods are involved in performing a cell viability assay, including the dilution method, surface viable count, roll tube technique, nalidixic acid method, fluorogenic dye assay, and the Trypan Blue Cell Viability Assay. The cell viability assays can determine the effect of drug candidates on cells and be used to optimize the cell culture conditions. The parameters that define cell viability can be as diverse as the redox potential of the cell population, the integrity of cell membranes, or the activity of cellular enzymes. \r\n\tCytotoxicity is the degree to which a substance can cause damage to a cell. Cytotoxicity assays measure the ability of cytotoxic compounds to cause cell damage or cell death. Cytotoxicity assays are widely used in fundamental research and drug discovery to screen libraries for toxic compounds. The cell cytotoxicity and proliferation assays are mainly used for drug screening to detect whether the test molecules have effects on cell proliferation or display direct cytotoxic effects. In a cell-based assay, it is important to know how many viable cells are remaining at the end of the experiment. There are a variety of assay methods based on various cell functions such as enzyme activity, cell membrane permeability, cell adherence, ATP production, co-enzyme production, and nucleotide uptake activity. These methods could be classified in to different categories: (I) dye exclusion methods such as trypan blue dye exclusion assay, (II) methods based on metabolic activity, (III) ATP assay, (IV) sulforhodamine B assay, (V) protease viability marker assay, (VI) clonogenic cell survival assay, (VII) DNA synthesis cell proliferation assays and (V) Raman micro-spectroscopy. \r\n\tMedical devices have been widely used in various clinical disciplines and these devices have direct contact with the tissues and cells of the body, they should have good physical and chemical properties as well as good biocompatibility. Biocompatibility testing assesses the compatibility of medical devices with a biological system. It studies the interaction between the device and the various types of living tissues and cells exposed to the device when it comes into contact with patients.
\r\n
\r\n\t \r\n\tThe book will cover original studies, reviews, all aspects of Cell Viability and Cytotoxicity assays, methods, Biocompatibility of studies of biomedical devices, and related topics.
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1. Introduction
The productivity of crops is considerably impacted by nitrogen and phosphorous deficiencies, which are important for regulating the growth and development of crop plants [1]. To address this problem, it is important to carry out effective nitrogen management for sustainable agriculture. One of the interesting methods is to involve the use of microorganisms biologically fixing nitrogen which is utilized by the plant directly and is least susceptible to leaching and volatilization. Legumes establish a symbiotic interaction with the soil bacteria, termed Rhizobia, to fix atmospheric nitrogen. This helps in improving soil fertility, improving plant growth and prevents the necessity to use chemical fertilizers [2]. Besides this, agricultural productivity is significantly affected by the changing physical and biological properties of the soil [3]. In the past few years, the word “plant microsymbionts” has gained significant interest as plant microsymbionts directly affect the plant’s performance and productivity. The plant microbiome comprises the complex adaptive gene pool, which originates from prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms and even viruses, associated with the host’s ecosystem [4]. Also, it has been well established that apart from changes in morphology, Bacteroides exhibit tremendous transcriptomic shifts and changes in biochemical processes especially in contrast to free-living bacteria [5]. There are various genetic and molecular pathways that govern the symbiotic compatibility, involving a wide variety of host and bacterial genes/signals with distinct adjuvants [6]. Consequently, understanding of the biological and molecular basis of symbiotic compatibility is essential in the development of tools for genetic modification of the host and/or bacteria to increase the efficiency of nitrogen fixation and to use it as a biocontrol agent. Here, in this review, we will address our latest summary of the microbial interactions, rhizobial efficacy, mechanisms as biocontrol, role in plant growth promotion, stress resistance and triggered immunity (ISR) against other microbes (pathogens). In fact, an insight into the genomes and recognition of candidate genes responsible for antibiotics, ISR and other metabolites from microbes is now possible. But the full range of molecular moieties involved in microbial interaction at an ecological scale deserves further study. Eventually, a definite and real improvement in the long term lies with the use of advanced analytical tools and their unification with classical experimental techniques to comprehend and then exploit soil–plant-microbe associations. Overall, it can help to improve biodiversity, agriculture and environmental studies further.
2. Microbial interactions
An existence of unseen host-microbial interaction has predominance from prehistoric times. While microbes are of minute size, they are available in nature in an astonishing majority, interacting directly or indirectly at different hierarchical levels of life. Almost all of these microorganisms are incredibly small, widely recognized by Archaea and Bacteria, although some microscopic forms include handful of fungi and even most protists. From an ecological standpoint, microorganisms are very often found in the soils as complex microbial population groups and have been investigated for several ties of microbiota-host interactions such as mutualists, endosymbionts, antagonists, parasites, and pathogens (Figure 1) [7].
Figure 1.
Types of microbial interactions found in nature.
Microbial community dynamic trends in the food chains look likely to be beneficial (positive), harmful (negative) or even sometimes neutral, with very little or no effect on their symbiotic associates [8]. Via physiochemical shifts, signaling mechanism-quorum sensing system (chemotaxis), cell transduction signaling through secondary metabolites, siderophores (used for iron acquisition) and gene expression microbial processes always have shown substantial impact on ecological parameters, resulting in established suitable alleles in diverse habitats [9]. Rapid and altered microorganism genetic variation corresponds both to biotic and abiotic sources of stress. Furthermore, atmospheric Nitrogen fixing microbial interaction and AMF symbiotic relationship activates a unique signaling process-CSSP (Common Symbiosis Signaling Pathway) with calcium fluctuations in nucleus [10]. Many such strategies lead to an expansive population of microorganisms constantly getting established, culminating in pathogenic or beneficial effects on host plant species.
While many others have shown plants are able to select microbiota from all of diverse plant exudates including certain amino acids, carbohydrates and other biomolecules [11] which could also vary depending upon the plant itself, its stage of development and on biotic or abiotic conditions. Flavonoids, for example, are needed for talks between Legume-Rhizobia while AMF (mycorrhizal arbuscular fungi) rely solely on Strigolactone signaling [12]. In addition, the position of bacterial iron acquisition chelators that enforce a restricted supply of iron in the rhizospheric plane for pathogenic fungi constrains pathogen proliferation and occurrence. Consequently, synergetic microbial populations in the root micro-sites have a critical role to play in cloaking plants from disease deterioration, environmental factors and also ramping up nutrient uptake [13]. It has been well established that plant-associated microorganisms, particularly endophytic and rhizospheric microorganisms, can stimulate plant growth. A typical specified example is that of biotrophic symbioses between rhizobium and legume, such bacteria boost the growth of plant species by fastening atmospheric N2, supplying of essential nutrients, enhance sequestration of minerals, produce phyto-hormones and also act as potential biocontrol against pathogens. Preliminary experiments on some endophytic and pathogen microbe genomes revealed pathogen degrade and displacement of host (host invasion), whereas the endophytic-mutualists express genes that aid in stress amelioration encoding proteins for nitrogen fixation and RubisCO [14]. During genetic interchange in a rhizobial symbiotic relationship, the root cortical cells are populated, making a distinction into nitrogen fixing bacteroids. Studies also show rhizobacter colonization into the root systems of non-leguminous plant species as such can be used as biocontrol in plant species other than legumes. Other popular, well-known, bacterial-based biocontrol method is Agrobacterium to prevent infection with Agrobacterium tumefaciens.In fact, myriad microorganisms (in particular belonging to genera Bacillus, Pseudomonas and Trichoderma) generate few chemicals against plant pathogenic fungi [8]. Bacterial isolates broadly find their application against plant pathogenic bacteria and fungi, whereas fungi are taken as biocontrols for pathogenic protozoans, pathogenic bacteria as well as pathogenic fungi. Juxtaposition between plants and several types of microbes has also been known to help mitigate many toxic metal build-up in plants [15]. While a general mechanism affecting mostly saprotrophs involves enhancement of microbial activity, selective different categories of symbionts can be stimulated in root microsites of plants. On the other hand, disease development by saproptrophs or biotrophs present in root micro-sites takes place only by developing antagonistic symbioses between pathogens and susceptible host plant roots. Importantly, the elimination of disease can sometimes be addressed through manipulating microbiological or physio-chemical surroundings mostly by classical practices- like use of soil refinements, agronomic rotational practices, fumigant use or even soil solarisation. A voluminous literature shows that interactive bacteria both symbiotic and pathogenic develop common signaling molecules to promote their host cell invasion through predominant substances such as conserved PAMP/MAMPs (Microbe-Associated Molecular Patterns) and protein effectors [16]. Organisms have developed recognizing mechanisms which differentiate between pathogens and symbionts and react in different ways to them, but this distinction often is not efficient; as a consequence, recognizing sensitivity also appears to occur both on pathogenic and symbiotic interaction [17, 18] at earlier stages. Thus, evidently microbial associations drive a complex sequence of interdependent metabolisms. In this paradigm of unexpected symbiotic partnership only host species utilize chemical synthesis capacities of symbiotic organisms to inhibit the development of certain environmental major competitors in order to sustain themselves [19]. In modern days, the philosophy of regulation of soil-borne diseases through the use of agro-chemicals such as pesticides and fungicides is now being modified through biological management [20]. Currently with the aid of molecular know-how, molecular pathways and processes involved in the interaction of microbes have been immensely explored.
3. Pathogen control mechanisms
Phytopathogens are those organisms which have the potential to adversely affect growth, development as well as the physiological activities of the crop. Any deviation in the environment which favors the proliferation of these phytopathogens result in a rapid outbreak of the diseases, leading to the crop destruction. Thus, reducing the yield and causing considerable loss of productivity. To prevent the development of disease it is necessary to control the pathogen mostly when their level is low. The organisms involved in biocontrol process are called as biocontrol agents and most of the biocontrol agents such as bacteria, fungi, algae, and nematodes which are found in root zone i.e., rhizosphere could influence various properties of soil and plants and thus act as defense mechanism against attack by pathogens [21]. It has been reported that there are some beneficial bacteria which can bring some changes in the rhizosphere as well as in the plants, leading to the enhancement in the plant growth, development and productivity and as such protect the plant from outbreak of various diseases [22]. Rhizobium being one of the categories of microorganisms which comprises of bacteria which can develop the symbiotic relationship with leguminous plants. Thus, are regarded as important nitrogen fixing organisms which play significant role in the maintenance of soil fertility [23]. However, many species of rhizobia are also reported to reduce the development of various disease-causing fungi, thereby increasing the yield of legume crops [24]. Several rhizobial strains such as Rhizobium leguminosarum, Sinorhizobiummeliloti and Bradyrhizobium japonicum have the ability to suppress soil-borne pathogens such as Rhizoctonia solani, Pythium spp., Fusarium spp., and Macrophominaphaseolina in both legumes and non-legumes thus can be used as biocontrol against various soil-borne diseases [25]. Godebo et al. [26] suggested that rhizobium species can be used as biocontrol agents, since it inhibited the growth of aphanomyces in vitro in pea. Rhizobia in combination with Tricoderma spp. can act as potential biocontrol agent [27]. Colonization behavior of Sinorhizobium meliloti in the alfalfa rhizosphere reported to be useful for biocontrol. The application of Pseudomonas maltophilia in combination with Mesorhizobium and PSB was reported to be more beneficial as it showed the reduction in root rot incidence [28]. The study above shows that significant reports have been presented which favors the use of rhizobia as biocontrol agent against soil-borne pathogens, apart from being responsible for biological nitrogen fixation, thus acting as a befitting alternate measure over chemical treatments to control the spread of various plant diseases. Rhizobium is an effective biocontrol agent which helps in bringing down the growth of phytopathogens by implementing various mechanisms which include phytohormone production, siderophore production, production of antibiotics, HCN production, production of lytic enzymes, metabolite production and phytoalexin production and induction of systemic resistance [29].
3.1 Lytic enzyme production
Rhizobia produces several lytic enzymes which are responsible for degrading the cell wall of pathogens and as such are considered as an efficient source for biocontrol. Lytic enzymes produced by the rhizobia for biocontrol involves chitinases, cellulases, β-1,3-glucanase β-1,4-glucanase, β-1,6-glucanase, proteases, pectinase and amylases [30]. These enzymes are known to cause lysis of the fungal and bacterial cell walls and thus helps in controlling the population of plant pathogens [31]. Chitinase is a lytic enzyme which causes the lysis of pathogenic fungal cell wall through the disintegration of chitin in the cell wall of fungi and bacteria. This process involves the breakdown of glycosidic bond in chitin thus, reducing the chitin polymer into monomer. Endochitinase cleaves chitin randomly at internal points within the polymer of chitin and releases low molecular weight multimers and dimers. Exochitinase causes hydrolysis of chitin and releases di-acetylchitobiose with no monosaccharide or oligosaccharides formed. Protease is another lytic enzyme which prevents the protein of pathogen to effect plant cells as protease have the capacity to cause the breakdown of proteins of phytopathogens into smaller polypeptides or single amino acids. Some of the protease also involved in inactivation of extracellular enzymes of phytopathogenic fungi. Cellulases is another enzyme which causes the decomposition of cellulose. This reaction involves the hydrolysis of the 1, 4-β-D-glucosidic linkages in cellulose. The degradation of cellulose involves conversion of the cellulose into β-glucose which occurs by the combined action of important cellulolytic enzymes like cellulose / endoglucanases, exo-cellobiohydrolase/exo-glucanases and β-glucosidases. Cellulose is thereby converted into β-glucose by the synergetic act of all these cellulolytic enzymes. Glucanase are enzymes which causes hydrolysis of polysaccharide made of glucose subunits. This process involves two possible mechanisms viz., cleaving the glucose residues from the non-reducing end in sequence and breaking the linkages along the polysaccharide chain at random points and smaller oligosaccharides are released [32]. Among all these enzymes, chitinase are considered to be the most important ones as it acts as prime constituent of biocontrol and protect the plant against phytopathogens. It has been reported that rhizobial isolates producing chitinase results in inhibition of pathogenic microbes [24]. Damping-off of fava bean (Vicia faba) was reduced when rhizobium spp. capable of producing chitinase was applied as seed treatment either separately or along with mycorrhizal fungi [24]. Rhizobium strains isolated from Sesbania sesban has been reported to be produce chitinase. Rhizobium sp. Strain RS12, which have the ability to produce chitinase controlled the diseases of chickpea caused by F. oxysporum, S. sclerotiorum and M. phaseolina by reducing the growth and development of mycelia [33]. Plant diseases caused by several phytopathogens like A. niger, F. solani, F. oxysporium, B. cinereaand R. solani were reported to be controlled by chitinase from rhizobia, thus the latter was regarded as efficient biocontrol agent (34). Ability of rhizobia to produce lytic enzymes such as chitinase, β-1, 3 glucanase, protease, and lipase which bring about the lysis of pathogenic fungal and bacterial cell walls was also reported in various plants [3]. In fava (V. faba) bean infection caused by fungal mycelia of F. solani was reduced significantly by chitinase, protease and lipase [34].
3.1.1 Phytohormone production
Phytohormones or plant hormones are the organic compounds that cause the stimulation of plant growth and development at lower concentrations. They can be produced either naturally by plants in response to some specific stimuli or can be synthesized artificially and utilized for regulating the growth and development of plants [35]. Apart from regulating growth and development, these phytohormones also play an important role in biocontrol responses as they are involved in several synergetic processes between various plants and organisms. Therefore, these plant hormones not only helps in stimulation of plant growth, development, improvement in nutrient uptake, but also act as a shield against various biotic and abiotic stresses, and as such protection of plants from different phytopathogens [36]. Phytohormones include indole-3-acetic (IAA) acid (auxin), cytokinins, gibberellins and abscisic acid. Each of the plant hormones or plant growth regulators possesses specific functions.
Auxin: This is the phytohormone which is considered as an important hormone that helps in plant protection mostly in the form of indole acetic acid (IAA). It has been suggested that many rhizobia spp. can secrete plant hormones, such as auxin via indole acetic acid formation [37, 38, 39, 40, 41]. Tryptophan has been considered as the major precursor of IAA. However, rhizobium spp. can synthesize IAA even if the tryptophan is not present [42]. Soil-beneficial bacteria have the ability to synthesize IAA and are involved in many phyto-stimulations that could be beneficial in relation to the biocontrol. IAA is also reported to loosen the root walls to increase the secretion of various beneficial substance from roots, which can improve the bacterial growth in root zone [22]. Rhizobia producing IAA are reported to directly affect the growth of phytopathogens (44). Rhizobial IAA is able to affect pathogenesis as being involved in various physiological processes of plant like cell division, extension, rate of xylem development, formation of adventitious root and various pigments, photosynthesis, etc. Therefore, can act as an effector molecule in plant microbial interaction. More than 80% of nitrogen-fixing bacteria have reportedly resulted in the production of growth substances like indole acetic acid [43]. These substances enhance plant defense mechanism against various pathogens and improves the plant growth by increasing the total phenols, calcium content and polyphenol oxidase activity [44]. Rhizobial IAA was reported to have Phyto stimulation activity which resulted in suppression of more than 84% fungus mycelial growth of S. rolfsii because of the synergetic relation between in vitro bacterial IAA production and inhibition of S. rolfsii mycelial [45]. Treatment of nodules of vetch roots with R. leguminosarum bv. Viciae resulted in increase of IAA production by about 60 folds [46]. Application of Pseudomonas in combination with Rhizobium galegae causes increase in IAA production that results in increasing the number of nodules, nitrogen content, growth of shoot and root. However, biosynthesis of IAA was influenced by both environmental stress factors (acidic pH, osmatic stress, matrix stress and carbon limitation) as well as by genetic factors (auxin biosynthesis genes and the mode of expression. The bacterial strain Mesorhizobium loti MP6 produces indole acetic acid (IAA) under normal growth conditions inducing curling of root hair, inhibition of Sclerotiniasclerotiorum and improves the growth of Indian mustard (Brassica campestris) [29].
Gibberellins: Gibberellins are plant hormones (GA1-GA89) that regulates various plant developmental processes having significant function in stem elongation and leaf expansion. Gibberellins are involved in many aspects of plant physiology like, development of seedless fruits, flower and fruit maturation, breaking of seed dormancy, and sex expression. It has been suggested that rhizobium also have ability to synthesis gibberellins. Gibberellic acid possesses the ability of reducing the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which results in improving the activity of antioxidant enzyme which further causes the progress in growth under adverse conditions [47]. Also, gibberellic acid applied exogenously was able to reduce effect of various stress like salt, oxidative and heat stress, on growth and germination in Arabidopsis thaliana, resulting in increased production of salicylic acid, which in turn increased the activity of isochorismate synthase 1. Rhizobium strains are also reported to produce cytokinins, which are involved in stimulation of cell division, development of root and formation of root hair. It was established that microbial cytokinins have the potential to act as biocontrol agents and can be used as a potent source against plant defense mechanism [48].
Abscisic acid: Abscisic acid is a naturally occurring phytohormone. It is a sesquiterpenoid which is being partly produced in the chloroplasts of plants and the biosynthesis occurs in the leaves. Abscisic acid is synthesized mostly during the stress conditions like moisture deficiency and low temperatures, heat and salinity. It is reported that rhizobium sp. can produce abscisic acid and stimulate various physiological processes of plants such as stomatal closure, inhibits the shoot growth, storage of protein in seeds during dormancy and is involved in causing proteinase inhibition by gene transcription, thus offers protection against pathogens.
1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) deaminase: Some of the rhizobia species like α and β rhizobia have the ability to produce enzyme ACC deaminase and the gene responsible for its production is acdSgene. ACC deaminase leads to the conversion of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC-precursor of ethylene) into α-ketobutyrate and ammonia. It has been reported that when rhizobia producing ACC deaminase are inoculated, the ethylene levels in the plant are reduced, resulting in increased nodulation, longer roots as well as improves rhizobial activity and thereby helps in bringing down various stress levels and also protects the plant from various pathogens (Table 1). The strains, which are reported to produce ACC deaminase involve R. leguminosarum. Viciae, Rhizobium hedysari, Rhizobium japonicum, Rhizobium gallicum, B. japonicum, Bradyrhizobium elkani, M. loti and S. meliloti [59].
Biologicals are an effective way of combating pathogens in plants [60]. Antibiotics and other antipathogenic compounds may be secreted by beneficial rhizobacteria. Antibiotics are among the most important pathways for biocontrol [61]. Pathogens also acquire antibiotic resistance and other biological control mechanisms to prevent complete long-term control. A systematic strategy of numerous monitoring mechanisms is definitely safer than undue reliance on one solution while confronting pathogens. Pathogen-antagonistic bacteria can therefore adapt their mode of operation in the long-term to combat pathogens. In order to inhibit pathogens, PGPR produces antibiotics, such as lipopeptides, polyketides, and antifungal metabolites [62]. PGPR generates antibiotics that prohibit “saprophytic pathogens” from developing in the root zone; Combining strains that strengthen resistance to other antibiotics and biocontrol strains that modulate one or more antibiotics [61]. Rhizobia produces (TFX) tridolitoxin, an antibiotic narrow-spectrum peptide, and was found responsible for changes in microbial diversity in bean plant rhizosphere. Trifolitoxin (TFX) antibiotic by R. Leguminosarumbv. Trifolii T24 was documented for disease control. B. Japonicum produces rhizobiotoxin which protects Soya from M. Phaseolina [63]. R. Leguminosarum produces bacteriocins which have different assumed size characteristics (small, medium or large). Trifolii and B. Japonicum secrete antibiotics that could inhibit several phytopathogens have been documented [3].
3.1.3 Phytoalexins
Plants exist in dynamic ecosystems which are subject to frequent changes. They survive on a host of chemicals called secondary metabolites [64], which are essential for regulating secondary metabolism. Plants have a normal immune system to withstand biotic stress which can be activated by different agents. The plants have a unique potential condition called “priming” which is triggered in the plant before the pathogen challenge. The plants defensive mechanism against biotic stress involves the agglomeration of molecules (phyto-anticipins), which are converted to phytoalexins [65]. Phytoalexins are antimicrobial compounds generated by plants or some organisms as a response of the biotic and abiotic factors. These are “low molecular weight, anti-microbial” compounds synthesized after micro-organism or abiotic exposure in plants. Furthermore, elucidating the biosynthesis of different phytoalexins allowed the use of molecular biology methods to investigate genes encoding enzymes involved in their synthesis. This has led to new technologies to improve plant resistance. Phytoalexins show enormous diversity in various chemical groups, such as terpenoids, phenolics, steroid glycoalkaloids, compounds containing sulfur and indoles [66].
3.1.4 Induced systemic resistance
In addition to its role in N fixation, rhizobium serves as a tool for biocontrol of plant pathogens by triggering systemic resistance in plants. This is referred to as Induced Systemic Resistance [67]. The latter prepares the plant for defense against various phytopathogens [68]. The mechanism by which a non-exposed part of a plant imparts resistance to pathogenic microbes etc. by earlier exposure with the former is termed as induced resistance, thus it is triggered by an inducer that can be a biological or chemical agent. This induced resistance is not only activated at the site of pathogen attack but also at the parts that are very far from the site of induction so called induced systemic resistance (ISR) (Figure 2) and this ISR provides resistance to broad spectrum pathogens. Systemic resistance provided by ISR is regulated by signaling pathways in which different hormones are involved [69].
Figure 2.
Graphical representation of biologically induced disease resistance generated by beneficial microbes (ISR). It involves transport of long-distance signals in form of Jasmonic acid- salicylic acid (J/A & SA) and systemically circulate an improved defensive potential against a broad-spectrum pathogen in other plant parts and helps in plant growth promotion (PGP) as well.
Rhizobial species inducing systemic resistance are Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Trichoderma and Mycorrhiza. Stringlis et al. [70] observed that these rhizobia are involved in the biosynthesis of antibiotics, flagella, siderophores and other volatile compounds which in turn stimulate microbe associated molecular pattern triggered immunity (MTI). A signaling pathway is generated in response to the perception of any of the above-mentioned substances. This is followed by another signaling pathway resulting in a systemic defense response [71]. Pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) serve as sensors that have been evolved to differentiate and recognize bacterial and fungal products called pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPS). Moreover, in case of the damage/invasion caused by the pathogen attack an endogenous signal is produced. The ISR imitation in plants requires microbes that can be beneficial as well as able to effectively colonize the plants root system [72]. Recently microbial aspects around the root micro-sites harboring bacteria and fungi slowly gained interest because of their potential to trigger resistance (induced systemic resistance ISR in case of bacteria/systemic resistance in case of other microbes) in plants as a measure of biocontrol [17]. For instance, 22 kDa xylanase isolate of fungal endophyte Trichoderma when introduced into the plant cells evokes the plant’s defensive response including potassium, hydrogen ions, calcium ion movements, PR protein synthesis, ethylene formation, glycosylation of phytosterols and fatty acid acylation [17]. Among the prominent changes taking place during ISR are:
Strength and stiffness in an epidermal and cortical plant cell wall.
Relocation of recently created barriers / blocks of impermeable lignin, callose and phenolic compounds away from an affected/entry site.
Plant responds to a number of biochemical signals induced by soil and plant-associated microbes. The strength and stability of its cross-talk signal play key role in determining the quality of resistance against pathogens. The interactions with these microbes can be in the form of different relationship possibilities (symbiosis, mutualism competition, predation, commensalism, etc. and host. At the initial stage, hypersensitive response gets active, a mechanism used by plants to prevent the spread of local infection by microbial pathogens [73]. While as for a positive mutual association both the host and the microbe must have to respond to the signals equally so that there is mutual benefit for both. In the association between the rhizobium and mycorrhiza, it has been studied that the host secretes strigolactones and flavonoids. Strigolactones are a class of plant hormones which are responsible for stimulation of branching and growth of mycorrhizal fungi. These strigolactones and flavonoids are also responsible for activation and production of symbiosis (sym) and Nodulaton (Nod) factors by microbes. The manipulated entry of rhizobium systematically triggers the whole downstream molecular defense system [67]. Which in turn builds a successful symbiotic relationship by activating common signaling pathways. By modifying the transcriptional programing many free-living plant growths promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) positively respond to the root exudates that are involved in chemotaxis, energy metabolism etc. [74]. The mode of action of ISR is priming for enhanced defense, it does not cause direct activation of systemic resistance. Elevated transcript levels of various transcription factors were found in Arabidopsiseg. AP2/ERF were highly expressed. Among these several members are involved in regulation of jasmonic acid (JA) and ethylene (ET) defensive pathways. ISR by soilborne microbes is mostly regulated by JA/ET pathway. In the rhizosphere ISR is responsible for microbial antagonism, any host pathogen interaction enriches the microbiome and thus provides protection against diseases. The production of elicitors by beneficial microbes is also required in order to result in the onset of systemic immunity [69] so that there is a balance between the costs and benefits of mutualism. Plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) were successful in managing complex diseases such as anthracnose (Colletotrichum spp.), angular leaf spot and bacterial wilt (Erwinia tracheiphila). Oxidative changes were observed in soyabean roots after inoculation with Bradyrhizobium japonicum [75]. With advancement of next generation sequencing technologies, it has been very easy to study the vast microbial diversity in the rhizosphere. Earlier studies have shown that there are different subsets of diversity in soil bulk, thus type of soil is an important factor for determining rhizosphere microbial community.
4. Mechanism in plant growth promotion
Modern agriculture is experiencing a number of challenges viz., poor soil fertility, serious pathogen and pest attacks, climate changes. Agricultural production must be sustainable and at the same time eco-friendly. This could be achieved by using environmentally sound approaches such as use of bio-fertilizers, bio-pesticides and by returning the crop residues to the soil thereby increasing the organic matter content of the soil. Application of crop residues to the soil resulted in increased yields compared to control [76]. Microbial inoculants which have been used for centuries, is a safer and relatively cheaper tool for promoting plant growth and improving soil health properties by different mechanisms [22]. Nitrogen fixing rhizobium bacteria live in association with legumes, infect them and form nodules in its roots. In case of non-legume crops they interact asymbiotically [77]. They are found in the rhizosphere to make use of the nutrients as the latter has plentiful nutrients oozed from roots of plants. They either have a direct or indirect control over plant growth, by synthesizing phytohormones, control pathogen infestation by influencing the production of several enzymes like cellulase, protease, lipase and other such productions thereby inducing whole plant resistance against pests or by soil nutrient enrichment through their nitrogen fixation and phosphate solubilizing ability. Microbial inoculants have multiple beneficial effects, particularly as plant growth promoters (PGP). Not only this but PGPR also help in combating a variety of abiotic stresses like temperature stress, salinity as well as drought stress, heavy metal toxicity and other types of abiotic stresses [3]. According to their closeness and interaction with the plant roots Rhizospheric bacteria have been classified as: (1) rhizosphere occupying bacteria (2) bacteria’s forming colonies at the surface of roots (3) bacteria’s living inside the roots (endophytes); and (4) bacteria’s residing in the cells of root nodules. Bacteria’s that belong to these groups are known as plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) [78]. The bacteria belonging to 1 to 3 categories as extracellular PGPR (ePGPR) while the 4th category was named as intracellular PGPR (iPGPR). The ePGR includes following genera: Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Erwinia, Caulobacter, Serratia, Arthrobacter, Micrococcus, Flavobacterium, Chromobacterium, Agrobacterium, and Hyphomicrobium whereas Rhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, Sinorhizobium, Azorhizobium, Mesorhizobium and Allorhizobium belong to iPGR category. To strengthen the use of soil rhizobia for the attainment of sustainable and eco-friendly production methods a basic understanding of their functioning and means by which they facilitate plant growth is needed.
4.1 Plant growth promotion by direct mechanisms
4.1.1 Nutrient enrichment by Nitrogen fixation
Nitrogen is a macronutrient required by the plants for synthesizing proteins, nucleic acids and enzymes. Plants synthesize their food with the help of chlorophyll and nitrogen forms an essential component of chlorophyll. Despite the fact that the atmospheric air comprises of about 78% of nitrogen N, this gas is not available for use by the plants directly. Nitrogen application to crops has led to an enormous increase in food production which has eventually resulted in increased human population. Haber-Bosch process being the source of industrial nitrogen fertilizers, has been regarded as the primary cause of explosive growth in human population [79]. Currently, large amounts of synthetic chemical fertilizers are being used in agriculture and these fertilizers have been used beyond their limits, moreover they are expensive and polluting. Application of chemical fertilizers liberates reactive nitrogen into the atmosphere which leads to emission of green-house gases and at the same time eutrophication of water bodies. The detrimental effects of fertilizer use become much more pronounced when these are applied injudiciously. The economic and most importantly environmental concerns make the use safer and relatively cheaper alternatives necessary. Biological nitrogen fixation, whether symbiotic or non-symbiotic is a potential alternative promoting plant growth and hence increasing production [80]. Plant growth promoting-rhizobia are able to perform biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) and thus help plants in nitrogen assimilation. They live in soil and after producing specialized structures (nodules) in legumes by infecting their roots, they fix the atmospheric nitrogen (N2) and convert the same into a more readily useable form i.e., ammonia (NH3) so that the plants can utilize it for their growth. These rhizobia in turn get organic acids which serves as a source of carbon and energy. Two classes of genes: 1. Nodulation (nod) genes and 2. nitrogen fixation (nif) genes are needed for the establishment of a good association between rhizobia and plants. Bacterial genes present in plasmids, code for Nod and Nif proteins [81]. Mainly three nod genes namely nodC, nodB and nodA are involved in nitrogen fixation. In addition to this, other nod genes viz., nod, nol or noe have been found in some rhizobial species [82]. Nodulation genes code for the enzymes involved in production of nodulation factors (nod) [77]. The roots of leguminous plants produce flavonoids in the rootzone, these compounds stimulate the expression of nod genes in the bacteria. Their expression in turn produces the Nod factor, which is a lipochito-ologosachharidic nodulation signal. This signal triggers mitosis and nodule formation [83]. Nitrogen fixation genes include genes for nitrogenase. Nitrogenase forms the most important part of BNF. The enzyme has 2 components: a. dinitrogenase reductase and b. dinitrogenase. The former gives electrons to the later which reduces N2 to NH3. BNF involves different clusters of genes for nitrogen fixation and nodule formation in leguminous plants (Table 2) [77].
Function of the gene
Gene
Nodulation genes
nodA
Acyltransferase
nodB
Chitooligosaccharide deacetylase
NodC
N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase
Nod
Transcriptional regulator of common nod genes
nodIJ
Nod factors transport
nodPQ
synthesis of Nod factors substituents
nodX
Synthesis of Nod factors substituents
nofEF
Synthesis of Nod factors substituents
Other nod genes
Several functions in synthesis of Nod factors
nol genes
Several Functions in synthesis of Nod factors substituents and secretion
NOE genes
Synthesis of Nod factors substituents
Nitrogen fixing genes
nifHDK
Nitrogenase
NifA
Transcriptional regulator
nifBEN
Biosynthesis of the Fe-Mo cofactor
fixABCX
Electron transport chain to nitrogenase
fixNOPQ
Cytochrome oxidase
fixLJ
Transcriptional regulators
fixK
Transcriptional regulators
fixGHIS
Copper uptake and metabolism
fdxN
Ferredoxin
Table 2.
Genes involved in nitrogen fixation.
4.1.2 Phosphate solubilization
Phosphorus is another macronutrient essential for proper development of plants. Its deficiency can adversely affect plant growth. After nitrogen phosphorous is the most limiting nutrient for plant growth [84]. Phosphorus forms an integral part of DNA and RNA, enzymes and phospholipids. Besides this, important processes like photosynthesis, formation of roots, flowers, ability of plants to cope up with diseases depend on the optimal levels of phosphorus [85, 86]. Although the soils are naturally rich in phosphorous reserves but the amount that is available to plants for their use is only a small fraction of the original amount present. This is because phosphorus is predominantly present in insoluble forms in soil and plants can only make use of phosphorus in soluble form i.e., the monobasic (H2PO4 -) and dibasic forms (H2PO42−). Phosphorus availability is governed by various factors such as pH of soil, soil temperature, amount of organic matter present in the soil, root system and most importantly soil microorganisms. The latter has a critical role in increasing P availability to plants. Soil P concentration ranges between 0.01-3 mg P L−1 which is very small compared to the amount that plants need for normal growth. Therefore, to make sure that the plants are not devoid of P, remaining amount is compensated by soil rhizobia using their phosphate solubilizing property. These rhizobia are referred to as phosphate solubilizing microbes (PSMs), having the ability to hydrolyze insoluble phosphorus in soil into readily soluble form. They develop a network in the rhizosphere around the plant roots, allowing them to absorb P from a broader area. The use of PSMs is an environmentally safe and cheap method to reduce the insufficiency of phosphorous and promote its absorption and assimilation by plants. PSMs are able to convert the insoluble phosphorus into soluble form by lowering the pH, chelating cations and mineralization [84]. Application of phosphate solubilizing bacteria belonging to following genera: Achromobacter, Agrobacterium, Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Erwinia, Flavobacterium, Microbacterium and Rhizobium has resulted in increased phosphorus uptake and eventually higher yields.
4.1.3 Potassium solubilization
A diverse range of soil microorganisms such as saprophytic bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes show potential to solubilize potassium effectively converting soil K to plant-available forms [87, 88, 89, 90]. Among these, solubilizing bacteria (KSB) can dissolve K-rich materials and convert insoluble K to soluble forms that plants can absorb. Although some KSB can work anaerobically, the majority of these are aerobic. The potassium solubilizing rhizobacteria (KSR) use a number of ways to make the K available to plants. Mechanisms such as Acidolysis, chelation, exchange reactions, complexolysis, and the production of organic acids are few well known alternatives. The acidolysis (organic and inorganic acids, as well as the synthesis of protons) is the main mechanism of K mineral solubilization [87, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95]. Formation of organic acids by KSB that are useful in releasing K from K-bearing minerals include oxalic acid, tartaric acids, gluconic acid, 2-ketogluconic acid, citric acid, malic acid, succinic acid, lactic acid, propionic acid, glycolic acid, malonic acid and fumaric acid [96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103]. Tartaric acid, citric acid, succinic acid, ketogluconic acid, and oxalic acid are the most effective acids secreted by KSB among the several organic acids involved in the solubilization of insoluble K. Acidothiobacillus ferrooxidans, Paenibacillus spp., Bacillus mucilaginosus, Bacillus edaphicus, and Bacillus circulans are among the bacteria that can solubilize K minerals such as biotite, feldspar, illite, muscovite, orthoclase, and mica [96, 104]. It has been observed that B. mucilaginosus, B. circulanscan, B. edaphicus, Burkholderia, A. ferrooxidans, Arthrobacter sp., Enterobacter hormaechei, Paenibacillus mucilaginosus, Paenibacillus frequentans, Cladosporium, Aminobacter, Sphingomonas, Burkholderia, and Paenibacillus glucanolyticus solubilize K from silicate rocks. Further, B. mucilaginosus, B. edaphicus, and B. circulanscan have been identified as excellent K solubilizers in soil bacterial populations [88, 89]. Furthermore, microbial degradation of organic materials produces ammonia and hydrogen sulphide, both of which can be oxidized in the soil to make powerful acids like nitric acid (HNO3) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Consequently, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, and Mn2+ are displaced from the cation-exchange complex in soil by hydrogen ions [105]. Organic acids produced by KSB can liberate K ions from the K mineral via complexing agent Si4+, Al3+, Fe2+, and Ca2+ ions (chelating) linked with K minerals, additional to decreasing soil pH [106, 107]. In addition, accumulation of diverse extracellular polymers (mainly proteins and polysaccharides) has also been linked to the release of K from K-bearing minerals [99, 103, 108]. Such substances act as adhesive structures to the surface of minerals or rocks. Fresh microbial EPS (exopolysaccharides) solution, for example, accelerates the dissolution rate of feldspars by forming complexes with framework ions in solution (Welch and Vandevivere 1994). Other PGPRs (for example, IAA-producing bacteria) may also play a role in delivering K to plants via boosting root exudates [109].
Under greenhouse and field circumstances, studies have demonstrated that inoculating seeds and seedlings of many plants with KSB improves germination percentage, seedling vigor, plant development, yield, and K uptake [87, 88, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115]. Several studies show that KSB inoculation improves the growth of a variety of crops [101, 103, 112, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125]. Overall, studies indicate application of KSB as bio-fertilizers for agriculture development can reduce the usage of agrochemicals while also promoting sustainable crop production
4.1.4 ACC deaminase production
The infection caused in the roots by rhizobium bacteria during nodule formation results in stress conditions. Consequently ethylene, a stress regulating hormone, inhibits the infection put forth by the bacteria, besides restricting nodulation and root growth [126]. Specific genes are involved in the interaction mechanisms of Rhizopheric bacteria with the plants by means of which they influence their growth. One of these genes encoding for the enzyme ACC deaminase, is involved in cleaving ACC, the precursor of ethylene biosynthesis produced by plants. ACC deaminase degrades ACC into ammonium and ketobutyrate and prevents ethylene biosynthesis [127]. Under limited ethylene concentration, rhizobial colonization of the roots is enhanced which result in the formation of a greater number of nodules on the host plant. Horizontal Gene transfer allows the spread of acdS within the species [128]. However, the genetic analysis carried out by Nascimento et al. [129] revealed that acdS are inherited vertically during evolution. Glick, [22], confirmed that the bacteria which produce IAA synthesize high level of ACC deaminase which inhibits ethylene biosynthesis and promote plant growth, root nodulation and increase uptake of minerals from the soil. Rhizobial strains including R.leguminosarum, R. hedysari, R. gallicum, B. elkani and S. meliloti have been reported to synthesize ACC deaminase [3].
4.2 Plant growth promotion by indirect promotions
4.2.1 Salt stress and osmotic stress
Plant growth improvement has been of great concern since the beginning of agriculture. There are various abiotic factors including temperature, pH, heavy metal toxicity, salt stress which obstruct plant growth and crop productivity [130]. Among them salinity stress is a real hazard for plant growth and production. Under saline conditions plants uptake high amounts of salt which interferes with their physiological and metabolic processes which hampers their growth and makes their survival difficult. Reclamation of saline soils by conventional methods i.e., adding soil amendments like gypsum, calcium etc. do not help to overcome salinity stress completely, moreover they adversely affect the ecosystem. Therefore, for the enhancement of plant growth and productivity, development of sustainable and safer methods is of utmost importance [131]. Large number of microbes belonging to different genera of salt tolerant plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (ST-PGPR), present in the soil are able to tolerate salinity stress as well as promote plant growth [132]. These rhizobacteria (ST-PGPR) include genera Pseudomonas, Enterobacter, Agrobacterium, Streptomyces, Bacillus, Klebiella and Ochromobacter [133, 134]. Salt-tolerant rhizobium isolated from legumes growing in sand dune sand tree legume [135] were able to tolerate upto 2.5–3% of NaCl concentration. In 2018, Zhang et al. [136] isolated 305 bacterial strains and found that 162 out of 305 could grow in NaCl concentration of 150 g/l. For boosting nitrogen fixation and productivity in high salt containing soils co-inoculation of legumes with salt tolerant rhizobial bacteria is a sustainable solution. Under non saline and saline condition silicon was found to enhance growth and nitrogen fixation in leguminous plants [137].
4.2.2 Temperature stress
Worldwide climate change had led to an increase in temperature, which adversely effects plant growth and development. Elevated temperatures result in decreased rate of photosynthesis, negatively influence plant water relations, flower and fruit development. Soil rhizobia indirectly help plants to combat heat stress. Most rhizobia prefer an optimum temperature range of 25–30°C for their growth, however, during their life cycle they experience a temperature out of this range. The growth promotion effect of different PGPR strains in plants was attributed to their nitrogen fixing ability but these effects were noticed prior to the beginning of nitrogen fixation [138]. This shows that the favorable effects of rhizobium in alleviating temperature stress does not depend on nitrogen status. It is due to stimulation of genes to express under high temperature stress conditions. The expression of these genes is regulated by heat stress transcription factors (Hsfs) [139]. HSPs are a family of proteins that are induced by a sudden temperature rise, they include chaperones and proteases, which confer high temperature tolerance to bacteria and thus contribute to the tolerance mechanism [140]. A microarray study conducted in Sinorhizobiummeliloti showed that 169 genes, which included the genes coding for HSPs and chaperones, were up regulated under high temperature conditions. Chaperones, like DnaK–DnaJ and GroEL–GroES, form an important component of the heat shock response. After heat shock, the hydrophobic domains of proteins are exposed, and they get denatured. These chaperons help the denatured proteins to get back to their original conformation [141]. The increased expression of chaperone genes was induced in heat tolerant strains compared to the strains of the same species that were sensitive to heat. Under high temperature stress HSPs increase the stability of cell membrane, thereby conferring heat tolerance to both, rhizobacteria as well as the plant under stress. Breeding of heat tolerant or development of transgenic heat tolerant cultivars is a laborious and less economic method. Hence, the application of rhizobacterial inoculants to plants under temperature stress should be preferred as it is relatively cheaper and less time consuming. Various physiological and biochemical changes in plants, are induced by low temperature resulting in poor plant growth and low crop survival rates [142]. Rigidification of membranes due to the decreased fluidity of cell membrane is one of these changes that plants experience when exposed to chilling stress [143]. Response to cold shock results in the synthesis of cold shock proteins (CSPs). Rhizobia strains isolated from the wild relative of chickpea at low temperatures (9–15°C), successfully nodulated chickpea, indicating that it could serve as a potential microbial inoculant under low temperature conditions to maintain the normal functioning of plants. Symbiotic association of rhizobium with alfalfa enhances its tolerance to low temperature by regulating important physiological and metabolic processes. The oxidative enzymes were more active in AN (active nodules) and IN (inactive nodules) groups, providing higher cold tolerance to these plants [144].
4.2.3 Oxidative stress
Plants, in response to various kinds of environmental stresses such as biotic and abiotic stress produce reactive oxygen species (ROS). Examples of ROS are singlet oxygen (1O2), superoxide anion (O2−), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and hydroxyl radical (OH-). Accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as a result environmental stress is detrimental for plant growth as they modify the primary cell constituents like DNA, lipids, proteins etc. [145]. PGPR reduce the deleterious effects of ROS by producing antioxidant enzymes [146, 147] which include peroxidase (POD), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), nitrate reductase (NR) and glutathione reductase (GR) and thus help in maintaining plant growth and crop productivity [148]. Based on the results of Shen et al. [149] it could be concluded that due to the activation of antioxidant machinery by the rhizobium inoculants, their use is the most effective way for enhancing plant growth and mitigating stress induced by ROS.
4.2.4 Metal stress
Heavy metals occur naturally in soils; however, their increased quantity is undesirable and has become a global concern over the time [150]. Anthropogenic activities like atmospheric pollution, industrial waste disposal, mining, and other practices predominantly contribute to heavy metal toxicity [151]. Heavy metal toxicity leads to inhibition of chlorophyll biosynthesis and proteins required for proper growth of plants and their normal functioning. Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria have the ability to control heavy metal pollution of soils as well as enhancing plant growth in these soils [152]. Bacteria’s producing siderophores promote plant growth besides enhancing their nutrient uptake potential under heavy metal stress conditions. Rhizobacteria have been found to release metal-chelating substances (siderophores) in rhizosphere by means of which they affect the bioavailability of toxic heavy metals and their uptake by plants significantly. They transform these compounds into a less toxic form and promote their precipitation, absorption or adsorption. Plant associated rhizobia can be used for bioremediation, as they enhance the phytoextraction and phytostablization potential of plants [153]. By phytoextraction, plants carry the contaminants from the soil with the help of their roots and eventually collect these contaminants in the aboveground parts of the plant [154]. Phyto-stablization on the other hand, immobilizes the soil contaminants. The contaminants either get adsorbed on the root surface or absorbed by the roots or they are transformed into less soluble compounds. Phytoremediation has been accelerated by the application of rhizobacterial species such as Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Azotobacter [155]. Thus, efficient bioremediation is possible by using rhizobacterial inoculants, still distribution and functioning of microbes in rhizosphere needs to be fully explored.
5. Conclusion and future prospective
Rhizobia have enormous potential in terms of innovative and more sustainable crop management approaches; yet, we only comprehend a small portion of this potential. The effectiveness of strains of rhizobia documented in this chapter emphasizes the unique qualities of plant growth induction, defense pathways, and the resilience spectrum available against different environmental stresses on a wide range of agricultural crops. Although it is the most investigated bacteria which finds its application in agriculture practices but only few strains are widely known for their efficiency and effective application in disease management, nutrient uptake and signaling compounds they produce. These are often used for promoting plant development, particularly in challenging situations like heat and drought, which are becoming more common as climate change proceeds. The discovery of such possible rhizobia strains, as well as the development of a viable technology for use by agricultural producers, are still in their early stages. Thus, we conclude that a definite and real improvement in the long term lies with the use of advanced analytical tools and their unification with classical experimental techniques to comprehend and then further exploit soil–plant-microbe associations for ecofriendly and enhanced crop production. The identification of such promising rhizobia strains would allow for the extension of this study area, as well as improved agricultural sustainability.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"rhizobia, biocontrol, antibiotic, plant growth promotion, heavy metal, bioremediation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80867.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/80867.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80867",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80867",totalDownloads:42,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 1st 2021",dateReviewed:"January 13th 2022",datePrePublished:"March 17th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"March 17th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Modern agriculture has an immense problem in the depletion of agricultural productivity owing to a variety of biotic and abiotic stresses. Agriculture’s sustainability and safety are dependent on ecologically friendly practices. Plant rhizobia have been proven to have an important role in disease control, as well as promoting plant growth, productivity, and biomass. Rhizobacteria are soil bacteria that live on the root surface and either directly or indirectly contribute to plant development. Rhizobia are used to induce mediated immune resistance through the manufacture of lytic enzymes, antibiotics, phytoalexins, phytohormone, metabolites. It supports the growth of plants through nitrogen fixation, nutrient enrichment, phosphate solubilization and phytohormone synthesis. In addition, it supports plants during different stresses such as temperature, osmotic, heavy metal and oxidative stress. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria have the ability to control heavy metal pollution of soils as well as enhancing plant growth in these soils. Efficient bioremediation is possible by using rhizobacterial inoculants, still, the distribution and functioning of microbes in the rhizosphere need to be fully explored. This review focuses on the effectiveness, biomonitoring processes and function in promoting plant development. Rhizobia application can be considered an alternative method for the improvement of biodiversity, agriculture, and the environment.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80867",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80867",signatures:"Nafeesa Farooq Khan, Aatifa Rasool, Sheikh Mansoor, Sana Saleem, Tawseef Rehman Baba, Sheikh Maurifatul Haq, Sheikh Aafreen Rehman, Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji and Simona Mariana Popescu",book:{id:"11357",type:"book",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Vijay Meena, Dr. Mahipal Choudhary, Dr. Ram Prakash Yadav and Dr. Sunita Kumari Meena",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-697-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-696-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-698-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"420235",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",slug:"vijay-meena",fullName:"Vijay Meena"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Microbial interactions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Pathogen control mechanisms",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Lytic enzyme production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.1.2 Antibiotics",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.1.3 Phytoalexins",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.1.4 Induced systemic resistance",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Mechanism in plant growth promotion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1 Plant growth promotion by direct mechanisms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"4.1.2 Phosphate solubilization",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"4.1.3 Potassium solubilization",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"4.1.4 ACC deaminase production",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.2 Plant growth promotion by indirect promotions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"4.2.1 Salt stress and osmotic stress",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"4.2.2 Temperature stress",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"4.2.3 Oxidative stress",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"4.2.4 Metal stress",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20",title:"5. Conclusion and future prospective",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Nemadodzi LE, Araya H, Nkomo M, Ngezimana W, Mudau NF. 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De Oliveira, D.A.C. Albuquerque, T.G.S. Cruz, F.M. Yamaji and F.L. Leite",authors:[{id:"1164",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",middleName:"Lima",surname:"Leite",slug:"fabio-leite",fullName:"Fabio Leite"},{id:"136651",title:"MSc.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"ricardo-de-oliveira",fullName:"Ricardo De Oliveira"},{id:"136652",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Diego",middleName:"Aparecido Carvalho",surname:"Albuquerque",slug:"diego-albuquerque",fullName:"Diego Albuquerque"},{id:"136653",title:"Prof.",name:"Tersio",middleName:null,surname:"Cruz",slug:"tersio-cruz",fullName:"Tersio Cruz"},{id:"136657",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Yamaji",slug:"fabio-yamaji",fullName:"Fabio Yamaji"}]},{id:"49054",doi:"10.5772/60952",title:"Anion Exchange Resins as Effective Sorbents for Removal of Acid, Reactive, and Direct Dyes from Textile Wastewaters",slug:"anion-exchange-resins-as-effective-sorbents-for-removal-of-acid-reactive-and-direct-dyes-from-textil",totalDownloads:3146,totalCrossrefCites:24,totalDimensionsCites:46,abstract:"Coloured wastewaters are a consequence of batch processes in both dye-manufacturing and dye-consuming industries. Dyes are widely used in a number of industries, such as textile and leather dyeing, food, cosmetics, paper printing, gasoline, with the textile industry as the largest consumer. Dyeing as a fundamental operation during textile fibre processing causes the production of more or less coloured wastewaters, depending on the degree of fixation of dyes on substrates, which varies with the nature of substances, desired intensity of coloration, and application method. Dye bearing effluents are considered to be a very complex and inconsistent mixture of many pollutants ranging from dyes, dressing substances, alkalis, oils, detergents, salts of organic and inorganic acids to heavy metals.Thus after dyeing wastewaters are characterized not only by intensive and difficult for removal colour but also by high pH, suspended and dissolved solids, chemical and biochemical oxygen demands. Ion exchange is a very versatile and effective tool for treatment of aqueous hazardous wastes including dyes. The role of ion exchange in dye effluents treatment is to reduce the magnitude of hazardous load by converting them into a form in which they can be reused, leaving behind less toxic substances in their places or to facilitate ultimate disposal by reducing the hydraulic flow of the stream bearing toxic substances. Another significant feature of the ion exchange process is that it has the ability to separate as well as to concentrate pollutants. Taking into account high capacity and selectivity of ion exchange resins for different dyes, they seem to be proper materials for dyes sorption from textile effluents. The aim of the paper is to study the removal of the acid, reactive and direct textile dyes such as C.I. Acid Orange 7, C.I. Reactive Black 5 and C.I. Direct Blue 71 on the commercially available anion exchangers (Lewatit MonoPlus MP 62, Lewatit MonoPlus MP 64, Lewatit MonoPlus MP 500, Lewatit MonoPlus M 500, Amberlite IRA 67, Amberlite IRA 478RF, Amberlite IRA 458 and Amberlite IRA 958) differing not only in basicity of the functional groups but also in composition and structure of the matrix. Comparison of the sorption parameters obtained by the batch method taking into account influence of phase contact time, dyes initial concentration and solution pH were discussed in detail. Desorption conditions depending on the dyes sorption mechanism were also presented. Influence of the auxiliaries typically present in textile effluents such as inorganic electrolytes and different surfactants on the amounts of dyes retained by the anion exchangers was presented. The adsorption behaviour of the polyacrylic Amberlite IRA 958 demonstrates that it can be a promising adsorbent for the textile wastewater treatment. The results obtained with raw textile wastewaters purification confirmed this statement.",book:{id:"4599",slug:"ion-exchange-studies-and-applications",title:"Ion Exchange",fullTitle:"Ion Exchange - Studies and Applications"},signatures:"Monika Wawrzkiewicz and Zbigniew Hubicki",authors:[{id:"141883",title:"Prof.",name:"Zbigniew",middleName:null,surname:"Hubicki",slug:"zbigniew-hubicki",fullName:"Zbigniew Hubicki"},{id:"173310",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:null,surname:"Wawrzkiewicz",slug:"monika-wawrzkiewicz",fullName:"Monika Wawrzkiewicz"}]},{id:"25422",doi:"10.5772/28293",title:"Electrochemical Polymerization of Aniline",slug:"electrochemical-polymerization-of-aniline",totalDownloads:11436,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:null,book:{id:"607",slug:"electropolymerization",title:"Electropolymerization",fullTitle:"Electropolymerization"},signatures:"Milica M. Gvozdenović, Branimir Z. Jugović, Jasmina S. Stevanović, Tomislav Lj. Trišović and Branimir N. Grgur",authors:[{id:"73400",title:"Dr.",name:"Milica",middleName:null,surname:"Gvozdenović",slug:"milica-gvozdenovic",fullName:"Milica Gvozdenović"},{id:"78801",title:"Dr.",name:"Branimir",middleName:null,surname:"Jugović",slug:"branimir-jugovic",fullName:"Branimir Jugović"},{id:"78807",title:"Dr.",name:"Jasmina",middleName:null,surname:"Stevanović",slug:"jasmina-stevanovic",fullName:"Jasmina Stevanović"},{id:"120374",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomislav",middleName:null,surname:"Trišović",slug:"tomislav-trisovic",fullName:"Tomislav Trišović"},{id:"120376",title:"Prof.",name:"Branimir",middleName:null,surname:"Grgur",slug:"branimir-grgur",fullName:"Branimir Grgur"}]},{id:"52110",doi:"10.5772/64935",title:"Electrodeposition from Deep Eutectic Solvents",slug:"electrodeposition-from-deep-eutectic-solvents",totalDownloads:3440,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"Deep eutectic solvents constitute a class of compounds sharing many similarities with properly named ionic liquids. The accepted definition of ionic liquid is a fluid (liquid for T<100 °C) consisting of ions, while DES are eutectic mixtures of Lewis or Brønsted acids and bases. Their most attractive properties are the wide potential windows and the chemical properties largely different from aqueous solutions. In the last few decades, the possibility to electrodeposit decorative and functional coatings employing deep eutectic solvents as electrolytes has been widely investigated. A large number of the deposition procedures described in literature, however, cannot find application in the industrial practice due to competition with existing processes, cost or difficult scalability. From one side, there is the real potential to replace existing plating protocols and to find niche applications for high added-value productions; to the other one, this paves the path towards the electrodeposition of metals and alloys thermodynamically impossible to be obtained via usual aqueous solution processes. The main aim of this chapter is therefore the critical discussion of the applicability of deep eutectic solvents to the electrodeposition of metals and alloys, with a particular attention to the industrial and applicative point of view.",book:{id:"5381",slug:"progress-and-developments-in-ionic-liquids",title:"Ionic Liquids",fullTitle:"Progress and Developments in Ionic Liquids"},signatures:"R. Bernasconi, G. Panzeri, A. Accogli, F. Liberale, L. Nobili and L.\nMagagnin",authors:[{id:"188210",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Magagnin",slug:"luca-magagnin",fullName:"Luca Magagnin"},{id:"194387",title:"MSc.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Bernasconi",slug:"roberto-bernasconi",fullName:"Roberto Bernasconi"},{id:"194388",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabriele",middleName:null,surname:"Panzeri",slug:"gabriele-panzeri",fullName:"Gabriele Panzeri"},{id:"194389",title:"MSc.",name:"Alessandra",middleName:null,surname:"Accogli",slug:"alessandra-accogli",fullName:"Alessandra Accogli"},{id:"194390",title:"MSc.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Liberale",slug:"francesco-liberale",fullName:"Francesco Liberale"},{id:"194391",title:"Prof.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Nobili",slug:"luca-nobili",fullName:"Luca Nobili"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52110",title:"Electrodeposition from Deep Eutectic Solvents",slug:"electrodeposition-from-deep-eutectic-solvents",totalDownloads:3433,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"Deep eutectic solvents constitute a class of compounds sharing many similarities with properly named ionic liquids. The accepted definition of ionic liquid is a fluid (liquid for T<100 °C) consisting of ions, while DES are eutectic mixtures of Lewis or Brønsted acids and bases. Their most attractive properties are the wide potential windows and the chemical properties largely different from aqueous solutions. In the last few decades, the possibility to electrodeposit decorative and functional coatings employing deep eutectic solvents as electrolytes has been widely investigated. A large number of the deposition procedures described in literature, however, cannot find application in the industrial practice due to competition with existing processes, cost or difficult scalability. From one side, there is the real potential to replace existing plating protocols and to find niche applications for high added-value productions; to the other one, this paves the path towards the electrodeposition of metals and alloys thermodynamically impossible to be obtained via usual aqueous solution processes. The main aim of this chapter is therefore the critical discussion of the applicability of deep eutectic solvents to the electrodeposition of metals and alloys, with a particular attention to the industrial and applicative point of view.",book:{id:"5381",slug:"progress-and-developments-in-ionic-liquids",title:"Ionic Liquids",fullTitle:"Progress and Developments in Ionic Liquids"},signatures:"R. Bernasconi, G. Panzeri, A. Accogli, F. Liberale, L. Nobili and L.\nMagagnin",authors:[{id:"188210",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Magagnin",slug:"luca-magagnin",fullName:"Luca Magagnin"},{id:"194387",title:"MSc.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Bernasconi",slug:"roberto-bernasconi",fullName:"Roberto Bernasconi"},{id:"194388",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabriele",middleName:null,surname:"Panzeri",slug:"gabriele-panzeri",fullName:"Gabriele Panzeri"},{id:"194389",title:"MSc.",name:"Alessandra",middleName:null,surname:"Accogli",slug:"alessandra-accogli",fullName:"Alessandra Accogli"},{id:"194390",title:"MSc.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Liberale",slug:"francesco-liberale",fullName:"Francesco Liberale"},{id:"194391",title:"Prof.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Nobili",slug:"luca-nobili",fullName:"Luca Nobili"}]},{id:"74147",title:"Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS): A Review Study of Basic Aspects of the Corrosion Mechanism Applied to Steels",slug:"electrochemical-impedance-spectroscopy-eis-a-review-study-of-basic-aspects-of-the-corrosion-mechanis",totalDownloads:2382,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"AC impedance measurements have been applied for over twenty years in electrochemistry and physics to investigate the electrical properties of conductive materials and their interfaces using an external electrical impulse (VOLTAGE, V or CURRENT, I) as driving force. Furthermore, its application has recently appeared to be destined in the Biotechnology field as an effective tool for rapid microbiologic diagnosis of living organism in situ. However, there is no doubt that the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is still one of the most useful techniques around the world for metal corrosion control and its monitoring. Corrosion has long been recognized as one of the most expensive stumbling blocks that concern many industries and government agencies, because it is a steel destructive phenomenon that occurs due to the chemical interaction with aqueous environments and takes place at the interface between metal and electrolyte producing an electrical charge transfer or ion diffusion process. Consequently, it is experimentally possible to determine through the EIS technique the mechanism and control that kinectics of corrosion reactions encounter. First, EIS data is collected through a potentiostat/galvanostat apparatus. After, it is fitted to a mathematical model (i.e. an equivalent electrical circuit, EEC) for its interpretation and analysis, fundamentally seeking a meaningful physical interpretation. Finally, this review reports some basic aspects of the corrosion mechanism applied to steels through the experimental EIS response using Nyquist or Bode plots. Examples are given for different applied electrochemical impedance cases in which steel is under study intentionally exposed to a corrosive aqueous solution by applying a sinusoidal potential at various test conditions.",book:{id:"10054",slug:"electrochemical-impedance-spectroscopy",title:"Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy",fullTitle:"Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy"},signatures:"Héctor Herrera Hernández, Adriana M. Ruiz Reynoso, Juan C. Trinidad González, Carlos O. González Morán, José G. Miranda Hernández, Araceli Mandujano Ruiz, Jorge Morales Hernández and Ricardo Orozco Cruz",authors:[{id:"114381",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Hernandez",slug:"jorge-morales-hernandez",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Hernandez"},{id:"215540",title:"Dr.",name:"Araceli",middleName:null,surname:"Mandujano Ruiz",slug:"araceli-mandujano-ruiz",fullName:"Araceli Mandujano Ruiz"},{id:"268773",title:"Dr.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Herrera Hernandez",slug:"hector-herrera-hernandez",fullName:"Hector Herrera Hernandez"},{id:"268774",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos O.",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Moran",slug:"carlos-o.-gonzalez-moran",fullName:"Carlos O. Gonzalez Moran"},{id:"314695",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana Mercedes",middleName:null,surname:"Ruiz Reynoso",slug:"adriana-mercedes-ruiz-reynoso",fullName:"Adriana Mercedes Ruiz Reynoso"}]},{id:"62242",title:"Oxygen Reduction Reaction",slug:"oxygen-reduction-reaction",totalDownloads:3951,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"In this chapter, the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), which is one of the most important reactions in energy conversion systems such as fuel cells, including its reaction kinetics, is presented. Recent developments in electrocatalysts for ORR in fuel cells, including low and non-Pt electrocatalysts, metal oxides, transition metal macrocycles and chalgogenides, are discussed. Understanding of the interdependence of size, shape and activity of the electrocatalysts is evaluated. The recent development of ORR electrocatalysts with novel nanostructures is also reported. The mechanism catalysed by these electrocatalysts is presented. Finally, the perspectives of future trends for ORR are discussed.",book:{id:"6778",slug:"electrocatalysts-for-fuel-cells-and-hydrogen-evolution-theory-to-design",title:"Electrocatalysts for Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Evolution",fullTitle:"Electrocatalysts for Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Evolution - Theory to Design"},signatures:"Lindiwe Khotseng",authors:[{id:"236596",title:"Dr.",name:"Lindiwe",middleName:null,surname:"Khotseng",slug:"lindiwe-khotseng",fullName:"Lindiwe Khotseng"}]},{id:"40709",title:"The Role of Ion Exchange Chromatography in Purification and Characterization of Molecules",slug:"the-role-of-ion-exchange-chromatography-in-purification-and-characterization-of-molecules",totalDownloads:12894,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"2549",slug:"ion-exchange-technologies",title:"Ion Exchange Technologies",fullTitle:"Ion Exchange Technologies"},signatures:"Hidayat Ullah Khan",authors:[{id:"140538",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidayat",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"hidayat-khan",fullName:"Hidayat Khan"}]},{id:"49055",title:"Ion Exchange Method for Removal and Separation of Noble Metal Ions",slug:"ion-exchange-method-for-removal-and-separation-of-noble-metal-ions",totalDownloads:2981,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Ion exchange has been widely applied in technology of chemical separation of noble metal ions. This is associated with dissemination of methods using various ion exchange resins which are indispensable in many fields of chemical industry. Due to small amounts of noble elements in nature and constant impoverishment of their natural raw materials, of particular importance are physicochemical methods of their recovery from the second sources e.g. worn out converters of exhausted gases, chemical catalysts, dental alloys, anodic sludges from cooper and nickiel electrorefining as well as waste waters and running off waters from refineries containing trace amount of noble metals. It should be stated that these waste materials are usually pyro- and hydrometallurgically processed. Recovery of noble metals, from such raw materials requires individual approach to each material and application of selective methods for their removal. Moreover, separation of noble metals, particularly platinum metals and gold from geological samples, industrial products, synthetic mixtures along with other elements is a problem of significant importance nowadays. In the paper the research on the applicability of different types of ion exchangers for the separation of noble metals will be presented. The effect of the different parameters on their separation will be also discussed. The examples of the removal of noble metals chlorocomplexes will also be presented in detail.",book:{id:"4599",slug:"ion-exchange-studies-and-applications",title:"Ion Exchange",fullTitle:"Ion Exchange - Studies and Applications"},signatures:"Zbigniew Hubicki, Monika Wawrzkiewicz, Grzegorz Wójcik, Dorota\nKołodyńska and Anna Wołowicz",authors:[{id:"141883",title:"Prof.",name:"Zbigniew",middleName:null,surname:"Hubicki",slug:"zbigniew-hubicki",fullName:"Zbigniew Hubicki"},{id:"173610",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorota",middleName:null,surname:"Kołodyńska",slug:"dorota-kolodynska",fullName:"Dorota Kołodyńska"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"505",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",slug:"j.-kevin-summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",slug:"meng-chuan-ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",slug:"olga-anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",slug:"jose-navarro-pedreno",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",biography:"Full professor at University Miguel Hernández of Elche, Spain, previously working at the University of Alicante, Autonomous University of Madrid and Polytechnic University of Valencia. Graduate in Sciences (Chemist), graduate in Geography and History (Geography), master in Water Management, Treatment, master in Fertilizers and Environment and master in Environmental Management; Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences. His research is focused on soil-water and waste-environment relations, mainly on soil-water and soil-waste interactions under different management and waste reuse. His work is reflected in more than 230 communications presented in national and international conferences and congresses, 29 invited lectures from universities, associations and government agencies. Prof. Navarro-Pedreño is also a director of the Ph.D. Program Environment and Sustainability (2012-present) and a member of several societies among which are the Spanish Society of Soil Science, International Union of Soil Sciences, European Society for Soil Conservation, DessertNet and the Spanish Royal Society of Chemistry.",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",slug:"elke-jurandy-bran-nogueira-cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",slug:"sandra-ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",slug:"salustiano-mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",biography:"Salustiano Mato de la Iglesia (Santiago de Compostela, 1960) is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago and a Professor of zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. He has developed his research activity in the fields of fauna and soil ecology, and in the treatment of organic waste, having been the founder and principal investigator of the Environmental Biotechnology Group of the University of Vigo.\r\nHis research activity in the field of Environmental Biotechnology has been focused on the development of novel organic waste treatment systems through composting. The result of this line of work are three invention patents and various scientific and technical publications in prestigious international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",slug:"josefina-garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",biography:"Josefina Garrido González (Paradela de Abeleda, Ourense 1959), is a doctor in biology from the University of León and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. She has focused her research activity on the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of aquatic beetles, in addition to other lines of research such as the conservation of biodiversity in freshwater ecosystems; conservation of protected areas (Red Natura 2000) and assessment of the effectiveness of wetlands as priority areas for the conservation of aquatic invertebrates; studies of water quality in freshwater ecosystems through biological indicators and physicochemical parameters; surveillance and research of vector arthropods and invasive alien species.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",slug:"francisco-ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",biography:"Fran Ramil Blanco (Porto de Espasante, A Coruña, 1960), is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago de Compostela and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. His research activity is linked to the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of marine benthic invertebrates and especially the Cnidarian group. Since 2004, he has been part of the EcoAfrik project, aimed at the study, protection and conservation of biodiversity and benthic habitats in West Africa. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"86",type:"subseries",title:"Business and Management",keywords:"Demographic shifts, Innovation, Technology, Next-gen leaders, Worldwide environmental issues and clean technology, Uncertainty and political risks, Radical adjacency, Emergence of new business ecosystem type, Emergence of different leader and leader values types, Universal connector, Elastic enterprise, Business platform, Supply chain complexity",scope:"
\r\n\tThe Business and Management series topic focuses on the most pressing issues confronting organizations today and in the future. Businesses are trying to figure out how to lead in a time of global uncertainty. In emerging markets, issues such as ill-defined or unstable policies, as well as corrupt practices, can be hugely problematic. Changes in governments can result in new policy, regulations, and interest rates, all of which can be detrimental to foreign businesses and investments. A growing trend towards economic nationalism also makes the current global political landscape potentially hostile towards international businesses.
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\r\n\tThe demographic shifts are creating interesting challenges. People are living longer, resulting to an aging demographic. We have a large population of older workers and retirees who are living longer lives, combined with a declining birthrate in most parts of the world. Businesses of all types are looking at how technology is affecting their operations. Several questions arise, such as: How is technology changing what we do? How is it transforming us internally, how is it influencing our clients and our business strategy? It is about leveraging technology to improve efficiency, connect with customers more effectively, and drive innovation. The majority of innovative companies are technology-driven businesses. Realizing digital transformation is today’s top issue and will remain so for the next five years. Improving organizational agility, expanding portfolios of products and services, creating, and maintaining a culture of innovation, and developing next -generation leaders were also identified as top challenges in terms of both current and future issues.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe most sustained profitable growth occurs when a company expands its core business into an adjacent space. This has significant implications for management because innovation in business ecosystems differs from traditional, vertically integrated firms. Every organization in the ecosystem must be aware of the bigger picture. Innovation in ecosystems necessitates collaborative action to invent and appraise, efficient, cross-organizational knowledge flows, modular architectures, and good stewardship of legacy systems. It is built on multiple, interconnected platforms. Environmental factors have already had a significant impact in the West and will continue to have an impact globally. Businesses must take into account the environmental impact of their daily operations. The advantage of this market is that it is expected to grow more rapidly than the overall economy. Another significant challenge is preparing the next generation of leaders to elevate this to the number one priority within the next five years. There can be no culture of innovation unless there is diverse leadership or development of the next generation of leaders; and these diverse, next-generation leaders are the ones who will truly understand the digital strategies that will drive digital transformation.
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