Basically fibre used in active sportswear cloths.
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Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"4615",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Superalloys",title:"Superalloys",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Superalloy, or high-performance alloy, is an alloy that exhibits several key characteristics: excellent mechanical strength, resistance to thermal creep deformation, good surface stability, and resistance to corrosion or oxidation. The crystal structure is typically face-centered cubic austenitic. Superalloy development has relied heavily on both chemical and process innovations. Superalloys develop high temperature strength through solid solution strengthening. An important strengthening mechanism is precipitation strengthening which forms secondary phase precipitates such as gamma prime and carbides. Oxidation or corrosion resistance is provided by elements such as aluminium and chromium. This book collects new developments about superalloys.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-2212-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6641-2",doi:"10.5772/59358",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"superalloys",numberOfPages:346,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a42448fe9dcde752b974c2f79c759ec6",bookSignature:"Mahmood Aliofkhazraei",publishedDate:"November 25th 2015",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4615.jpg",numberOfDownloads:32222,numberOfWosCitations:55,numberOfCrossrefCitations:40,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:6,numberOfDimensionsCitations:82,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:7,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:177,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 16th 2014",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 6th 2014",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 2nd 2015",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 4th 2015",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 3rd 2015",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"155413",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood",middleName:null,surname:"Aliofkhazraei",slug:"mahmood-aliofkhazraei",fullName:"Mahmood Aliofkhazraei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/155413/images/3939_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mahmood Aliofkhazraei works in the corrosion and surface engineering group at the Tarbiat Modares University. He is the head of Aliofkhazraei research group (www.aliofkhazraei.com). Dr. Aliofkhazraei has received several honors, including the Khwarizmi award and the best young nanotechnologist award of Iran. He is a member of the National Association of Surface Sciences, Iranian Corrosion Association, and National Elite Foundation of Iran. His research focuses on materials science, nanotechnology, and its use in surface and corrosion science.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"13",institution:{name:"Tarbiat Modares University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"944",title:"Metallurgy",slug:"metals-and-nonmetals-metallurgy"}],chapters:[{id:"48884",title:"Thermal-Assisted Machining of Nickel-based Alloy",doi:"10.5772/61101",slug:"thermal-assisted-machining-of-nickel-based-alloy",totalDownloads:3068,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:15,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nickel-based alloy can be found in different industrial applications especially in aircraft engines and hot end components of various types of gas turbines with its high strength, strong corrosion resistance and excellent thermal fatigue properties and thermal stability compared to conventional materials. However, nickel-based alloy is one of the extremely difficult-to-cut materials. During the machining process, the interaction between the tool and the workpiece causes severe plastic deformation and intense friction at the tool-workpiece interface. Because of the increasing demands in industries, any improvement of conventional machining processes or any other deployment of additional technique is directly related to higher productivity. Thermal-assisted machining (TAM) has become an effective alternative to the conventional machining of these difficult-to-cut materials. Various types of heating methods and the beneficial effects on machining of nickel-based alloys are discussed in this chapter. Finally, TAM was proven as an efficient technique to increase the machinability of nickel-based alloys in terms of tool life, surface roughness and cutting force.",signatures:"Erween Rahim, Norazlan Warap and Zazuli Mohid",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48884",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48884",authors:[{id:"174050",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Erween",surname:"Abd Rahim",slug:"erween-abd-rahim",fullName:"Erween Abd Rahim"},{id:"174498",title:"Mr.",name:"Norazlan",surname:"Md Warap",slug:"norazlan-md-warap",fullName:"Norazlan Md Warap"},{id:"174499",title:"Mr.",name:"Zazuli",surname:"Mohid",slug:"zazuli-mohid",fullName:"Zazuli Mohid"}],corrections:null},{id:"48914",title:"Spectroscopic and Optoelectronic Properties of Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon-Chalcogen Alloys",doi:"10.5772/61103",slug:"spectroscopic-and-optoelectronic-properties-of-hydrogenated-amorphous-silicon-chalcogen-alloys",totalDownloads:1337,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hydrogenated amorphous silicon-chalcogen alloy thin films have been the subject of growing interest during the past two decades. Thin films of these alloys are usually prepared by the decomposition of SiH4 and H2S or H2Se gas mixtures in a radiofrequency plasma glow discharge at a substrate temperature of 250°C. The alloy composition is varied by changing the gas volume ratio RV = [chalcogen/silane]. Infrared spectroscopy is used to explore the bonding structure of the alloy. The material exhibits hydrogen-induced bands, normally observed in a-Si:H spectra and other chalcogen-induced bands resulting from bonding chalcogen atoms with hydrogen and silicon. Analysis of the vibrational spectra of this material reveals the presence of significant levels of Si-chalcogen-SiHn configurations. Optical and electrical measurements show that increasing the chalcogen content results in an increase of the optical (Tauc) gap and a decrease in dark conductivity and photoconductivity. Subgap absorption measurements are employed to probe the Urbach energy and defect density. Upon increasing the chalcogen content, a broadening of band tails and an increase in defect density is observed. These results are shown to be consistent with photoluminescence measurements carried out on these materials.",signatures:"Shawqi Al Dallal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48914",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48914",authors:[{id:"174012",title:"Dr.",name:"Shawqi",surname:"Al Dallal",slug:"shawqi-al-dallal",fullName:"Shawqi Al Dallal"}],corrections:null},{id:"49076",title:"Superalloys for Advanced Ultra-Super-Critical Fossil Power Plant Application",doi:"10.5772/61139",slug:"superalloys-for-advanced-ultra-super-critical-fossil-power-plant-application",totalDownloads:2784,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:20,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Superalloys are world-wildly used not only for aerospace but also for chemistry, oil & gas and power engineering application. In recent years the 700 °C level Advanced Ultra-Super-Critical (A-USC) technology with high thermal efficiency is developing in the world to reduce the coal consumption and pollution emissions. Any kind of advanced ferritic and austenitic heat-resisting steels can not meet 700 °C A-USC technology requirement. In this case high quality Ni-base superalloys must be adopted for 700 °C A-USC technology. The research and development of Ni-Fe and Ni-base superalloys such as HR6W, GH2984, Haynes 230, Inconel 617/617B, Nimonic 263, Haynes 282, Inconel 740 and 740H are reviewed in this chapter.",signatures:"Xishan Xie, Yunsheng Wu, Chengyu Chi and Maicang Zhang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49076",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49076",authors:[{id:"73797",title:"Prof.",name:"Xishan",surname:"Xie",slug:"xishan-xie",fullName:"Xishan Xie"},{id:"363727",title:"Dr.",name:"Yunsheng",surname:"Wu",slug:"yunsheng-wu",fullName:"Yunsheng Wu"},{id:"363728",title:"Dr.",name:"Chengyu",surname:"Chi",slug:"chengyu-chi",fullName:"Chengyu Chi"},{id:"363729",title:"Dr.",name:"Maicang",surname:"Zhang",slug:"maicang-zhang",fullName:"Maicang Zhang"}],corrections:null},{id:"48880",title:"Precipitation Process in Fe-Ni-Al-based Alloys",doi:"10.5772/61070",slug:"precipitation-process-in-fe-ni-al-based-alloys",totalDownloads:2624,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter covers first the precipitation and coarsening processes in Fe-Ni-Al alloys aged artificially at high temperatures, as well as their effect on the mechanical properties. These results show the precipitation evolution, morphology of precipitates, coarsening kinetics and mechanical properties such as hardness. Additionally, the effect of alloying elements such as copper and chromium is also studied on the precipitation and coarsening processes. The main results of this section are concerning on the coarsening kinetics and its effect on hardness. Besides, the diffusion couple method is employed to study the precipitation and coarsening process in different Fe-Ni-Al alloy compositions, as well as its effect on the hardness. All the above aspects of precipitation and coarsening are also supported with Thermo-Calc calculations.",signatures:"Hector J. Dorantes-Rosales, Victor M. Lopez-Hirata, Jorge L.\nGonzalez-Velazquez, Nicolas Cayetano-Castro and Maribel L.\nSaucedo-Muñoz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48880",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48880",authors:[{id:"76298",title:"Dr.",name:"Víctor Manuel",surname:"López-Hirata",slug:"victor-manuel-lopez-hirata",fullName:"Víctor Manuel López-Hirata"},{id:"107864",title:"Dr.",name:"Hector",surname:"Dorantes-Rosales",slug:"hector-dorantes-rosales",fullName:"Hector Dorantes-Rosales"},{id:"363592",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge L.",surname:"Gonzalez-Velazquez",slug:"jorge-l.-gonzalez-velazquez",fullName:"Jorge L. Gonzalez-Velazquez"},{id:"363593",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicolas",surname:"Cayetano-Castro",slug:"nicolas-cayetano-castro",fullName:"Nicolas Cayetano-Castro"},{id:"363594",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel L.",surname:"Saucedo-Muñoz",slug:"maribel-l.-saucedo-munoz",fullName:"Maribel L. Saucedo-Muñoz"}],corrections:null},{id:"48943",title:"Welding Metallurgy of Corrosion-Resistant Superalloy C-276",doi:"10.5772/61104",slug:"welding-metallurgy-of-corrosion-resistant-superalloy-c-276",totalDownloads:2497,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Microsegregation occurs during solidification of fusion zone in alloy C-276. The concomitant precipitation of topologically close-packed phases P and μ has been reported to be responsible for the hot cracking observed in this alloy during welding. The clue to preventing hot cracking hence lies in suppressing microsegregation in the fusion zone. An important avenue towards this is the introduction of current pulsing during gas tungsten arc welding. Current pulsing was found to be effective in mitigating microsegregation; it was also found to refine the microstructure in the weld zone and improve the mechanical behavior of weld joints. Judicious choice of filler wire is of paramount importance to get weld joints free from segregation and with a good combination of mechanical properties. Joints made using arc welding methods were found to be highly resistant to corrosion in salt spray tests. Non-arc-based methods—laser welding and electron beam welding—were found to be effective in largely keeping the microsegregation at bay. This chapter elaborates on these issues.",signatures:"Manikandan Manoharan, Arivazhagan Natarajan and Nageswara\nRao Muktinutalapati",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48943",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48943",authors:[{id:"40270",title:"Prof.",name:"Nageswara Rao",surname:"Muktinutalapati",slug:"nageswara-rao-muktinutalapati",fullName:"Nageswara Rao Muktinutalapati"},{id:"175541",title:"Mr.",name:"Manikandan",surname:"Manoharan",slug:"manikandan-manoharan",fullName:"Manikandan Manoharan"},{id:"175542",title:"Dr.",name:"Arivazhagan",surname:"Natarajan",slug:"arivazhagan-natarajan",fullName:"Arivazhagan Natarajan"}],corrections:null},{id:"48981",title:"Analysis of the Precipitation and Growth Processes of the Intermetallic Phases in an Fe-Ni Superalloy",doi:"10.5772/61159",slug:"analysis-of-the-precipitation-and-growth-processes-of-the-intermetallic-phases-in-an-fe-ni-superallo",totalDownloads:2723,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter characterizes wrought iron-base superalloys and comprises two main parts. The first describes the chemical composition, microstructure, and precipitation reactions in Fe-Ni, Ni-Fe, and Fe-Cr superalloys. The second part presents the influence of prolonged aging on the precipitation and growth processes in an Fe-Ni superalloy of A-286 type. The prepared specimens, after solution heat treatment at 980°C/2 h/water, were aged at temperatures of 715°C, 750°C, and 780°C with the holding time of 0.5-500 h. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and X-ray diffraction were used to examine their structures. It was found, that application of a single-stage aging causes precipitation processes of γ’ - Ni3(Al,Ti), η - Ni3Ti, β - NiTi, G - Ni16Ti6Si7, and σ - Cr0.46Mo0.40Si0.14 intermetallic phases, as well as the carbide M23C6 and boride M3B2. The main phase precipitating during alloy aging was the γ’- type intermetallic phase. It was found that the mean diameter of γ’ phase precipitates increases as a function of the cube root of aging time, which is consistent with the predictions based on the Lifshitz-Slyozow-Wagner (LSW) theory. The determined value of activation energy for the process of γ’ phase coagulation in the examined alloy was E = 297 kJ/mole.",signatures:"Kazimierz J. Ducki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48981",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48981",authors:[{id:"97020",title:"Dr.",name:"Kazimierz",surname:"Ducki",slug:"kazimierz-ducki",fullName:"Kazimierz Ducki"}],corrections:null},{id:"48882",title:"Assessment of Dental Alloys by Different Methods",doi:"10.5772/61115",slug:"assessment-of-dental-alloys-by-different-methods",totalDownloads:1697,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Alloys are used in various areas of dentistry. The field of dental alloys is a very extensive one, encompassing both the materials themselves as well as the manufacturing methods, which are constantly developing. Our chapter focuses on corrosion and biocompatibility assessment, using various methods. At present there is no perfect dental alloy. Superalloys for dental use are not yet available, and only few studies concerning the new generation of superalloy candidates for medical applications have recently been developed, with promising results.",signatures:"Lavinia Ardelean, Lucien Reclaru, Cristina Maria Bortun and Laura\nCristina Rusu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48882",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48882",authors:[{id:"91701",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina Maria",surname:"Bortun",slug:"cristina-maria-bortun",fullName:"Cristina Maria Bortun"},{id:"174261",title:"Prof.",name:"Lucien",surname:"Reclaru",slug:"lucien-reclaru",fullName:"Lucien Reclaru"},{id:"174262",title:"Prof.",name:"Laura",surname:"Rusu",slug:"laura-rusu",fullName:"Laura Rusu"},{id:"180569",title:"Dr.",name:"Lavinia",surname:"Ardelean",slug:"lavinia-ardelean",fullName:"Lavinia Ardelean"}],corrections:null},{id:"49105",title:"Phase Equilibrium Evolution in Single-Crystal Ni-Based Superalloys",doi:"10.5772/61102",slug:"phase-equilibrium-evolution-in-single-crystal-ni-based-superalloys",totalDownloads:2066,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The phase equilibrium evolution resulting from the interdiffusion of atoms in single crystals of nickel-based superalloys was studied with the aid of microstructural, chemical composition, and micromechanical property investigations. The experimental observation methods—optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, energy-dispersive spectroscopy, microchemical analyses, X-ray diffraction, hard cyclic viscoplastic deformation, and nanoindentation—were combined to obtain new insights into the phases’ chemical composition and micromechanical properties’ characterization that depend on strain-stress levels which are induced by tension-compression cycling in viscoplastic conditions at room temperature. The test samples with differences in the strain-stress parameters were received on the tension-compression stepped sample with four different cross-section areas. The strains with four levels of intensivity were added by using strain amplitudes of 0%–0.05%, 0%–0.2%, 0%–0.5%, and 0%–1% for 30 cycles, respectively. Microstructural investigations show that dendrite length decreased significantly in samples with minimal cross-section and accordingly at maximal strain-stress amplitudes. The main dendrites of the (001) direction were separated by (γ + γ′)-eutectic pools. The length of newly formed dendrites depends on cumulative strain-stress amplitudes. The chemical composition and micromechanical properties of phases were changed as a result of the atoms’ interdiffusion between different phases. These changes were influenced on the phases’ equilibrium evolution of the single-crystal superalloy during testing.",signatures:"Lembit Kommel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49105",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49105",authors:[{id:"27339",title:"Dr.",name:"Lembit",surname:"Kommel",slug:"lembit-kommel",fullName:"Lembit Kommel"}],corrections:null},{id:"49018",title:"Modeling and Simulation of Shape Memory Alloys using Microplane Model",doi:"10.5772/61124",slug:"modeling-and-simulation-of-shape-memory-alloys-using-microplane-model",totalDownloads:1773,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, a three-dimensional phenomenological constitutive model for the simulation of shape memory alloys is introduced. The proposed macromechanical model is based on microplane theory. Microplane approach is chosen to have limited material parameters in that all of those are measurable by simple tests. User material subroutine is developed to implement the proposed model in a commercial finite element package. NiTi hollow tube specimens are under various loading conditions in order to experimentally study the superelastic response of shape memory alloys. Comparing experimental data with numerical results in simple tension and pure torsion as well as proportional and nonproportional tension-torsion loadings demonstrates the capability of proposed model in constitutive modeling of shape memory alloys.",signatures:"Reza Mehrabi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49018",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49018",authors:[{id:"174341",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",surname:"Mehrabi",slug:"reza-mehrabi",fullName:"Reza Mehrabi"}],corrections:null},{id:"48879",title:"Comparison of Additive Technologies for Gradient Aerospace Part Fabrication from Nickel-Based Superalloys",doi:"10.5772/61121",slug:"comparison-of-additive-technologies-for-gradient-aerospace-part-fabrication-from-nickel-based-supera",totalDownloads:3048,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In our papers, the laser beam-aided control of the self-propagating high-temperature synthesis in Ni–Al systems for the layerwise manufacture of three-dimensional (3D) parts was offered and experimentally realized. As for the laser in situ synthesis of NiAl and Ni3Al intermetallides and their layerwise laser cladding without any visible cracks and pores, it was successfully performed later on. The present chapter is dedicated to the comparison of optimal conditions for the selective laser melting and laser direct metal deposition processes of the nickel-based powders and fabrication of a full-density, functionally graded, and crack-free structures on the maximum deposition rate for technological applications. The effects of laser parameters on the phase composition and microstructure of the resulting intermetallic samples will be discussed.",signatures:"Igor V. Shishkovsky, Aleksey P. Nazarov, Dmitry V. Kotoban and\nNina G. Kakovkina",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48879",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48879",authors:[{id:"174257",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor V.",surname:"Shishkovsky",slug:"igor-v.-shishkovsky",fullName:"Igor V. Shishkovsky"},{id:"363589",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksey P.",surname:"Nazarov",slug:"aleksey-p.-nazarov",fullName:"Aleksey P. Nazarov"},{id:"363590",title:"Dr.",name:"Dmitry V.",surname:"Kotoban",slug:"dmitry-v.-kotoban",fullName:"Dmitry V. Kotoban"},{id:"363591",title:"Dr.",name:"Nina G.",surname:"Kakovkina",slug:"nina-g.-kakovkina",fullName:"Nina G. Kakovkina"}],corrections:null},{id:"48824",title:"Characterization of Intermetallic Precipitates in Ni-Base Alloys by Non-destructive Techniques",doi:"10.5772/61119",slug:"characterization-of-intermetallic-precipitates-in-ni-base-alloys-by-non-destructive-techniques",totalDownloads:1918,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The present industrial scenario requires all engineering structure to be designed considering stability of several parameters at the operating conditions (e.g. Temperature, pressure, resistance to mechanical and surface degradation). Choice of materials for any engineering component should be such that it operates safely for reliable function, without failure during in-service, giving optimum component life. Due to scarcity of various resources and cost of manufacturing, regular maintenance and evaluation of structural integrity at every stage of production is necessary. Non-destructive techniques (NDT), along with modern computational facility help in non-intrusive investigation of the component at regular intervals of the operating stages for many critical applications. This will result in increment of designed component life and also help in maximizing utilization of natural resources.",signatures:"V. Acharya, S. Ramesh and G.V.S. Murthy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48824",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48824",authors:[{id:"173875",title:"Dr.",name:"Gudimella",surname:"Murthy",slug:"gudimella-murthy",fullName:"Gudimella Murthy"},{id:"175085",title:"Ms.",name:"Vidhi",surname:"Acharya",slug:"vidhi-acharya",fullName:"Vidhi Acharya"},{id:"175086",title:"Mr.",name:"Ramesh",surname:"Surla",slug:"ramesh-surla",fullName:"Ramesh Surla"}],corrections:null},{id:"49100",title:"Coatings for Superalloys",doi:"10.5772/61141",slug:"coatings-for-superalloys",totalDownloads:3475,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:16,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"High-temperature coatings for superalloys can be divided into three categories: Two of them, diffusion and overlay coatings, are both used to protect a system from oxidation and corrosion. The third type, thermal barrier coatings, protects the substrate from thermal degradation.",signatures:"Mathias C. Galetz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49100",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49100",authors:[{id:"174362",title:"Dr.",name:"Mathias",surname:"Galetz",slug:"mathias-galetz",fullName:"Mathias Galetz"}],corrections:null},{id:"49250",title:"Properties of the Ultrathin Multilayer Ground State of Fe/Pd",doi:"10.5772/61289",slug:"properties-of-the-ultrathin-multilayer-ground-state-of-fe-pd",totalDownloads:1401,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The technological evolution in the recent years allowed us to improve computers. Consequently, the numeric calculus with computational methods had a big progress. In theoretical physics that had a benefit with this technology, we can highlight the calculation of the solids' electronic structure. Using the first principles method, LMTO (Linear Muffin-Tin Orbital) with the ASA (Atomic Sphere Approximation) approximation, we will study the band structure in the magnetic multilayers. The choice of these methods was based on two aspects: (a) The computer available to perform the job; a CRAY super computer that belongs to the Supercomputer National Center. Because the LTMO method presents good vectorization, it allows us to perform calculations with many atoms in the unitary cell, which would be too difficult with a smaller computer. (b) The fact that the LMTO method already presented good results in studies like intermetallic alloys and of iron nitride substituted.",signatures:"A.V. dos Santos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49250",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49250",authors:[{id:"174020",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Dos Santos",slug:"antonio-dos-santos",fullName:"Antonio Dos Santos"}],corrections:null},{id:"48995",title:"Mechanical Properties of the Thermal Barrier Coatings Made of Cobalt Alloy MAR-M509",doi:"10.5772/61100",slug:"mechanical-properties-of-the-thermal-barrier-coatings-made-of-cobalt-alloy-mar-m509",totalDownloads:1820,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This manuscript presents the microstructure, geometrical product specification, and results of scratch tests performed on the interlayer of thermal barrier coating (TBC) with Rockwell’s intender. The TBC was provided by depositing two layers, metallic interlayer and external ceramic layer, onto a plate coating made of cobalt alloy MAR-M509 in plasma spraying process.",signatures:"Zenon Aleksander Opiekun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48995",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48995",authors:[{id:"173839",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Zenon Aleksander",surname:"Opiekun",slug:"zenon-aleksander-opiekun",fullName:"Zenon Aleksander Opiekun"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3817",title:"Developments in Corrosion Protection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8ff86fac7ac8bce142fdc3c0e5a79f30",slug:"developments-in-corrosion-protection",bookSignature:"M. 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Cancer",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"500360b038bf8561a30993b0ccb6de91",slug:"advances-in-pancreatic-cancer",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6740.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"64823",title:"Introductory Chapter: Engineered Fabrics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82717",slug:"introductory-chapter-engineered-fabrics",body:'Engineered fabrics have become the need of present era because the application field of engineered fabrics have spread from automobile sector to aeronautics, marine to geo-engineering, sports items to packaging materials, etc., The present popularity of engineered fabrics is not an incident but it is a long journey which engineered fabrics have completed from triple layer fabrics to three-dimensional fabrics. Engineered fabrics also consists of solution-focused and custom-designed fabrics [1]. These products are also utilized in process industries outside of papermaking such as nonwovens, corrugators, building products, tannery and textile industries.
The growth of engineered fabrics is linked with application of both natural as well as manmade fibers. Engineered fabrics are becoming the base for various product developments for wide variety of applications [2]. Engineered fabrics are reaching to touch the 40–45% share of total fabric production in developed nations.
The supply chain of engineered fabrics follows a long route, starting from manufacturing and selection of appropriate fiber to manufacturing of specialty fabrics for engineering applications [3].
Although, the financial importance and justification of engineered fabrics spreads from conventional textile industry to almost all facets of human life still investors and manufacturers are not getting enough confidence to expand the production capacity at large scale. In spite of all these challenges, the field of engineered fabrics is very promising and only need to keep freshness in product development for better end uses.
Engineered fabrics cannot be developed by using only one type specialty fiber, yarn, weave and finish. This chapter belongs to consider various factors: commercial, technical and global which are major driving forces of this industry. Engineered fabrics have got attention from both side of Atlantic but China has registered remarkable growth in this sector and India is emerging at slow pace [4].
The engineered fabrics are used as raw material to serve various segments of technical textiles viz., agrotech, buildtech, cosmetotextiles, clothtech, hometech, indutech, mobiltech, sportech, packtech, meditech, protech, and others. The automobile textiles (mobiltech) segment is demanding highest amount of engineered fabrics followed by industrial textiles (Indutech). Various types of engineered fabrics like spacer fabrics, multilayer fabrics, needle punched nonwoven fabrics, melt blown nonwoven fabrics and warp knitted fabrics are highly demanded by various sectors of technical textiles [5].
The engineered fabrics are able to cater the needs of wide spectrum of present market starts from awnings, airbags, automobile filters, floor covering, fabrics used in erosion suppression, hoses, road construction, safety belts, thermal and sound insulation and upholstery, etc. Engineered fabric manufacturing industry is already established in strong position in China, India, Korea, Thailand and Taiwan. The engineered fabric market is continued to grow in coming years also. The growth of automobile, industrial sector and infrastructure sector are the major driving forces for engineered fabrics [6]. Being the world’s second largest producer of textiles and apparel, India’s engineered fabrics manufacturing sector is also growing at fast rate and creating both direct and indirect employment. The textile and garment industry is the root of Indian economy which provided employment to 105 million citizens. Indian textile industry will grow up to $223 billion by 2021 in which engineered fabric’s sector will play major role. High transportation and energy cost and lack of labor reforms are some major hurdles in traditional Indian textile industry which force to shift its focus from conventional textile to engineered textiles. Export of engineered textiles is increasing with annual growth rate of 18%. Now, Government of India developed new policies for rapid growth of industry which will make remarkable change in engineered textiles. There are few steps taken to promote the engineered fabric manufacturing in India.
Market development support to stabilize both domestic and international markets
Investment promotion
Exemption in custom duty for raw materials
Implementation of uniform goods and service tax across the country
Establishing standards for various types of engineered fabrics.
The Engineered fabrics are defined as “The fabrics which are produced by some modified fabric manufacturing techniques than conventional for unconventional engineering applications”. Various critics and scientists will coin some other definitions in future also but the basic theme of engineered fabric may remain unchanged. Basically the engineered fabrics covers the 2D, 3D fabrics, belts, braided items, aerospace automotive textiles, industrial textiles, high performance textiles, etc. [7, 8].
The engineered fabrics can be comparable with composite materials also where two materials having different nature are combined together to extract the merits of both the materials in a single product, similarly two or more than two types of fibers, yarns, weaves or laying techniques are combined to engineer the targeted fabric [9]. In fact at this stage it is safe to say that any effort to define the engineered fabrics will prove insufficient because the development in this sector is in neonatal stage.
Since decades of years technical textiles was widely used to explain the unconventional textiles which includes bunch of fibers, ropes, cabled yarns, woven and nonwoven fabrics, finished fabrics, stitched textiles, etc. The term technical textiles is used to encompass all textile products other than those intended for apparel, household and furnishing end-uses, however, the term “engineered fabrics” is limited to various woven, nonwoven, knitted and braided fabrics manufactured by some unorthodox manufacturing techniques for special engineering applications. Various fabrics engineered for specific applications like medical, hygiene, sporting, transportation, construction, agricultural and many other purposes [10].
Engineered fabrics are used to provide the base for filters, machine clothing, conveyor belts, abrasive substrates, geofabrics, fabrics for acoustic and thermal insulation, etc. It is essential to mention that the composite materials made of polymeric membrane as reinforcing material with matrices, highly loose structured materials such as chopped strand mat, milled glass and pulped organic fibers cannot become the part of engineering fabrics [11].
Various natural fibers have enough potential to become the part of engineered fabrics. The major natural fibers have been used as basic material in engineered fabrics is cotton, flax, jute and sisal. These fiber are used to manufacture various heavy engineered fabrics like canvas, needle punched nonwoven fabrics for geo applications, ropes, belts and other multilayer fabrics, etc. [12]. However, some limitations of these fibers restricted the growth in engineered fabrics in which higher rigidity, prone to fungal and microbial attack; poor water resistance and lower flame retardancy are remarkable. Jute is cheaply available fiber which has ample potential to be used in engineered fabrics in gray and treated form. Sisal fiber is suitable material for ropes, nets and twines manufacturing [13].
Wool is another natural option with merits of higher limiting oxygen index value, thermal insulation but its limited availability and versatility has restricted its applications in engineered fabrics [14]. Silk fiber is another rare option for engineered fabrics due to its low availability and higher cost [15].
First commercially manufactured manmade fiber developed 1905–1910, is still suitable material for manufacturing engineered fabrics like tyre cords, preforms for conveyer belts and hoses, etc. Some other regenerated fibers like acetate rayon and cuprammonium rayon also have found its place in engineered fabrics [16].
Polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) are two major fibers of this group which have registered its valuable presence in the manufacturing of engineered fabrics. Low density, easy manufacturing techniques, high moisture and abrasion resistance have secured its rapid growth in engineered fabrics. The major engineered fabrics made of these fibers are used to manufacture bags, carpet bases, furniture linings, sacks, nets and other marine textiles. PP Fiber has good wicking with poor moisture absorption potential and this characteristic make this fiber appropriate for use in engineering of high performance diapers. The PP fiber has low spinning temperature (210–220°C) have proved ideally suited material for meltblowing and spun bonding techniques to manufacture engineered nonwoven structures quickly [17].
Polyamide fiber group containing various nylon fibers like nylon 6, nylon 66, nylon 6.10, etc. have good abrasion resistance, high strength, remarkable elasticity and excellent impact absorbing potential proved very useful in manufacturing various engineered items like parachute fabrics, spinnaker sails, reinforced tyres and geofabrics for high performance road construction. Western Europe and North America are more strongly inclined towards nylon 66 while Asia and Eastern Europe produce predominantly nylon 6 [18].
Polyester is low cost fiber with plenty of merits like high abrasion resistance, high strength, low moisture regain and excellent uniformity. Recycled polyester fiber is another cost effective alternative fiber for manufacturing of engineered fabrics like spun bonded structures, needle punched structures, etc. [19]. A modified polyester fiber is used widely in manufacturing of flame retardant fabrics, waterproof breathable fabrics and canvas fabrics.
Glass fiber was very difficult handle for many years, been one of the most underutilized fibers. This fiber is used in various engineered nonwoven structures to be considered as a cheap insulating material and reinforcement preforms for relatively low performance composites like fiber glass and heat-resistant materials. The applications of glass fiber increasing day by day in the form of engineered structures for sealing materials, rubber reinforcement, as well as filtration, protective clothing, packaging metal body parts and components [20]. Some ceramic fibers have found limited applications in engineered structures due its high cost and poor bending performance.
Successful polyamide-imide fiber was produced by Rhone-Poulenc Inc. with a trade name of Kermel. The limiting oxygen index (LOI) of Kermel fiber is 32. It remains safe without any degradation up to 250°C for a exposure of 500 h to heat. This fiber does not have melting temperature Tm but is carbonize. Kermel fiber can be blend successfully with other commercial fibers like viscose and polyester. A wide variety of engineered fabrics with Kermel fiber can be produced for air forces, army, navy and firefighter dresses [21].
The PBI fiber was invented by Celanese Inc. This fiber is highly stable at 300–350°C. Its limiting oxygen index (LOI) value is 41, which is quite safe and higher than threshold value 25. This fiber offer equal heat protection to asbestos with half density. It has moisture regain. The PBI fiber based engineered fabrics are used as reinforcing material to produce fire protection in aircraft seats, firefighter suits and racing-car driver suits. It found its smart applications in in rocket motors and boosters to provide safety against ignition [22]. The engineered fabrics made of PBI fibers offer excellent resistant to puncturing, tearing and ripping.
Phenolic or novoloid fibers fiber is manufactured by spinning and postcuring of phenol formaldehyde resin precondensate. Kynol is a well-established novoloid heat-resistant fiber of GUN EI chemical industry. Kynol fiber is golden in color, soft feel with moisture regain of 6%. It slowly carbonized at very high temperature without any smoke. It has poor strength and abrasion resistance which suppresses it application in apparel sector. It can be easily blended with aramid fibers like nomex to make it suitable for flame retardant apparel applications. Philene is another important fiber member of this group with moisture regain of 7.3% and LOI 39% [23].
The modacrylic fiber still has first choice of manufacturers to engineer flame-retardant fabrics. Modacrylic fibers are produced under various commercial names, such as SEF (Solutia Inc.), Velicren FR (Montefibre, Italy), Elura (Monsanto Fibers), Dynel (Union Carbide) and Verel (Tennessee Eastman). Modacrylic fiber and is a copolymer of acrylonitrile, vinyl chloride or vinylidene chloride in the ratio of 60:40 (w/w) along with a sulfonated vinyl monomer. Modacrylic fiber has LOI in the range of 26–31%. Kaneka Corporation has also developed Kanecaron, an FR modacrylic with an LOI value in the range of 30–35%. Fabrics from Kanecaron with commercial name of Protex M has LOI 33% blended with cotton, while maintaining the softness and comfort similar to cotton fabric.
Engineered fabrics are textile materials manufactured primarily for technical and functional performances. Most of the engineered fabrics are manufactured by assembly of fibers, yarns and/or strips of material which have a very high surface area in comparison to their thickness and have sufficient mechanical strength. Engineered fabrics are commonly manufactured by weaving, knitting, felting, lace making, nonwoven processes, net making and tufting or a combination of these processes. Most of the engineered fabrics are two dimensional structures but recently three-dimensional structures have become very popular structure in this segment. The knitted structure consist one set of thread, woven consist two set of threads in the form of warp and weft but three-dimensional structure consist three set of threads: warp, weft and stuffer thread.
The two dimension engineered fabrics consists various weaves in which plain and leno weaves are widely used. There are some others weaves which can be proved functionality in engineered fabrics. All threads do not follow the straight path in woven structures and consist a crimp [24].
The simplest weave to manufacture engineered fabrics is plain weave which is produced by alternatively lifting and lowering one warp thread across one weft thread. The performance of engineered fabrics has plain weave will depend type of fiber used: either staple or filament, type of yarn: flat, textured and twisted, yarn linear density and fabric set. The bending rigidity of engineered fabrics depends on the stiffness of the raw materials used and by the twist factor of the yarn and thread density in woven fabric [25]. Amount of twist in constituent yarns of engineered fabrics is used to impart specific features like extensibility, surface roughness and texture, etc. By changing the areal density (fabric grams per square meter, GSM) and cover factor affect the abrasion resistance, dimensional stability, filtration potential, porosity, stiffness, strength and thickness of engineered fabrics can be altered [26]. Square sett plain woven fabrics that are fabrics have nearly the constant number of ends and picks per unit space and warp and weft yarns of the same linear densities are produced with similar cover factors. Light weight plain woven fabrics with lower areal density and low cover factor with open weave construction are used as bandages and cheese cloths while highly open cloths are used in geotextile stabilization fabrics and heavy closely woven fabrics include cotton awnings.
Plain weave can be modified in the form of Rib and Matt weave. These weaves are produced when two or more than two adjoining warp or weft threads are considered as one unit and lifts or downs simultaneously. These weaves gives a higher cover factor, without jamming the weave structure [27].
Simple matt (or hopsack) woven fabrics offer a similar texture to plain woven fabric. The simplest matt weave is a 2/2 matt where two warp ends are lifted over two picks (unit of two warps and two weft act as a unit in plain weave). The unit of lifting threads can be increased to 3 or 4 to create 3/3 or 4/4 matt weave structures.
Some typical matt weaves, like a 4/2 matt, are produced to obtain special engineered effects.
Plain weave can be modified in another way in which either the ends or picks keeps more with higher crimp is called rib structure. If the number of ends is more than picks per unit length with high warp crimp, it is called as warp rib and vice versa for weft rib fabrics [28].
Almost all two-dimensional woven structures have been developed from plain weave fabrics in which warp and weft yarns are interlaced at 90° or at nearly 90°. The triaxial fabrics are the only exception, where two sets of warp yarns are generally inserted at 60° to the weft. In case of tetra-axial fabrics, four sets of yarns are inserted at 45° to each other. Triaxial fabrics are manufacturing on commercial machines. The first triaxial weaving machines were developed by the Barber Colman Co. and further developed by Howa Machinery Ltd., Japan. Triaxial fabrics can be defined as set of threads where the three sets of threads form a multitude of equilateral triangles in which two sets of warp yarn are interlaced at 60° with each other and with the weft. The tearing and bursting strength of triaxial fabrics is remarkable higher than conventional fabrics. The shear rigidity of triaxial fabrics remains superior due to locked intersection points. Triaxial woven engineered fabrics have found a wide range of technical applications in, balloon fabrics, pressure receptacles, sailcloths, tyre fabrics and laminated structures [29].
Three-dimensional woven engineered fabrics are produced to enhance the strength, thickness, extensibility, porosity and durability in woven engineered fabrics.
The performance of 3D woven fabrics can be engineered by making some alteration in weave used, the thread spacing, raw materials structure (filament or staple), linear density (or count) and twist factors of the warp and weft yarns. There are countless possibilities in 3D woven engineered fabrics to manufacture engineered fabrics of desired properties [5].
Engineered fabrics manufacturing processes: the essential operations in the weaving of a cloth are:
Shedding, i.e. the separation of the warp threads into two (or more) sheets according to a pattern to allow for weft insertion
Weft insertion (picking)
Beating-up, i.e. forcing the pick, which has been inserted into the shed, up to the fell of the cloth (line where the cloth terminates after the previous pick has been inserted).
Secondary motions are incorporated to make the provision for the supply of warp and weft warp yarns and for the cloth. The warp yarn is usually supplied from warp beam(s) and the weft yarn from the pirn on shuttle looms only or cones on shuttles looms. Most of the single phase weaving machines uses same kind of motions and an almost horizontal warp sheet between the back rest and the front rest. Such kind of system is utilized in common shuttle looms, rapier looms, projectile looms, air jet looms and water jet looms [30].
It is difficult to define the nonwoven fabrics because country wise definitions of nonwoven are available which have very poor coherence with other. However the most acceptable definition was coined by the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM D 1117-80). Although this definition solved the limited purposes to define the nonwoven. The nonwoven fabrics can be redefine as “A nonwoven textile structure can be produced by bonding, interlocking, intermingling, pressing of textile fibers or in combination by means of mechanical, chemical or thermal techniques and their combinations by shortening of conventional fabric manufacturing processes” . The nonwoven fabric manufacturing can be divided into two sections. The first section is dedicated for fiber web manufacturing and second section for bonding or interlocking of constituent fibers, the layering of various webs one over another in various fashions which decides the nonwoven structure properties up to major extent is called batt. The batt is subjected to bonding or interlocking process for final product manufacturing [31].
The main objective of carding process is individualization of fibers after removing short fibers up to some extent but the carding machines for nonwoven batt production have some modifications like two cylinders in place of one in conventional cards. In case of nonwoven engineered fabric production carding process is nearly final process because after carding the chances of fiber blending goes to zero. Generally short-staple revolving flat cards are most suitable for nonwoven industry due to its high opening potential with high production rate. These cards are equipped with autoleveller facility to improve the uniformity in mass per unit length of web. The card web has very low web density and high degree of variation in mass per unit length which is not suitable to be used directly in a nonwoven. There are three main way to lay the web during batt formation: parallel laying, cross laying and bias laying [32].
The parallel laying is the basic, cheapest and simplest way of batt formation. In this system numbers of cards are situated one above another or side by side slightly above the main conveyor belt. The webs from each card came down onto the batt forming conveyor lattice with number of times (number equals to the card numbers) the mass per unit area. The card webs are turned through a right angle with the help of a guide which turns the web at 45°. These techniques provide maximum number of fiber lying along the batt direction which is called machine direction and very few remains across the batt direction. This type of web can be converted to engineered nonwoven fabric by opting anyone way of either bonding or entanglement. The strength of bond in parallel laid nonwoven remains less than individual fiber strength. The parallel laying process suits to manufacture narrow tapes and medical textiles while cross laying suits to filter and wipe fabrics. However randomized doffer cards neutralize the situation up to major extent by distributing the fibers randomly together with ‘scrambling rollers’. Both parallel laid and cross laid laying shows anisotropic behavior, however by combining both parallel laying and cross laying isotropic nonwoven structures are engineered.
The final width of nonwoven engineered structure is a challenge and it can be overcome by combining various laying techniques [32].
In order to result cross laying of webs to form batt, the cards are kept at right angles to the main conveyor lattice M and the card web is moved backwards and forwards across the main moving conveyor lattice.
The speed of main conveyor lattice is kept slow to accommodate many layers of card web in desired order. The cross laying systems suffers with two major problems; first, this system prone to form heavier batt at the edge due to overlapping. This issue can be solved by moving the of direction of batt at the edge of lattice. The second is to match the input speed of cross laying with card web speed. Generally input speed remains less and card web speed must reduce to match with input speed.
This technique of batt formation is influenced by paper making industry. The fibers are dispersed into water and water content is kept sufficient to prevent fiber aggregation. This system promotes the blending of fibers and laying them successfully. Wood pulps can also be blended with fibers to form the batt. This system is suitable to the batt of wooden pulp and fibers used in sanitary napkin manufacturing. The wet-laid batt is used in some other disposable engineered products like drapes, gowns, sometimes as sheets, as one-use filters, and as coverstock in disposable nappies [33].
This technique of batt formation offers shortest route. This includes extrusion of the filaments from extruder, drawing the filaments and laying them in the form of batt. At the same time bonding also takes place which makes this process very economic from polymer to fabric manufacturing cost point of view. Initially, this process was developed for large scale production but at present small size machines are available to cater the need of small scale manufacturers. Initially polyester and polypropylene fibers were spun-laid but presently polyamide and polyethylene fibers can also be processed on this system. The microfiber technology also integrated with this system which enhanced the versatility to produce finer, softer and better filtration engineered fabric structures. The process starts from feeding of polymer chips into extruder which feeds the molten mass of polymer to a metering pump and then to a group of spinnerets which quenched further for quick solidification. The drawing process is assisted by hot air blowing in this system. The fiber orientation is controlled by both the direction of filament delivery tube and conveyor belt to assure uniform distribution of fibers [34].
The air-laying system is capable to offer the desired batt in single stroke at high speed without first making lighter weight web and then by laying. The fiber opening potential of this system is limited and needs ample pre-opening before feed to air laying system. This system consist opening and blending section in back of feed hopper which is used to deliver fiber sheet to the feed rollers. The fibers are then taking-off by consist fine wire metallic clothing on its surface, revolves at high speed. Some optional stripping rollers may attach to enhance the opening potential of the system. The opened fibers are removed by powerful air stream from opening cylinder surface. The air stream carries the fibers to cage like conveyor lattice to form the final batt [35].
The melt blowing process is another very promising method of manufacturing very fine deniers. This system produces fibers without the use of fine orifice spinnerets at high production rate. In this arrangement polymer is melted and extruded normally as other melt extrusion processes but through relatively large spinneret orifices. After complete melting, filtration, polymer melt extrude out from spinneret orifices it directly comes in the contact of very high temperature (above the melting temperature of polymer, Tm) hot air stream which assist in filament stretching up to maximum extent. The staple fibers of very fine deniers produced in this way are collected on the surface of permeable conveyor to form a batt as in air laying and spun laying.
Bonding is rarely required here and in most of the cases the melt-blown batt is laminated on another nonwoven structure (may be a spun-laid or the melt-blown batt). This type of laminated engineered fabric is used to engineer breathable protective clothing for use in agriculture hospitals and industry. These structures are useful as battery separators, industrial wipes and clothing interlinings with good insulation properties also. If melt blown layered structure is not bonded and directly collected as nonwoven batt then it is used as ultrafine filters for air conditioning and personal face masks, oil-spill absorbents and personal hygiene products. This technique is growing with 10% annual growth rate [36].
Chemical bonding is the process of sticking fibers of batt by treating/modifying either a specific area of batt or whole batt. A variety of bonding agents/adhesives are available in which acrylic latex, styrene butadiene lattices and vinyl acetate latex are the major one. The bonding agent must have ample wettability otherwise it can be maintained by adding appropriate amount of surfactants [37]. After judicious application of bonding agent, the batt is dried then to remove aqueous component and making proper bonding among the fibers of that localized region. Finally, the treated batt is cured at higher temperature to develop crosslinks both inside and between the polymer particles at 120–140°C for 2–4 min.
This technique of bonding is tagged as eco-friendly because the application of any kind of chemical is negligible. Productivity of thermal bonding process remains higher than any other chemical bonding process. Thermal bonding process is energy efficient also because it saves the energy which consumes to evaporate water from the binder and curing. Thermal bonding strategy can be divided into three classes like in first all of the fibers of same type with common melting behavior, second; a blend of fusible (lower melting point) and non-fusible (either the higher melting point or non-melting fibers) fibers and third; by application of bi-component fiber in which one component is fusible and other component is non-fusible. The temperature is applied at a localized area with or without pressure to melt the fusible fiber component and to stick with non-fusible fibers [38].
In this technique latex binder is sprayed which act as bonding element to bind the fibers. There may be more number of spray cycles depending upon desired bonding extent and batt thickness because every spray cycle reduces the batt thickness up to some extent. These engineered fabrics can be used as raw material for hometech sector as quilt filling material, duvets and some typical type of filters [39].
In order to reduce the application of water in various bonding techniques which not only enhances the cost of manufacturing due to essential drying but also the risk of binder migration, the foam bonding is better alternate in this direction. A definite amount of compressed air is passed through binder solution to create foam and then it applied on both side of batt with the help of horizontal nip of the impregnating roller. Foam consist limited amount of binder and negligible water content which suits for targeted application for bonding point of view.
This technique is used to apply the binder on one or both side of batt to limited portion and in a set pattern. In order to assure penetration of binder well inside the batt, it is first impregnated with water and then binder is printed on batt in defined pattern either a printing roller or a rotary screen printer. The ratio of printed/unprinted area decides the ultimate properties of final nonwoven engineered fabric. The limited application of binder in print bonded fabric keeps fabric soft and pleasant feel. Print pattern and print content decides on the basis of type of fiber, fiber orientation and other properties of fibers used in the batt. Print-bonded fabrics have found its application in disposable/protective clothing, coverstock and wiping cloths.
Powder bonding technique is based on the application of thermoplastic powders alternate to thermoplastic fibers. Rest processes remain similar to thermobonding. The powder bonded engineered fabrics show better flexibility and softness with poor bonding strength. These structures are used in protective apparel and coverstock areas where high bulk is desired.
There are three methods of producing engineered fabric by fiber entanglements; needle punch, hydroentanglement and stitch bonding. These three methods are based on fiber entanglements and frictional behavior of fibers and conceptually known as mechanical bonding. Out of these three techniques needle punch is most popular and simplest one [40].
The concept of needle punching is quite clear and simple. In this method the batt is passes between two stationary plates, the bed and stripper plates. While between the plates the batt is penetrated. The needle density remains up to about 4000 m−1 width of the loom. The design of penetrating needle plays major role in fiber entanglement. Needles are generally made triangular in shape and have barbs cut into the three. As the needle goes down into the batt the barbs traps some fibers and pull them through the other fibers to get it entangled.
When the needles return back in upward direction, the fiber loops formed during downward movement of needles tend to remain in position, because they are released by the barbs. This downward penetration of needles takes place repeatedly which makes the batt much denser and finally needle punched structure manufactured [41].
The hydroentanglement process of engineered fabrics manufacturing was developed by DuPont in 1960. This process is quite similar to needle punch process. This technique is used to entangle the fibers of lightweight batt. In this process very fine nozzles are used to inject the water in the form of fine water streams or droplets. Number of fine nozzles is situated at the edges of batt. The water stream passes through the perforated screen to remove the used water. The fiber which come in the contact of water get wetted and its total momentum goes compare to other fibers and these fibers get entangles with other fibers of the batt. Water cleanliness, pH and temperature are critical issues to be taken care during the manufacturing. This process is capable to produce engineered fabrics for wipes, surgical gowns, disposable protective clothing and backing fabrics for coating applications [42].
Weaving is most popular promising technique of engineered fabric manufacturing. Presently shuttle looms are obsolete and out of the international manufacturing scene.
Rapier was the first concept that successfully replaced the shuttle weft insertion system. First generation of Rapier looms did not get commercial acceptance due to its very low speed. With the invention and introduction of precision engineering and microprocessor controls, the weft insertion rates have increased remarkably.
The Rapier loom of 2.5 m width has close competition with projectile loom. The single rapier looms are rigid rapier slow speed looms. However, the invention of double rapier has increased the commercial acceptability because wide variety of threads can be processed on these looms. Both rapier enter from both extreme end of reed and meet at the middle of cloth width to transfer the weft thread from one rapier to other rapier. Rapier looms have two weft insertion systems; one is Gabler and other is Dewas system. In case of Gabler weft insertion system weft is inserted alternately from both sides of the machine [43].
The weft thread is cut every second pick with hairpin selvedges being formed alternately on both selvedges but weft is inserted from one end of rapier loom in Dewas system. Dewas system is dominating now a days and most of the looms has weft feeding system on one side. Double rapier weaving machines may have either the rigid or flexible rapiers. Dornier HTV and P19 series Rapier looms are capable of weaving most of the industrial fabrics with weft linear densities of up to 3000 tex, in loom widths of up to 4600 mm and at weft insertion rates of up to 1000 m min−1. Rapier looms are used widely to manufacture wide range of engineered fabrics starts from opencoated geotextile mesh, heavy conveyor belt cloths, home textiles, and canvas and furnishing items. Rapier looms are most suitable weaving machines to carry and run Jacquard shedding device.
The first projectile weaving machine was based on single projectile which had provision to strike the projectile from each side of the loom. This machine had weft supply system from both side of the loom. The latest projectile looms have multiple projectiles which are stroked from one side and are returned back to the picking position with the help of a conveyor belt. The contribution of Sulzer Textile to develop projectile loom and enhanced its versatility in terms of improved weft insertion rates, machine efficiency and extended the range of fabrics manufactured is unforgettable. Projectile loom offers facility to use a winding cone directly without rewinding which saves cost and time both. The length of standard projectile is 90 mm with 40 g weight. The weft thread is withdrawn from weft supply cone through a weft brake and a weft tensioning device to the weft feeder which places it into the gripper of the projectile [44].
A torsion rod system is used for picking which transfers the maximum possible strain-energy to the projectile before it leaves the picker shoe. The strain energy can be adjusted by changing the position of torsion bar. Sulzer Textil redesigned the reed of projectile loom which offer more effective and strong beat-up. A weft insertion speed of 1300 m min−1 can be achieved on 3600 mm reed width machine. Latest projectile looms are capable to insert six color weft threads, fancy threads and wide variety of material from fine polyester to coarse woolen threads successfully. The machines can be equipped with a variety of shedding mechanism like dobby and jacquard. Machine performance can be monitored with microprocessors. Sulzer Ruti and Jäger are two major manufactures of projectile loom. Jäger have developed a hydraulically propelled projectile loom. Projectile looms are capable to weave wide variety of engineered fabrics of up to 8 m width, for awnings, airbags, conveyor belts, geotextiles, sailcloth, tyre cord fabrics, and a wide variety of filter fabrics of varying area density and air permeability.
The major aim of product development in woven fabric is to engineer new fabric structures having the most appropriate properties to achieve a high level of performance with suitable quality. In air jet loom weft thread is accelerated and passes through the shed by the flow impedance between the flowing compressed air and the weft. The energy creating from compressed air supplied from the compressed air tank to the air-nozzles reserves the kinetic energy in the nozzle, which accelerates and passes the weft through the shed. The compressed air leaving the nozzle combines with atmospheric air, it disperses, and the axial speed of compressed air drops quickly as it moves away from the nozzle. Therefore, in order to achieve wider loom width on air-jet loom, the compressed air speed must be maintained up to carry the weft thread. Three different systems have been adopted by commercial air jet loom manufacturers: single nozzle with confusor guides, multiple nozzles with guides and multiple (relay) nozzles with tunnel reed. Multiphase weaving machines have also adopted air-jet weaving concept. At present, the air-jet looms are very versatile and capable to process wide variety of weft threads. Hence, it become most suitable machine for engineered fabric manufacturing with weft insertion speed of 1000–2500 m min−1 [45].
Designing and promotion of engineered fabrics is remarkable challenge in this sector. The conclusions can be arranged under following points:
Protectionist policies of some countries are creating big hurdles in free flow of investment, technology and engineered fabrics products
Lack of automation and dependency on conventional fabric manufacturing machineries
Lack of skilled worker
Lack of promotion of engineered fabrics
There are enough potential of growth in engineered fabrics because the areas of applications are countless
Engineered fabrics have found its place from inside the earth, deep under sea to high in the sky.
Moisture management properties of knit fabrics are important factors for deciding not only the comfort but also the performance of functional clothing like active wear, inner wear and sportswear. Comfort refers to the way clothing interacts with the body, with respect to dissipation of heat and moisture generated by the metabolic processes [1, 2]. During normal activity, human body loses heat by conduction, convection as well as radiation processes. Under normal condition, body cools itself by insensible perspiration where water vapour is lost from the body. When heat generation is excessive, the body breaks into a sweat or liquid moisture, also known as sensible perspiration [3]. Those properties such as smoothness of the fabric surface, air permeability, heat transmittance, hydrophilicity, knit structure, and the presence of a bio-finish influence the comfort characteristics of the knitted fabric. Active sportswear is mostly made of polyester knitted fabrics. Polyester with a modified cross section like hexachannel in coolmax gives more comfort due to its rapid liquid transmission and drying [4].
Moisture management properties of fabrics are influenced by various constructional parameters of the fabric which give knit fabric a porous structure. Total porosity of a knit fabric comprises two types of porosity, viz. micro porosity caused by void spaces among the fibres in the yarns and the macro porosity, which is a consequence of void spaces among the yarns. The air permeability, UV transmission and screen printing depend on the macro porosity; absorption of liquids and capillary phenomenon depend on micro porosity; and thermal resistance and water vapour permeability of fabric depends on both micro- and macro porosity [5, 6]. Interaction of liquids with textile materials involve several physical phenomenon such as wetting of fibre surface, transport of liquid into assembly of fibres, adsorption on the surface or diffusion of liquid into the interiors of fibres, Evaporation of sweat during wear has the potential to cool the body besides restricting the additional weight of sweat being absorbed by the fabric [7].
Moisture is transported in textiles through capillary action or wicking. In textiles, the spaces between the fibres effectively form tubes, which act as capillaries, and transport the liquid away from the surface. The liquid moisture management performance of fabrics results from complex properties including their absorbent capacity, absorption rate, and evaporation [8, 9]. This observed that the water and moisture transmission process is controlled by the water vapour pressure gradient across the inner and outer faces of the fabric. The resistance to diffusion was governed by the fabric construction, i.e. the size and concentration of inter yarn pores and the fabric thickness. The efficiency of yarn wicking depends on the surface tension, i.e., wet ability of the fibre surfaces and on the size, volume and number of capillary spaces was determined by the choice of yarn and fabric construction [10]. The length of time for a fabric to dry depends mainly upon the amount of initial liquid water retained by the fabric per unit area for evaporation. Also, the drying process seems to be related to capillary penetration and porosity of the fabrics. The most significant influence of fibre properties was believed to be the manner in which fibre shape and surface reflect increased or decreased capillarity of the fabric, which in turn causes and enhanced or diminished water uptake on wetting and water retention on drying [11]. The noted finish on a fabric is the most important consideration when developing a dynamic fabric system, as the initial uptake of water depends on the presence of a hydrophilic finish on the fabric surface. This initial uptake is the rate-determining step of the wicking action and a hydrophilic surface finish enhances the moisture management capabilities of fabrics [12, 13].
Antimicrobial finish is manly important role play for the active or sportswear fabrics. The present time is more demand all textile products in better antimicrobial performances. Antimicrobial treatment apply on fabric surface are basically more reduces cross infection, microbial bacteria and skin infections like fungi and increases the performance of sports person infections [14].
Duration the sports activity is more generated sweat and temperature for this condition get for more growth bacteria. This bacteria and fungi cause loss for sports activity performance, ageing, staining, unpleasant odours and potential skin infections.
The basically is during the sports activity generated sweat and increases temperature. In this condition are increase bacteria. This bacteria and fungi cause loss for sports activity performance, ageing, staining, unpleasant odours and potential skin.
Recently some year now, in active sportswear clothing are used for basically fashionable with more comfort performance. Active sportswears are one of the most lucrative segments within knits apparel. Performance of the clothing helps to remain cool, comfort and dry through the moisture management, thermal performance and other techniques. Polyester based knit has come up as a favourite for the performance of the apparel and also it can be engineered to wick transport moistures away from the body for the users’ comforts.
The polyester is most common fibre used in active or sportswear cloths. Other fibres are used for active wear cloth like cotton, cotton-polyester, nylon-spandex, polyester- spandex, polypropylene and wool blend. Fibre crossection mainly used in active or sportswear cloth like irregular cross section and hollow structures fibre used [15]. Now it is more use blend with natural fibre in case for active wear cloths because improved thermo physiological performances. The basically fibre use sportswear clothing are mention in following (Table 1).
Polyester | Nylon (Polyamide) | Polypropylene | Lycra/Elastane | Cotton |
---|---|---|---|---|
Strong | Strong | Strong | Medium strength | Strong |
Non absorbent | Non absorbent | Non absorbent | Not very absorbent | absorbent |
Crease resistant | Crease resistant | Crease resistant | Crease resistant | Crease easily |
Durable hard wearing | Durable hard wearing | Durable hard wearing | Durable so hard wearing | Durable |
Elastic so stretches | Elastic so stretches | Elastic so stretches | Very elastic So stretches well | Not Very elastic so does not stretch |
Not very warm to wear | Not very warm to wear | Not very warm to wear | To make a stretchy & fitting fabric | Cool to wear |
Basically fibre used in active sportswear cloths.
The textile materials are basically used in all sports as active or sportswear, games like for athletic clothing, football-cricket clothing, jackets, pants, shirts, shorts, socks, sweatshirts, swimwear and tennis clothing.
Plan prerequisites of dynamic and execution athletic apparel have delivered architects with abilities and information in illustrations, materials and style to imagine tastefully satisfying and ergonomically practical reaches which exploit the most recent advances in utilitarian and ‘shrewd’ materials [16]. Driving style fashioners have rushed to understand that the presentation has really become the feel in athletic apparel. It is the fabrics and innovation that set the precedent. Fuse of microfibres, breathable boundary fabrics, inventive stretch materials, shrewd materials, intelligent materials, for example, stage change materials and shape-memory polymers, and wearable innovation as a piece of the useful plan framework in active apparel, will get standard in the item improvement measure.
The development of new materials and designs for active or sportswears cloths has produced an exceptionally aggressive market for sports cloths design. The desires of customers for active wear sport and sportswear are concert, protection and comfort associated. The basically are all activewear cloths need for light weight, more durable, fast absorbing performance, heat- liquid regulating materials mainly used for functional design sportswear (Tables 2–7).
Single jersey | Rib | Interlock |
---|---|---|
High extensible in length & width | Excellent width elasticity | Width wise stretch |
The fabric has tendency to curl. | No tendency to curl | No tendency to curl |
Use for sportswear & undergarment | Use for sportswear & collar, cuffs, socks | Shorts, tops & sports, technical textile |
Commercially use knitted structure for active sportswear.
Requirements | Mechanisms | Role of material designing |
---|---|---|
|
| Designing of sportswear based on the knowledge of textile properties and construction, along with the characteristics of other materials (E.g. membrane, coatings etc.), in combination. |
Designing process for active sportswear cloths.
Functional properties | Aesthetic properties | Other properties |
---|---|---|
Light weight, high tenacity, more stretch ability, thermal preservation, Antimicrobial- UV resistance, more cooling capacity, more sweat absorption, quickly drying performance, liquid-vapour permeability and moisture management performances basically are requirement. | Feeling of softness, surface texture, handle, shine, colour discrepancy, transparency and comfort in sports wear are essential factors. |
Basic requirement for active sportswear cloths.
Properties | Yarn 1 | Yarn 2 |
---|---|---|
Type | Polyester filament yarn | Nylon filament yarn |
Blend | 100% | 100% |
Yarn fineness (Denier) | 120 D | 120 D |
No. of filaments in cross-section | 75 | 75 |
Characteristics of yarn polyester and nylon.
Parameters | Polyester | Nylon |
---|---|---|
Breaking force (gf) | 623.2 | 646.3 |
Tenacity (g/tex) | 23.14 | 24.36 |
Elongation (%) | 13.85 | 14.70 |
Unevenness (%) | 14.92 | 13.86 |
Yarn quality parameters.
Sample & blend ratio | Polyester (100%) | Nylon (100%) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
GSM (g/m2) | 100 | 130 | 160 | 100 | 130 | 160 |
Wales Per cm | 22.04 | 17.32 | 22.04 | 22.44 | 22.04 | 21.25 |
Courses Per cm | 16.53 | 20.47 | 16.53 | 17.32 | 16.92 | 16.53 |
Stitch density (Loop/cm2) | 364.32 | 354.54 | 364.32 | 388.66 | 372.91 | 351.26 |
Loop length (mm) | 2.3 | 2.2 | 1.9 | 2.4 | 2.2 | 1.9 |
Count (Tex) | 10 | 15 | 21 | 9 | 14 | 21 |
Fabric geometrical characteristics.
Knitted fabric is commonly used as base layer for functionally active wear due to greater elasticity and stretch ability compared to woven cloth, which is very imperative for freedom of body movement in sports. The tactile sensations by clothing in direct contact with the wearer skin makes wearer more relaxed due to uneven surfaces provided by the knitted fabrics in comparison to smooth-surfaced woven cloth. In addition, the lesser number of contact points of fabric with skin results in reduced clinging sensation during sweat-wetted skin [17].
The basic process implicated in heat and vapour transport is essential aspect which effects dynamic comfort of active wear garments. The basic phenomena heat can be transferred within active wear in the shape of conduction, convection, radiation and concealed heat transfer by vapour - liquid transport. Conduction, convection and radiation are overwhelmed by the temperature distinction between skin surface and climate and are thusly assembled as dry heat transfer. Then again, dormant heat transfer is accomplished by moisture transmission identified with water vapour pressure between the skin surface and the climate [18, 19, 20].
The active wear fabric layers can by heat transfer from conduction, convection, radiation and wind penetration mechanisms as shown in Figure 1.
The pathways for heat loss from the activities with human body.
The basic phenomena moisture form garment may be transfer in liquid- vapour form. In vapour structure extraordinary framework like diffusion, sorption, absorption, convection and condensation are included while if there should arise an occurrence of liquid structure wetting and wicking are two components which are for the most part happen as shown in Figure 2.
The pathways for moisture loss from the activities with human body.
There are various finishes which are being applied nowadays on fabrics to improve its moisture management behaviour. So here in this research work various combinations of knit activewear fabrics (Polyester and Nylon) with varying moisture management finish and antimicrobial finish have been studied for its improvement in moisture management behaviours and antimicrobial activities for the activewear garments.
In this study work, polyester and nylon yarn count range has kept constant 120 denier, The mesh interlock knit activewear fabrics has prepared on circular knitting machine. Two different knitted fabrics of 100% Polyester and 100% Nylon were used for the study with three different GSM (100, 130 and 160). The fabrics used are scoured, bleached and ready for dyeing (RFD) fabrics (Figures 3–5).
(a) Polyester fabric. (b) Nylon fabric.
Schematic diagram of MMT apparatus testing.
Schematic diagram of water vapour permeability tester equipment (left) and testing procedure (right).
The fabrics of different type and different GSM are finished with (i) Evo soft MMF finish, (ii) Evo AMF finish. In Evo soft MMF finish Silicone micro emulsion is done which increases the hydrophilic and moisture management characteristics of the fabric. Similarly AMF finish, antimicrobial cloth is used especially for activewear and leisure activities to feel clean and safe or to control malodour. Anti-microbial finished textile lowers down the psychological discomfort associated with foul odour arising out of microbial growth and by fungi causing skin infections which is an important aspect as human body sweats during various sports activities and the temperature of human body also increases, favouring microbial growth. They also create a powerful barrier against the spread of antibiotic resistant bacteria, which are responsible for medical infections in hospitals other activities.
Various finishes are applied on ready for dyeing fabrics, as per the following methodology. For treating the samples with MMF (i.e. to give moisture management finishing) solutions of 10 gpl and 20 gpl concentrations were prepared. For 10 gpl concentration, 10 gram of MMF was added to 1 gpl of acetic acid and 1 litter of water. Whereas, for 20 gpl concentration of finishing, 10 gram of MMF was added to 1 gpl of acetic acid and 1 litter of water. The same procedure was followed for preparing solution for other two finishes. Samples of dimension (25x 25) cm were prepared and treated with 100 ml of prepared solution by immersing it in the solution contained in a beaker for 10 minutes. Then the sample was taken out & sand with between two transparent sheets & was passed through the padding mangle to squeeze out the solution. The squeezed samples were dried at 150 0c for 1 minute in oven dryer. The same procedure was repeated for 2 samples for each level. The whole experimental work was carried out for 100, 130, 160 GSM 100% polyester and 100% Nylon knit fabrics. The variation in fabric geometrical characteristics after applying various finishes and their concentration (level) of finish is tabulated in the (Tables 8–10). Same processes applying antimicrobial finishes.
Fabric mass (g/m2) | Material | Fabric thickness (mm) | Air Permeability (Cm3/Cm2/Sec) | WVP (g/m2/day) | Rate of drying (mg/min*inch2) | Accumulative one-way transport index (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
100 | Polyester | 0.41 | 56.22 | 321.52 | 0.0963 | 321.52 |
Nylon | 0.40 | 55.26 | 396.90 | 0.0863 | 396.90 | |
130 | Polyester | 0.55 | 47.21 | 244.94 | 0.0757 | 244.94 |
Nylon | 0.47 | 45.87 | 293.41 | 0.0657 | 293.41 | |
160 | Polyester | 0.56 | 43.65 | 199.01 | 0.0635 | 199.01 |
Nylon | 0.49 | 41.25 | 189.32 | 0.0535 | 189.32 |
Vapour and liquid moisture management properties of standard samples without finish.
Fabric mass (g/m2) | Fabric | MMF finish conc. | Fabric thickness (mm) | Air Permeability (Cm3/Cm2/Sec) | WVP (g/m2/day) | Rate of drying (mg/min*inch2) | Accumulative one-way transport index (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
100 | Polyester | 10 | 0.43 | 57.65 | 1663.18 | 0.2381 | 241.094 |
20 | 0.40 | 57.12 | 1108.79 | 0.2536 | 196.201 | ||
Nylon | 10 | 0.42 | 56.23 | 2217.58 | 0.2181 | 283.41 | |
20 | 0.41 | 56.10 | 1563.38 | 0.2526 | 196.13 | ||
130 | Polyester | 10 | 0.56 | 49.26 | 1663.18 | 0.292 | 181.094 |
20 | 0.51 | 48.25 | 1523.12 | 0.363 | 162.667 | ||
Nylon | 10 | 0.48 | 47.25 | 1663.18 | 0.272 | 187.09 | |
20 | 0.46 | 46.45 | 1423.32 | 0.323 | 154.35 | ||
160 | Polyester | 10 | 0.57 | 44.56 | 1663.18 | 0.231 | 137.73 |
20 | 0.53 | 43.89 | 1109.16 | 0.323 | 106.52 | ||
Nylon | 10 | 0.51 | 43.58 | 1563.18 | 0.241 | 132.73 | |
20 | 0.50 | 42.87 | 1109.16 | 0.321 | 97.52 |
Influence of variation in (MMF) finish on moisture management properties of fabrics.
Fabric mass (g/m2) | Fabric | AMF finish conc. | Fabric thickness (mm) | Air Permeability (Cm3/Cm2/Sec) | WVP (g/m2/day) | Rate of drying (mg/min*inch2) | Accumulative one-way transport index (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
100 | Polyester | 10 | 0.42 | 57.15 | 2217.50 | 0.1794 | 176.39 |
20 | 0.41 | 55.12 | 2014.50 | 0.1802 | 156.29 | ||
Nylon | 10 | 0.44 | 55.13 | 2117.38 | 0.2182 | 298.41 | |
20 | 0.41 | 53.10 | 1663.28 | 0.2226 | 186.23 | ||
130 | Polyester | 10 | 0.56 | 50.23 | 2217.58 | 0.1612 | 135.49 |
20 | 0.52 | 48.15 | 1663.18 | 0.1708 | 98.87 | ||
Nylon | 10 | 0.48 | 49.35 | 1663.18 | 0.262 | 188.09 | |
20 | 0.47 | 46.45 | 1213.10 | 0.341 | 122.15 | ||
160 | Polyester | 10 | 0.55 | 44.56 | 2017.28 | 0.1371 | 96.29 |
20 | 0.52 | 43.89 | 1562.12 | 0.1402 | 61.82 | ||
Nylon | 10 | 0.53 | 42.58 | 1663.18 | 0.243 | 132.73 | |
20 | 0.51 | 41.87 | 1215.20 | 0.308 | 96.52 |
Influence of variation in antimicrobial (AMF) finish on moisture management properties of fabrics.
The knit fabric (Untreated and treated) samples were tested on SDL ATLAS M290 moisture management tester (MMT) according to AATCC test method 195–2009, 2011. The accumulative one-way transport index (OWTI) and the overall moisture management capacity (OMMC) measured by using the (Moisture management tester) MMT provide an insight about the liquid moisture transmission performance of fabrics. OWTC is the difference in the accumulative moisture content between the two surfaces of the fabric. OWTC reflects the one-way liquid transport capacity from the top (Inner next to the skin) to the bottom (Outer) surface of the fabric.
Dry rate testing was carried out using dry rate tester, which evaluates the weight of water evaporated in given time from the fabric. This device can be used independently to find a drying rate or in conjunction with the SDL Atlas Moisture Management Tester (MMT) in order to obtain a more complete understanding of the moisture management properties of a performance fabric. Sample size of 15 x 15 cm was used for the study, to which 2 ml water was added on its surface and allowed dry for required amount of time in the room conditions. The difference between initial and final weight gives the dry rate % of the fabric sample.
Water vapour permeability testing is carried out to determine the resistance of textiles and textile composites (Particularly action wear fabrics) to water vapour penetration using testing standard BS 3424. It was carried out in the water vapour permeability tester which consists of 8 containers with water reservoirs, a standard permeable fabric cover, sample holder ring and precision drive system. The water vapour permeability (WVP) of the fabric was calculated in g/m2/day is using the Equation (1).
where, M- Loss of the assembly over the time period t (in g).
T- Time between successive weightings’ of the assembly in hours.
A - Area of exposed test specimen (equal to the internal area of the test dish (in m2) in this case. A = 0.0054113 m2.
The surface of the coated fabrics was investigated using an SEM XL 30, Philips. According to SEM image confirm the impregnation of moisture management finish has used on the surface of the fabric. This can be also revealed from the SEM images of the moisture management finish shown as below Figures 6 and 7. I have used coating on the polyester fibre with a particle size ranging 10 nm. The similar trend has also found for the nylon fibre.
SEM images of untreated and treated polyester fabric with moisture management finishes.
SEM images of untreated and treated polyester fabric with moisture management finishes.
This can be also perceived from Figures 8 and 9 in SEM images at the uniform coating of the antimicrobial finishes on the polyester fabrics surface with a particle size ranging 10 nm. The similar trend has also found for the nylon.
SEM images of untreated and treated polyester with antimicrobial finish.
SEM images of untreated and treated polyester fabric with antimicrobial finish.
In case of 100% polyester fabric it can be observed from the Figure 10. That as the fabric GSM increases from 100 to 160 grams, the value of accumulative one-way transport index (OWTI) % decreases. It is due to the increase in the thickness of the fabric with the increase in GSM as shown on the Table 9. The increased thickness offers more restriction to the flow of moisture across the plane of fabric (reduced conductivity), which reduces the OWTI %. Also it was observed that the increased finishing concentration decreases the OWTI% of polyester fabric. It is due to the increased decreased pore size after finishing. HDS finish provides a surface finish on the fibre surface to increase its moisture management property. Since the finish is applied on the surface of the fibre, the fibre diameter increases and pore size decreases after finishing. The decreased pore size also decreases the air permeability of the fabric as shown in the Table 9. It can be seen that other fabric 100% Nylon also follows the similar trend but the rate of reduction in pore size and OWTI% was different for different fabrics. Basically the HDS softness to penetrate deeply into fibres with amorphous structure to create and increase core hydrophilicity and softness to the fabrics.
Effect of MMF finish concentration and GSM on OWTI% in polyester fabric.
In case of 100% polyester fabric it can be observed from the Figure 11. That as the fabric GSM increases from 100 to 160 grams, the value of drying rate increases. This is because of the increase in the thickness of the fabric with the increase in GSM. Increase in the thickness causes the water to spread in wider volume which causes the fabric to dry easily. Further with the increase of finish concentration level, drying rate increases. It is due to the blocking of pores of the fabric and so water remains on surface of the fabric not inside the pores and facilitating easy drying. It can be seen that other fabric 100% Nylon also follows the similar trend but the rate of increment is different due to its different physical properties than polyester.
Effect of MMF finishes concentration and GSM on rate of drying in polyester fabric.
In case of 100% polyester fabric it can be observed from the Figure 12. That as the fabric GSM increases from 100 to 160 grams, the value of water vapour permeability (WVP, gm/m2/day) decreases. It may be due to the increase in the thickness of the fabric with the increase in GSM. Further with the increase of finish concentration level, WVP decreases. It is due to the increase in the fabric thickness after finishing, blinding of the fabric structural pores and reduction in fabric porosity with the increase of finish level. This may also be attributed that the reason of blocking of natural capillary action of the fibre/fabrics softener (HDS) [13]. It can be seen that other fabric 100% Nylon also follows the similar trend but the rate of reduction is different.
Effect of MMF finish concentration, GSM on water vapour permeability in polyester fabric.
In case of 100% polyester fabric it can be observed from the Figure 13. That as the fabric GSM increases from 100 to 160 grams, the value of accumulative one-way transport index (OWTI) %decreases. It is due to the increase in the thickness of the fabric with the increase in GSM as shown on the Table 10. The increased thickness offers more restriction to the flow of moisture across the plane of fabric (reduced conductivity), which reduces the OWTI %. Also it was observed that the increased finishing concentration decreases the OWTI% of polyester fabric. It is due to the increased decreased pore size after finishing. PEH finish provides a surface finish on the fibre surface to increase its moisture management property. Since the finish is applied on the surface of the fibre, the fibre diameter increases and pore size decreases after finishing. The decreased pore size also decreases the air permeability of the fabric as shown in the Table 10. It can be seen that other fabric 100% Nylon also follows the similar trend but the rate of reduction in pore size and OWTI% was different for different fabrics.
Effect of AMF finish concentration and GSM on OWTI%% in polyester fabric.
In case of 100% polyester fabric it can be observed from the Figure 14. That as the fabric GSM increases from 100 to 160 grams, the value of drying rate increases. This is because of the increase in the thickness of the fabric with the increase in GSM. Increase in the thickness causes the water to spread in wider volume which causes the fabric to dry easily. Further with the increase of finish concentration level, drying rate increases. It is due to the blocking of pores of the fabric and so water remains on surface of the fabric not inside the pores and facilitating easy drying. It can be seen that other fabric 100% Nylon also follows the similar trend but the rate of increment is different due to its different physical properties than polyester.
Effect of AMF finish concentration and GSM on rate of drying in polyester fabric.
In case of 100% polyester fabric it can be observed from the Figure 15. That as the fabric GSM increases from 100 to 160 grams, the value of water vapour permeability (g/m2/day) decreases. It may be due to the increase in the thickness of the fabric with the increase in GSM. Further with the increase of finish concentration level, WVP decreases. It is due to the increase in the fabric thickness after finishing, blocking of pores of the fabric and reduction in fabric porosity with the increase of finish level [14]. It can be seen that other fabric 100% Nylon also follows the similar trend but the rate of reduction is different.
Effect of AMF finish concentration, GSM on water vapour permeability in polyester fabric.
In this research an attempt has made to study the influence of MMF and AMF finishes on the moisture management behaviour, dry rate performance, water vapour permeability properties on different knit activewear fabrics. Therefore from the various combinations of fabrics, GSM, finishes and finish concentration level the following conclusions are drawn:
The liquid and vaopur moisture management properties are much influenced by the GSM and finishing concentration. The moisture management property of the fabric was increased when the one way transport index (OWTI) %, dry rate performance and the rate of water vapour permeability (WVP) increases in the fabric. When the moisture management finishes (MMF) and antimicrobial finish are applied on the polyester and nylon fabrics, the OWTI% is much influenced by the GSM and finishing concentration. At higher GSM and finishing concentration, OWTI% reduced due to increased thickness and decreased pore size.
The dry rate performance increases with increased GSM and finishing concentration which is due to more area for moisture spreading and evaporation from the fabrics. Water vapour permeability (WVP) performance of fabric reduces at increased GSM and finishing concentration; it is due to the smaller pores and reduced porosity at higher GSM and finishing concentration level. However in the different fibre type’s fabrics, it was observed that to have less influence on the moisture management properties, it’s because, these finishes applied were less penetrating into fibre and hence it’s not reacting with fibre molecules of the yarns. Moisture transmission properties (Both vapour and liquid form) improve by moisture management, antimicrobial finish. Uniform coating of finishes is observed in polyester and then followed by the nylon fabrics, on the basis of SEM image.
Active sportswear is a vast and challenging field in which required functionality can be designed by suitable choice of raw material, fabric structure, garment design and finishes. Due to suitable properties of fibres such as polyester, nylon and blends of fibres and filaments, their use in sportswear clothing is of paramount importance.
Moisture management properties like sweat absorption sweat dissipation and faster drying are primary desirable functions of active sportswear, which affect the comfort sensation of players during sports, while ensuring the required thermal insulation. For performance apparel, the knowledge of fabric is useful for garment selection and design and development.
To achieve required comfort level, the development of sportswear includes various modern approaches such as using special polymers, modifying the structure at fibre, yarn, and at fabric level techniques such as coating, laminating and finishing and other manufacturing technologies.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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After introducing the link between PSE and parental competence, the role of PSE on parenting quality, its multiple influences, and transactional effects connected to contextual or cultural variables are discussed. The chapter addresses some key issues: (a) the levels of PSE measurement (i.e., domain- or task-specific approach), their interrelationship and magnitude as mutual predictors (study 1); (b) infant-caring, parent’s adjustment, and PSE development in the transition to parenthood (study 2); (c) parenting difficult children and the role of PSE as a “buffer” variable moderating the effects of negative child’s characteristics on parenting skills; and (d) PSE beliefs in family context, the relationships with other family measures (marital self-efficacy and stress), and their associations with children’s adjustments (study 3). Finally, in the study 4, PSE is presented as an outcome variable in a parent training. 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Parental involvement and parenting styles are defined and analyzed as possible parameters of adolescent problems, including bullying and victimization. Special emphasis is given to the distinction between behavioral and psychological parental control. Furthermore, issues such as parent‐adolescent conflict, locus of control, and parental values are discussed as correlates of these problems, since prior research has identified them as either risk or protective factors for child and adolescent social and emotional adaptation.",book:{id:"5605",slug:"parenting-empirical-advances-and-intervention-resources",title:"Parenting",fullTitle:"Parenting - Empirical Advances and Intervention Resources"},signatures:"Stelios N. Georgiou and Maria Symeou",authors:[{id:"193345",title:"Prof.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Georgiou",slug:"stelios-georgiou",fullName:"Stelios Georgiou"},{id:"197682",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Symeou",slug:"maria-symeou",fullName:"Maria Symeou"}]},{id:"67167",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86517",title:"Aligning Human Resource Management with Knowledge Management for Better Organizational Performance: How Human Resource Practices Support Knowledge Management Strategies?",slug:"aligning-human-resource-management-with-knowledge-management-for-better-organizational-performance-h",totalDownloads:1965,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Contributing to the HR-approach to knowledge management (KM), this chapter aims at outlining the role of human resource management (HRM) in supporting KM through utilizing the theoretical and empirical literature. The article is divided into two sections. The first section presents various knowledge concepts, KM perspectives and KM strategies. This section ends up by linking these topics in a KM sequential model which helps us to track the philosophical underpinnings and perspectives of each KM strategy. The second section investigates various HR orientations and HR practices and situates their differing contextual characteristics under each KM strategy. It aligns various HR practices with different KM strategies; suggesting that HRM is most effective as a combination of practices that are consistent and sharpened in supporting each KM strategy, which is part of the organizational strategy. The debated practices are recruitment and selection, compensation management, training and development, performance management, retention management and career management. Each of those practices is speculated to alter based on the chosen KM strategy; presenting a framework that is useful for practitioners and academics alike. The review ends up by identifying some research gaps and opportunities to be carried out in future studies. 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Nonetheless, family factors—especially those related to parenting—seem to be crucial during childhood, because children are nested within their families and family factors are able to indirectly influence other factors as well. The current chapter focuses on the relationship between parental style and internalizing symptoms in childhood. In the first part of the chapter, the most important studies on the topic are reviewed in detail and differences in parenting behaviors between mothers and fathers are illustrated. A discussion on the cognitive and metacognitive factors as possible pathways of the relation between parenting and childhood symptoms is also proposed. The last part of the chapter reviews studies investigating the efficacy of parental involvement in cognitive behavior therapy for children who exhibit internalizing symptoms.",book:{id:"5605",slug:"parenting-empirical-advances-and-intervention-resources",title:"Parenting",fullTitle:"Parenting - Empirical Advances and Intervention Resources"},signatures:"Simona Scaini, Sara Palmieri and Marcella Caputi",authors:[{id:"240074",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Scaini",slug:"simona-scaini",fullName:"Simona Scaini"},{id:"240906",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcella",middleName:null,surname:"Caputi",slug:"marcella-caputi",fullName:"Marcella Caputi"}]},{id:"67575",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86757",title:"Toward Management Based on Knowledge",slug:"toward-management-based-on-knowledge",totalDownloads:1128,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In a world overwhelmed with pervasive digital technologies, the organization is transformed and becomes a socio-technical system which is constantly renewed. Organization needs specific skills, adapted to the values and to the cultures peculiar to each location. The cooperation and the mobility become a shape of inescapable work which rests on a permanent personal and collective learning. Beyond the information handled in the digital information systems, the role of the tacit knowledge, which is in each individual’s head, cannot be ignored. A constructivist attitude replaces a determinist attitude strongly deep-rooted in our educational modes. The managers have to pass from a posture of authority and of control to a posture of incitation, of support, and of accompaniment. The notions that are introduced in this chapter result from a managerial and socio-technical vision of knowledge management. They arouse essential reflections to develop a mode of management adapted to the digital transformation of the organizations called management based on knowledge.",book:{id:"7808",slug:"current-issues-in-knowledge-management",title:"Current Issues in Knowledge Management",fullTitle:"Current Issues in Knowledge Management"},signatures:"Michel Grundstein",authors:[{id:"292425",title:"Mr.",name:"Michel",middleName:null,surname:"Grundstein",slug:"michel-grundstein",fullName:"Michel Grundstein"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55633",title:"Parental Self-efficacy in Promoting Children Care and Parenting Quality",slug:"parental-self-efficacy-in-promoting-children-care-and-parenting-quality",totalDownloads:2099,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Parental self-efficacy (PSE) emerges as a crucial variable into exploring variability in parenting quality. After introducing the link between PSE and parental competence, the role of PSE on parenting quality, its multiple influences, and transactional effects connected to contextual or cultural variables are discussed. The chapter addresses some key issues: (a) the levels of PSE measurement (i.e., domain- or task-specific approach), their interrelationship and magnitude as mutual predictors (study 1); (b) infant-caring, parent’s adjustment, and PSE development in the transition to parenthood (study 2); (c) parenting difficult children and the role of PSE as a “buffer” variable moderating the effects of negative child’s characteristics on parenting skills; and (d) PSE beliefs in family context, the relationships with other family measures (marital self-efficacy and stress), and their associations with children’s adjustments (study 3). Finally, in the study 4, PSE is presented as an outcome variable in a parent training. In all summarized studies, a special attention was devoted to father’s PSE as a specific factor affecting childrearing and parent’s well-being. As Bandura says, PSE is not a personality trait, but a learnable set of beliefs producing positive effects on parenting quality. 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The chapter is based on an empirical study starting from the classification of oil district and aims to understand how firms’ position affect knowledge transfer process within the district. We support the idea that knowledge transfer is deeply affected by firms’ contractual power as well as by their position within the district. The companies of the industrial districts have the advantage of exploiting and sharing knowledge with each other. The literature generally holds that knowledge transfer requires a sense of equality and fairness among the firms, to create conditions in which firms will share their own knowledge for joint competitive advantage. However, empirical evidence shows that the value chains are often characterized by hierarchical relations and asymmetry between the parties: this feature is particularly evident in the oil districts. For companies attempting to acquire new information, the typologies of their intercompany collaboration and their cultural relationships are crucial.",book:{id:"7808",slug:"current-issues-in-knowledge-management",title:"Current Issues in Knowledge Management",fullTitle:"Current Issues in Knowledge Management"},signatures:"Giovanna Testa",authors:[{id:"293404",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Testa",slug:"giovanna-testa",fullName:"Giovanna Testa"}]},{id:"67167",title:"Aligning Human Resource Management with Knowledge Management for Better Organizational Performance: How Human Resource Practices Support Knowledge Management Strategies?",slug:"aligning-human-resource-management-with-knowledge-management-for-better-organizational-performance-h",totalDownloads:1961,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Contributing to the HR-approach to knowledge management (KM), this chapter aims at outlining the role of human resource management (HRM) in supporting KM through utilizing the theoretical and empirical literature. The article is divided into two sections. The first section presents various knowledge concepts, KM perspectives and KM strategies. This section ends up by linking these topics in a KM sequential model which helps us to track the philosophical underpinnings and perspectives of each KM strategy. The second section investigates various HR orientations and HR practices and situates their differing contextual characteristics under each KM strategy. It aligns various HR practices with different KM strategies; suggesting that HRM is most effective as a combination of practices that are consistent and sharpened in supporting each KM strategy, which is part of the organizational strategy. The debated practices are recruitment and selection, compensation management, training and development, performance management, retention management and career management. Each of those practices is speculated to alter based on the chosen KM strategy; presenting a framework that is useful for practitioners and academics alike. The review ends up by identifying some research gaps and opportunities to be carried out in future studies. Those research gaps, if addressed, will extend our understanding of KM and the supporting role HRM.",book:{id:"7808",slug:"current-issues-in-knowledge-management",title:"Current Issues in Knowledge Management",fullTitle:"Current Issues in Knowledge Management"},signatures:"Hadi El-Farr and Rezvan Hosseingholizadeh",authors:[{id:"293827",title:"Dr.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"El-Farr",slug:"hadi-el-farr",fullName:"Hadi El-Farr"},{id:"293834",title:"Dr.",name:"Rezvan",middleName:null,surname:"Hosseingholizadeh",slug:"rezvan-hosseingholizadeh",fullName:"Rezvan Hosseingholizadeh"}]},{id:"53767",title:"Parenting Practices and the Development of Internalizing/ Externalizing Problems in Adolescence",slug:"parenting-practices-and-the-development-of-internalizing-externalizing-problems-in-adolescence",totalDownloads:1708,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"This chapter examines the existing relationship between different types of parental practices and the development of internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems in adolescence. Parental involvement and parenting styles are defined and analyzed as possible parameters of adolescent problems, including bullying and victimization. Special emphasis is given to the distinction between behavioral and psychological parental control. Furthermore, issues such as parent‐adolescent conflict, locus of control, and parental values are discussed as correlates of these problems, since prior research has identified them as either risk or protective factors for child and adolescent social and emotional adaptation.",book:{id:"5605",slug:"parenting-empirical-advances-and-intervention-resources",title:"Parenting",fullTitle:"Parenting - Empirical Advances and Intervention Resources"},signatures:"Stelios N. Georgiou and Maria Symeou",authors:[{id:"193345",title:"Prof.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Georgiou",slug:"stelios-georgiou",fullName:"Stelios Georgiou"},{id:"197682",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Symeou",slug:"maria-symeou",fullName:"Maria Symeou"}]},{id:"59028",title:"Parent Training Interventions for Children and Adolescents with Aggressive Behavioral Problems",slug:"parent-training-interventions-for-children-and-adolescents-with-aggressive-behavioral-problems",totalDownloads:1630,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Children who display early disruptive and aggressive behavior are also at greater risk for delinquency, mood and anxiety disorders, and substance use in the long term. As is the case for many forms of childhood psychopathology, a number of factors are associated with the emergence of aggressive and disruptive behavior, including family factors. Indeed, conduct problems during childhood are usually associated with peculiar parenting practices, such as increasingly coercive cycles of harsh parenting and noncompliance exhibited by child; insensitive and nonresponsive parenting; inconsistent, severe discipline and vague commands and directions; lack of parental warmth and involvement; and absence of parental monitoring and supervision. That is why behavioral parent trainings (BPTs) represent one of the gold standard interventions for conduct problems. The main goal of BPT is to decrease coercive interchanges and, consequently, children aggressive problems by teaching parents strategies in order to apply a more effective discipline. Therefore, the putative mechanism for change in youth behavior in BPT is change in parent behavior. Some of the most employed parent training interventions for aggressive behavior problems are presented.",book:{id:"5605",slug:"parenting-empirical-advances-and-intervention-resources",title:"Parenting",fullTitle:"Parenting - Empirical Advances and Intervention Resources"},signatures:"Pietro Muratori, Valentina Levantini, Azzurra Manfredi, Laura\nRuglioni and Furio Lambruschi",authors:[{id:"238556",title:"Dr.",name:"Pietro",middleName:null,surname:"Muratori",slug:"pietro-muratori",fullName:"Pietro Muratori"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1388",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. 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He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,annualVolume:null,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11402,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:58,paginationItems:[{id:"81961",title:"Antioxidants as an Adjuncts to Periodontal Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105016",signatures:"Sura Dakhil Jassim and Ali Abbas Abdulkareem",slug:"antioxidants-as-an-adjuncts-to-periodontal-therapy",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Trauma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11567.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"82357",title:"Caries Management Aided by Fluorescence-Based Devices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105567",signatures:"Atena Galuscan, Daniela Jumanca and Aurora Doris Fratila",slug:"caries-management-aided-by-fluorescence-based-devices",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Caries - The Selection of Restoration Methods and Restorative Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11565.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"81894",title:"Diet and Nutrition and Their Relationship with Early Childhood Dental Caries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105123",signatures:"Luanna Gonçalves Ferreira, Giuliana de Campos Chaves Lamarque and Francisco Wanderley Garcia Paula-Silva",slug:"diet-and-nutrition-and-their-relationship-with-early-childhood-dental-caries",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Caries - The Selection of Restoration Methods and Restorative Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11565.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"81595",title:"Prosthetic Concepts in Dental Implantology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104725",signatures:"Ivica Pelivan",slug:"prosthetic-concepts-in-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:27,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:8,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6668",title:"Dental Caries",subtitle:"Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6668.jpg",slug:"dental-caries-diagnosis-prevention-and-management",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan",hash:"b0f7667770a391f772726c3013c1b9ba",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Dental Caries - Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7572",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7572.jpg",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"July 3rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Serdar Gözler",hash:"7cb94732cfb315f8d1e70ebf500eb8a9",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7060",title:"Gingival Disease",subtitle:"A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7060.jpg",slug:"gingival-disease-a-professional-approach-for-treatment-and-prevention",publishedDate:"October 23rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",hash:"b81d39988cba3a3cf746c1616912cf41",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Gingival Disease - A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",editors:[{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"11570",title:"Influenza - New Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11570.jpg",hash:"157b379b9d7a4bf5e2cc7a742f155a44",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 10th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"139889",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyyed Shamsadin",surname:"Athari",slug:"seyyed-shamsadin-athari",fullName:"Seyyed Shamsadin Athari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11569",title:"Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Infections - New Findings, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11569.jpg",hash:"069d6142ecb0d46d14920102d48c0e9d",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 31st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"189561",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela Laura",surname:"Vica",slug:"mihaela-laura-vica",fullName:"Mihaela Laura Vica"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11568",title:"Staphylococcal Infections - Recent Advances and Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11568.jpg",hash:"92c881664d1921c7f2d0fee34b78cd08",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 8th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"59719",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",surname:"Bustos-Martínez",slug:"jaime-bustos-martinez",fullName:"Jaime Bustos-Martínez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82380",title:"Evolution of Parasitism and Pathogenic Adaptations in Certain Medically Important Fungi",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105206",signatures:"Gokul Shankar Sabesan, Ranjit Singh AJA, Ranjith Mehenderkar and Basanta Kumar Mohanty",slug:"evolution-of-parasitism-and-pathogenic-adaptations-in-certain-medically-important-fungi",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11400.jpg",subseries:{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular economy, Contingency planning and response to disasters, Ecosystem services, Integrated urban water management, Nature-based solutions, Sustainable urban development, Urban green spaces",scope:"