Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Specifically, the anatomy and physiology of the pneumothorax, the pathological classification into primary and secondary, the different methods of diagnosis, and the rationale behind the different approaches of management are discussed. Strategies for special circumstances are highlighted, such as the pneumothorax around menstrual cycles, during pregnancy, and before general anesthesia for other reasons, air travel, and scuba diving. Attention is drawn to the most contemporary trends of management and the evidence from recently published trials and reviews. A separate chapter is dedicated to controversies in the management of the pneumothorax. Trainees as well as established consultant thoracic surgeons, anesthetists, pulmonologists, pediatricians, obstetricians, and intensivists should find this book both interesting and provocative.",isbn:"978-1-83968-066-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-065-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-067-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73885",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"pneumothorax",numberOfPages:86,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"0b1fdb8bb0448f48c2f234753898f3f8",bookSignature:"Khalid Amer",publishedDate:"December 11th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7093.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5522,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 9th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 30th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 28th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 17th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 15th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"63412",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalid",middleName:null,surname:"Amer",slug:"khalid-amer",fullName:"Khalid Amer",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63412/images/system/63412.jpg",biography:"Qualified from the University of Khartoum - Sudan. Specialised in General surgery by 1980 (MD, University of Khartoum). Moved to UK in 1992, fully trained cardiothoracic surgeon, trained in Cardiff. I worked briefly as a consultant cardiothoracic surgeon in Bristol royal infirmary and the University Hospital of Wales - Cardiff. I left heart surgery to specialise in lung and chest surgery. I have special interest in minimal access thoracic surgery (VATS) for lung cancer (lobectomy), thymectomy for myasthenia, mediastinal cysts and mediastinal tumours.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1047",title:"Pulmonology",slug:"pulmonology"}],chapters:[{id:"68669",title:"Indications of Surgery in Pneumothorax",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88640",slug:"indications-of-surgery-in-pneumothorax",totalDownloads:1001,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Spontaneous pneumothorax (SP) is a type of collection of air in the pleural cavity that develops in the absence of trauma or iatrogenic cause. Its management has been a matter of debate for many decades. Nevertheless, clear guidelines from the American, British and European societies have been published. In this chapter, we will discuss the different society guidelines and the inter-guideline variations. We will also discuss the author’s perspective for management of first-time pneumothorax which is an unsettled issue between respiratory physicians and thoracic surgeons. Finally, deviation from clinical guidelines is usually associated with deficient patient care, and in this chapter, the reflection on patient care from not following the pneumothorax guidelines will be discussed in detail.",signatures:"Hany Hasan Elsayed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68669",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68669",authors:[{id:"63374",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",surname:"Elsayed",slug:"hany-elsayed",fullName:"Hany Elsayed"}],corrections:null},{id:"65152",title:"Primary Spontaneous Pneumothorax, a Clinical Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83458",slug:"primary-spontaneous-pneumothorax-a-clinical-challenge",totalDownloads:1497,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Primary spontaneous pneumothorax (PSP) is a common disease in medical practice that affects young healthy people with a significant recurrence rate. PSP is the presence of air in the pleural space not caused by injury or medical intervention. Some risk factors include male gender, age, and smoking. Classic clinical presentation starts with acute-onset chest pain and shortness of breath. Physical examination can be normal in small pneumothoraces, but in larger pneumothoraces, breath sounds and tactile fremitus are typically decreased or absent, and percussion is hyperresonant. Chest X-ray can help confirm the diagnosis. Evacuation of air from the pleural cavity and prevention of future recurrences are the primary goals of treatment and depend on the patient’s presentation. Initial deciding factors to direct the management are first-time or recurrent spontaneous pneumothorax and size of the pneumothorax. 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The end goal is to stop the recurrence. The history of treatment, clinical indications for surgery, and preoperative and postoperative decision-making for intervention are summarized. Surgical intervention plays an important role in the management of recurrent pneumothorax and complex initial pneumothorax. Over the years the surgical techniques have evolved, and currently, video-assisted thoracoscopic techniques are frequently used in the management. In this concise report, we attempt to analyze the surgical techniques currently in use and their outcomes. Furthermore, we attempt to integrate future innovations in the management of this common disorder.",signatures:"Kostantinos Poulikidis, Lee Gerson, John Costello and Wickii T. 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Recently, the etiology of catamenial pneumothorax has been more accurately diagnosed because of increased awareness and interest in the disease. Common and effective use of VATS technique contributed to better understanding of the disease. The management of the disease is difficult because of high recurrence rate. Operative and nonoperative interventions should be practiced more to prevent recurrences. Hormonal therapy should be added to treatment in selected cases. In this chapter, we will discuss all aspects of catamenial pneumothorax from diagnosis to treatment.",signatures:"Sezai Celik and Ezel Erşen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65079",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65079",authors:[{id:"268979",title:"Prof.",name:"Sezai",surname:"Celik",slug:"sezai-celik",fullName:"Sezai Celik"},{id:"279787",title:"Dr.",name:"Ezel",surname:"Erşen",slug:"ezel-ersen",fullName:"Ezel Erşen"}],corrections:null},{id:"68427",title:"Controversies in Pneumothorax Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87141",slug:"controversies-in-pneumothorax-treatment",totalDownloads:976,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Surgical intervention either by video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) or open procedure proved its worth in reducing the incidence of recurrence in pneumothorax. However, many controversies surround the management of this common medical condition. Despite advances in knowledge and technology, chest physicians and surgeons could not be more divisive about the management of pneumothorax. There are no two thoracic surgical centres and possibly no two surgeons within the same hospital that agree on the management of the different aspects of pneumothorax. The variability in reported outcomes and the paucity of published multicentre randomised controlled trials (RCT) highlight the need for further studies investigating the best options for pneumostasis and pleurodesis. 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\r\n\tMoving to smart grids to cyber-physical-social systems, moving from 5G to 6G, and moving from navigation assistant to intelligent driving, our world changes and ubiquitous connections are beyond imagination. Smart devices and intelligent chips, that could potentially change people’s life in every aspect, motivate us to merge, expand and utilize intelligent electronics for a variety of new designs, materials, and technique architectures by bundling integrated circuits, signal processing, energy harvesting, sensing, imaging, tomography, and data transmission. \r\n\tSmart cities, the intelligent transportation system (ITS), AI cloud computing, and wireless intelligence (in 6G) require high-speed, low latency, and high bandwidth networks. With RF band limitations in the existing wireless world to meet the rise of big data traffic, exploring new bands is a common trend. Fortunately, the THz band is considered a promising candidate to combat these limitations. THz is an underdeveloped ultra-wideband zone between microwave and infrared, therefore it benefits from both advantages of electronics and optics. \r\n\tIntelligent electronics could shape the future smart world and promote initiatives on exploring brand-new integrated circuits, high-effective intelligent reconfigurable surface, nondestructive evaluation, SWIPT, ITS, 6G, medical imaging, and signal processing.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book volume aims at exploiting the mainstream principles, circuitry architectures, and development roadmap for intelligent electronic systems. The intention of this book is to acquaint the Science and Engineering Community with a thoughtful and comprehensive understanding of the state of the art in intelligent electronics as well as novel technologies that promote contemporary THz, IRS systems, and beyond. Related new research directions across different disciplines will also be covered in this volume: from theoretical basis to materials characteristics, and from featured architectures to practical applications.
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1. Introduction
This chapter consists of three main sections. The first section gives an overview about the introduction of nano-particles. The next section is about the synthesis of nanoparticles and the last section describes the use of nanoparticles as adsorbents.
The preface “nano” is known for nineteenth century for its ever-increasing applications in various fields of science. A few nano-containing terms that are found in the record (usually in scientific reports and books) are nano-materials, nano-chemistry, nano-science or nanotechnology. The preface nano comes from a Latin nanos meaning dwarf that means extremely small. According to units system working internationally, it is used to represent a reduction factor of 109 times. Consequently, the nano-materials are usually dignified in nano-meters (1 nm is equivalent to 10–9 m) and it comprises systems having size less than macroscopic measurements and greater than molecular ones (mostly >1 nm and <100 nm) at least in one spatial dimension. This characteristic scale might be used for a particle size, diameter and layer thickness [1, 2, 3, 4, 5].
1.1 Classification of nano-materials
The nano-materials are different in structure, size and shape. They can be of various shapes like rod, globular, conical, hollow, coiled, plane, cylindrical and asymmetrical, while some are crystalline or amorphous.
Nano-materials are generally classified into nano-emulsions, nano-clays and nano-particles. Nano-particles are present as nano-composites or nano-structures. These nano-structures are made from basic units or blocks having small dimensionality i.e. zero, one, two and three dimensions. In zero dimensional nano-particles, the moment of electrons is cramped in all three dimensions, e.g. quantum dots. If electrons can move freely in x-direction only, they are one dimensional nanoparticles e.g. quantum wires. Whereas, in two dimensional thin films and three dimensional nano-structured materials, free electrons can move freely in x, y and x, y, z directions respectively.
Based on material production and role in sorption process, nano-particles can also be categorized into organic, mixed oxide nano-structures, magnetic, inorganic (metallic) and carbon based nano-particles. Organic nano-particles are self-assembled, three dimensional fabricated by synthetic and natural organic molecules, i.e. protein masses, milk suspension and lipid bulks etc. Commonly known organic nanoparticles are micelles, dendrimers, ferritin and liposomes. Inorganic nano-particles usually are manufactured from inorganic salt precipitations. They are non-carbon containing particles and their most common examples are metal and metal oxide particles. Carbon based nano-particles are manufactured entirely from carbon e.g. graphene, fullerenes, carbon nano-tubes, carbon nano-fibers, carbon black and sometimes activated carbon (Figure 1) [6, 7, 8, 9, 10].
Figure 1.
Classification of nano-materials.
In nano-materials (especially nano-particles) molecules and atoms act differently and reveal inimitable physical, chemical and electronic properties. These properties are different from their bulk counterparts and sometimes the same kind of nano-particles can show diverse characters. Physical properties of nano-particles include absorption, reflection, light dispersion, color of nano-particles, hydro-phobicity, hydro-philicity, suspension and dispersion. When layered onto a surface or in the form of solution their absorption and reflection properties make them a perfect choice for different fields. They also show outstanding chemical properties, i.e. anti-destructive, oxidation, reduction, flammability, sensitivity and stability towards humidity, atmosphere, heat, light and dis-infection, non-toxicity, biodegradability, anti-bacterial and fungal properties. These properties also enable them ideal materials for environmental and biomedical applications. Nano-particles also exhibit mechanical properties like elasticity, ductility, flexibility, tensile strength and electrical properties including semi-conductivity, conductivity and resistivity which have directed a route for them to be used in renewable energy applications.
These distinctive and inimitable properties of nano-particles make them perfect and formidable for amazing and interesting applications in physical science, material science, agriculture, food, engineering, industrial and biomedical sciences (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Applications of nano-particles in different fields [20].
These applications encompass them to be used in electronic, drug delivery, optical, mechanics, catalysis, bio-encapsulation and wastewater treatment especially adsorption [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. Besides all these properties, nano-particles have some toxic effects for aquatic and human health. As they have small size, they can easily enter through the skin of organisms and consequently enter into the body fluid. Furthermore, nano-particles used in sun screens can absorb deep inside and become toxic to the skin, bones and liver cells. Their greater surface area often makes them more sensitive, explosive and reactive. Inhaling directly in the environment of nano-particles can adversely affect the function of lungs especially in human being. However, highlighting the health issues caused by nano-particles, does not mean to ignore their extraordinary importance in technology, industries and environment [16, 17, 18].
It is important to mention that water is one among the basic necessities of every organism. From total water present on earth, only 0.01% portion is available for human [19, 20]. Shortage of drinking water is increasing day by day due to demolition of water means [21].
The main sources of water contamination are agricultural, industrial and domestic effluents. Industries can help on the one hand in the development of economy, whereas, on the other hand, they are mainly responsible for various environmental issues i.e. water, air and soil pollution. Drinking water containing agricultural and industrial effluents cause different diseases such as, cancer, eye irritation, dermatitis, cell damage and dysfunction of kidney, respiratory and reproductive system even in a very insignificant quantity. Hence, treatment methods for drinking as well as wastewater are one of the most important requirements for emerging and growing health and economy. Various techniques have been used for decontamination of pollutants from industrial wastewater, including reverse-osmosis, ion-exchange, chemical oxidation, flocculation or coagulation and precipitation. Each technique has its individual disadvantages as they are energy dependent, economically as well as technically not sound and achievable. Literature exhibited that from all these treatment techniques, adsorption is one of the most effective technique for water decontamination. Adsorption is simple, adaptable, highly potential, efficient and recyclable technique [22, 23]. A range of effective, low-cost and environment friendly nano-materials with outstanding properties have been developed for prospective applications in decontamination of industrial effluents, surface, ground and drinking water. Literature also revealed that nano-particles behave as an ideal adsorbent as they are environmentally benign, selective, efficient, recyclable, high surface area and maximum adsorption capacity even at a very low concentration [24, 25, 26].
The recent progress related to the different aspects of adsorption using nano-particles have described in several reviews and book chapters. This chapter focuses on the various techniques used for preparation of nano-particles and their applications in the field of adsorption.
2. Preparation of nano-particles
The nano-particles can be prepared by various processes divided into i.e. bottom up and top down techniques. Bottom up methods include the reduction of material components up to the atomic level and then with further self-assembly lead to the formation of nano-particles. However, during self-assembly, the physical forces functioning at nano-scale are used to connect basic units into macro structures. Pyrolysis, bio-synthesis, sole gel, spinning and chemical vapor deposition are most extensively used methods fall in this approach [6, 27]. Whereas, top down techniques including sputtering, laser ablation, nano-lithography, mechanical milling and thermal decomposition, starting with a pattern produced on a higher scale, then compacted to nanoscale. Both of these techniques are contradictory and schematically represented in Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Schematic representation of bottom up and top down techniques.
2.1 Bottom up technique
2.1.1 Sol gel
The sol is a colloid where the aggregates of fine particle are distributed in liquid phase. They are larger in size ranging from 1 nm to 1 μm than nano-particles. Whereas, solid macromolecules immersed in a solvent, called as gel. Sol gel is one of the simplest and, most commonly used method for the synthesis of nano-particles. It is a chemical method which comprises of a solution working as a precursor for an assimilated system of distinct particles. In this method, metal oxides, metal chlorides and alkoxysilanes (typically tetramethoxy and ethoxysilanes) are most commonly used as precursors. The precursor is mixed by means of mixing, quivering sonicating or stirring and is then spread in second liquid which form a solid–liquid phase. Catalyst is commonly used to start the reaction and to control the pH of the system. Sedimentation, filtration and centrifugation are the typical methods used for phase separation to get nano-particles and then the sample is dried to remove moistness. The main advantages of this process are to attain uniform nano-structures even at a very low temperature, having controlled chemical composition and purity [6, 27, 28, 29, 30]. This process is not easily scalable having different drying steps involved as well as it is difficult to control synthesis during this process.
2.1.2 Chemical-vapor deposition (CVD)
In this method of preparation, substrate is coated with a thin film of gaseous reactants. The gas molecules are combined at ambient temperature in a reaction chamber to carry out deposition. Upon heating substrate comes in vicinity of combined gas where a chemical reaction occurs and a thin film is formed on the surface of substrate. This thin film can be recovered and reused for different applications. The basic influencing factor in this method is the temperature of the substrate. The nanoparticles achieved through this method are highly pure, uniform in size, strong and have high mechanical stability. The disadvantages of CVD include the use of special equipment as well as the high toxicity of the gaseous by-products [8, 31, 32].
2.1.3 Biosynthesis
Biosynthesis is one of the inexpensive, green, safe, decomposable and environment friendly methods used for the synthesis of nano-particles. In this method bacterium, fungi and plant extracts are used in conjunction with precursor for bio-reduction and capping functions rather than conventional chemicals. This method has its distinctive and enriched properties that find its approaches in medical applications [33, 34].
2.1.4 Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is the method used in industries to prepare nan-particles on large scale. In this method, precursor used can be liquid or vapor. A furnace is used in order to burn the precursor. Precursor is added to the furnace through a small opening where flame is applied to burn it. [13]. Nano-particles are collected by the gases produced as by product. Pyrolysis is an effective method for nano-particle preparation due to its simplicity, high product yield and sensitiveness [35, 36].
2.2 Top down techniques
2.2.1 Mechanical milling
One of the most widely used top down techniques to produce nano-particles is mechanical milling. In this method various elements are milled under an inert atmosphere and during this process particles are milled and post annealed. The influencing factor in this method is plastic distortion which end up with particle size, breakage that ends up in particle size, and cold-soldering that ends up to increased particle size [37, 38, 39].
2.2.2 Nano-lithography
Nanolithography is the investigation of manufacturing nano-scale structures of one dimension at least, with size ranging from 1 to 100 nm. There are different nano-lithographic forms, for example optical, electron-pillar, multiphoton, nanoimprint and filtering test lithography. Mostly lithography is the way towards printing a required shape or structure of a light sensitive material, which specifically evacuates a bit of material to make the ideal shape and structure. The primary advantage of nanolithography is to create a bunch from a solitary nano-particle with desired shape and size [40, 41, 42]. A sophisticated equipment is required in this method which is cost effective.
2.2.3 Laser-ablation
Laser-ablation is a typical method for the preparation of nano-particles from various solvents in solution. A metal immersed in a liquid solution is irradiated by the laser beam, resulting in the formation of plasma crest that yields into nano-particles. In this process, a chemical reduction of metals occurs to produce inorganic (metal based) nano-particles. As laser ablation gives a steady synthesis of nano-particles in natural solvents and water that does not require any balancing agent or synthetic substance. It is a ‘green’ process and its setup is shown in Figure 4 [43, 44, 45].
Figure 4.
Laser ablation setup [43].
2.2.4 Thermal decomposition
In this method heat is applied to decompose the chemical bonds of the compound. It is an endothermic chemical process where the nano-particles are synthesized by rotting a metal at a precise temperature called as decomposition temperature. As a result of this decomposition secondary products are also produced. This method is useful for the preparation of metal oxide and carbon based nano-particles [46, 47].
3. Applications of nano-particles as adsorbent
Now a days, one of the foremost problems that is facing by the world is accessibility of clean drinking water. Demand for fresh and clean water is increasing day by day due to increasing population. In developing and industrialized countries, clean water deficiency is intensified by human as well as by the industrial effluents (metals and dyes). These effluents are directly discharged into water bodies and contaminate them. As described in introduction part of this chapter, sorption is declared to be one of the best and suitable methods for wastewater treatment [48, 49, 50].
The sorption method is a surface phenomenon during which sorbate is gathered on the sorbent surface. When adsorbate molecules from solution come to the vicinity of adsorbent surface, then some of the molecules adsorb onto the sorbent surface by intermolecular forces of attraction between surfaces of adsorbent and adsorbate molecules. The particular nature of interaction can be determined by the type of species concerned. However, the sorption method is usually classified as physi-sorption where the sorbate bound on the sorbent surface through valence or electrostatic bonding and chemi-sorption where molecule attached through chemical bonding [51, 52, 53, 54].
Nano-particles have a high specific surface area, sorption active sites, solubility, efficiency and fractal dimension, short intra-particle diffusion distance, well defined chemical composition, small particle size and tunable pore size as compare to the their bulk counterparts that are responsible for their valuable features for effective sorption especially chemical activity and fine grain size. The high surface area and high sorption active site in nano-particles are due to high surface-energy and size dependent surface structure at nano-scale. The nano-particles have the highest efficiency towards sorption of organic and inorganic pollutants and their selectivity towards contaminants can be increased by functionalizing the surface of nano-particles. Iron oxide, titanium dioxide, manganese dioxide, silica nanoparticles, alumina, zinc oxide, dicalcium phosphate, copper, silver, maghemite, gold nano-particles, etc. are discovered as cheap, efficient, easy to synthesize and environment friendly sorbents for the removal of pollutants. Among nano-particles (metal oxides), the magnetic nano-particles have acquired a substantial importance due to their interesting magnetic properties i.e. super para-magnetism, strong reaction even at minor applied magnetic field [6, 12, 55, 56].
Moreover, a recent improvement on carboniferous and siliceous nano-materials enclosed nano-sheets, nano-tubes and nano-particles of carbon and silicon declared as efficient adsorbents for sorption of metals and dyes from wastewater. Some oxides and carbon based nanomaterials are discussed below [55, 56, 57].
3.1 Iron nano-particles
Iron based nano-particles are most commonly used adsorbents for the removal of toxic materials from aqueous solutions. These nano-particles are declared as most efficient, cost effective and ecofriendly sorbent with less chance for the production of secondary contaminants. The adsorption process by iron oxide nano-particles is affected by pH, temperature, adsorbent dosage and equilibrium time. Modification of these materials increased their surface properties for the removal of metals, i.e. cadmium(II), lead(II), copper(II), chromium(II), nickel(II), arsenic(III) and anionic and cationic dyes [58, 59, 60].
3.2 Manganese oxide nano-particles
Manganese oxide nano-particles have a high specific surface area which makes them effective adsorbent for the removal of heavy metals i.e. arsenic(III), lead(II), cadmium(II) and ionic dyes. Manganese oxide nano-particles can also be modified into hydrous manganese oxide, nano-porous and nano-tunnel manganese oxide to improve their surface area and porosity for excellent adsorption [61, 62].
3.3 Zinc oxide
These are porous micro nano-structure with high Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area. Most widely used nano-sorbents of zinc oxide are nano-assembled, nano-sheets, nano-rods, nano-plates and micro-spheres for competent removal of dyes and inorganic pollutants from aqueous phase. Whereas, micro-porous nano assemblies of zinc oxide display maximum potential for the removal of lead(II), arsenic(III) and mercury(II) because of their electro-positive nature [63, 64, 65].
3.4 Magnesium oxide
The sorption capacity of the magnesium oxide nano-particles is much greater than its bulk counterpart. Their micro-spheres are innovative structure, with increased sorption capacity for the sorption of heavy metals. Various modification of magnesium oxide nano-particles i.e. nano-rods, nano-tubes, nano-wires has been reported as improved sorption affinity towards metals and organic effluents [66, 67, 68].
3.5 Carbon nano-tubes
They are the most widely used material for the sorption of heavy metals as well as organic dyes from aqueous media. Though, they have meager dispersal capacity, very small size of particles and separation complications are some difficulties for using carbon nano-tubes as sorbents. Whereas, these difficulties can be overawed by modifying carbon nano-tubes into multi walled carbon nano-tubes. Literature revealed that the multi walled nano tubes and alumina supported carbon nano-tubes, more competently removed metals such as Mn(II), Cu(II) and Pb(II) more efficiently as compare to unmodified material [22, 69, 70].
4. Conclusion
Nano-technology is refining our everyday life by increasing the proficiency and purity of many substances. As described in this chapter, there are different techniques for the synthesis of nano-particles, but laser ablation chemical vapor deposition, nano-lithography, biosynthesis, mechanical milling, and sol–gel are the most suitable techniques because they are less time consuming methods. Nano-particles with inimitable chemical and physical characteristics, have a remarkable prospective for the adsorption of contaminant but still their applications for wastewater treatment are inadequate. However, nanoparticles have pronounced future due to their proficiency and environmentally benign property.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to convey their gratefulness to National Centre of Excellence in Physical Chemistry, University of Peshawar for providing us necessary support and facilities to carry out this study.
\n',keywords:"nano-particles, adsorption, sol–gel, chemical vapor deposition, biosynthesis, carbon nano-tubes, mechanical milling, nano-lithography, laser ablation, iron nano-particles, manganese oxide nano-particles, zinc oxide and magnesium oxide",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69816.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/69816.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69816",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69816",totalDownloads:1022,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:55,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 15th 2019",dateReviewed:"September 4th 2019",datePrePublished:"December 13th 2019",datePublished:"July 8th 2020",dateFinished:"October 30th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The nano-technologies and nano-materials draw incredible consideration in recent years. Nano-particles are the particles having size ranging from 1 to 100 nm. The nano-particles are usually categorized into different classes, and their classification is based on size, shape, material production, and dimension. They show superior properties, i.e., enhanced reactivity, high BET surface area, sensitiveness, and steadiness as compared to their bulk materials. In this chapter, different approaches of synthesizing nano-particles, including sol gel, chemical vapor deposition, and biosynthesis are talked over. In the treatment of wastewater, nano-particles offer a possibility for effective adsorption of contaminants organic as well as inorganic. This chapter presents an overview on nano-particles, their types, characteristics, synthetic approaches, and applications in the field of surface chemistry.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69816",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69816",book:{id:"9109",slug:"engineered-nanomaterials-health-and-safety"},signatures:"Tooba Saeed, Abdul Naeem, Tahira Mahmood and Nazish Huma Khan",authors:[{id:"196380",title:"Dr.",name:"Tahira",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmood",fullName:"Tahira Mahmood",slug:"tahira-mahmood",email:"tahiramah@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Peshawar",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"226388",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Naeem",fullName:"Abdul Naeem",slug:"abdul-naeem",email:"naeeem64@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"305267",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Tooba",middleName:null,surname:"Saeed",fullName:"Tooba Saeed",slug:"tooba-saeed",email:"khantooba590@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"305340",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazish Huma",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",fullName:"Nazish Huma Khan",slug:"nazish-huma-khan",email:"humakhan876@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Classification of nano-materials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3",title:"2. Preparation of nano-particles",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.1 Bottom up technique",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.1 Sol gel",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.2 Chemical-vapor deposition (CVD)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.1.3 Biosynthesis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.1.4 Pyrolysis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.2 Top down techniques",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.2.1 Mechanical milling",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.2 Nano-lithography",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.2.3 Laser-ablation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.2.4 Thermal decomposition",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14",title:"3. Applications of nano-particles as adsorbent",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.1 Iron nano-particles",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.2 Manganese oxide nano-particles",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"3.3 Zinc oxide",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"3.4 Magnesium oxide",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"3.5 Carbon nano-tubes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Hashim PW, Nia JK, Han G, Ratner D. Nanoparticles in dermatologic surgery. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 2019;1:1-19. DOI: 10.1016/j.jaad.2019.04.020'},{id:"B2",body:'Rashidi S, Karimi N, Mahian O, Abolfazli Esfahani J. A concise review on the role of nanoparticles upon the productivity of solar desalination systems. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry. 2019;135:1145-1159. DOI: 10.1007/s10973-018-7500-8'},{id:"B3",body:'Namita R. Methods of preparation of nanoparticles—A review. 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National Centre of Excellence in Physical Chemistry, University of Peshawar, Pakistan
National Centre of Excellence in Physical Chemistry, University of Peshawar, Pakistan
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Nazish Huma Khan",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Sawabi, Pakistan
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1. Introduction
Over the past decades, the livestock industry has been revolutionized toward the use of microbial feed additives due to an increasing awareness of the stockholders on the beneficial role of probiotics in production and gut health status [1, 2]. There are several probiotic products that are commercially available and marketed for animal use [3]. Most probiotic products at the moment do not go through pre-market approvals and are commonly used for a much wider range of scenarios in which their efficacy is not well established. Similarly, latest molecular methods such as gene sequencing and phylogenetic analysis are not used to identify the probiotic strains as feed supplements. For the selection of best probiotic product, it is highly important to determine the real probiotic potential of the microbial strain by using latest molecular methods. In this contract, locally isolated and validated probiotic strains will be better than any unauthorized local available strain. The competitive advantage and adaptability to local microbial ecosystem will allow local probiotic strain to grow and adhere well in the local animal breed. Literature showed that probiotic strains should specifically prepare according to purpose and function related to the milk enhancement in local breed [4, 5]. Nowadays, it is highly accepted that probiotic yeast is highly productive in terms of milk and meat for large animals [6, 7]. Probiotic yeast improves the ruminal gut microbiota which may increase the nutrient digestibility and leads to improve animal productivity [8]. In large animals, ingested feed digested by numerous microbial species is present along the gastrointestinal tract [9]. This microbial community consists of 1014 members, mainly composed of fibrolytic bacterial species [10]. Literature highlighted that gut microbiota plays important role in the feed digestion and utilization. The gut microbial populations in cow have been identified in almost 90% of the total microbial community [11]. On the other hand, a certain fraction of the GI tract bacterial community has yet to be identified due to less knowledge of the microbial community in gut microbial ecosystem because majority of the 16S rRNA gene sequences from feces are taken from unidentified species, and many modern methods of genomic analysis of communities to determine changes in microbiota have been used by many scientists [12]. Studies have utilized culture-independent sequencing techniques, 16S rDNA bacterial tag-encoded FLX amplicon pyrosequencing and many more have added a new era to determine the microbial diversity of the GI tract [13]. Research noted that the culture-independent methods deliver a comprehensive assessment of the microbial community composition, while the culture-dependent methods provide the structural and functional diversity of the microbial strains [14]. In this chapter, a detailed discussion on the effects of probiotic yeast in ruminant’s well being, production performance, uses of different omics methodologies for the discovery of ideal animal probiotic strains and development of indigenous probiotic yeast for ruminant will be employed.
2. Yeast: an ideal microbial feed supplement for ruminants
The Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker’s yeast) is the first eukaryotic sequenced genome. The sequencing of first whole eukaryotic genome was a challenging task for the scientists, but the efforts of more than 600 scientists from Europe, North America, and Japan made it possible. The entire sequence of the yeast was released in 1996. The size of the baker’s yeast genome is 12.1 Mb containing 16 chromosomes and 5400 coding genes approximately. The sequence information of yeast is available at Saccharomyces Genome Database (SGD), Yeast Protein Database (YPD), and Munich Information Center for Protein Sequences (MIPS) [15] (Table 1).
Yeast genome
Genome size
12.1 Mb
Chromosomes
16
Genes
5300–5400
Base pairs
12 million base pairs
Databases
SGD, MIPS, YPD
Table 1.
Details of first eukaryotic sequenced genome (yeast).
Ruminant nutritionists have been pondering to improvise new methodologies for ameliorating the roles of microflora in ruminants and enhance processes of digestion and fermentation along with augmented nutrients usage and bioavailability using feed supplementation. One of the commonly used methods was the use of growth promoters (antibiotics) to restrict the pathogenic effect on productivity of ruminants [16]. Nevertheless, antibiotics have been reported to cause serious health challenges to consumers and environmental implications. Thus, their usage has been banned in 2006 due to emerging antibiotic resistance. In the light of these concerns, consumer preferred more natural product. A super alternate of feed additives was the use of probiotics [17]. Probiotics are living microorganisms confined in animal feed that affect the host by improving the digestion [18]. Other definition includes probiotics as microorganisms (viable) that functions in gaining weight and feed conversions along with reducing diarrheal incidence [19]. Probiotics have been deployed as one of the recent exploited proposals in ensuring efficiency of production systems and safety to both consumers and environment [20, 21]. In ruminant nutrition, yeast probiotics are commonly being used because of their efficient roles in rumen stabilization and maintaining microbial communities specifically fibrolytic bacteria [22]. The yeast cells function in maintaining throughout viability of the digestive tract [23]. Yeast supplementation as probiotics enhanced feed conversion, efficient fermentation, and fiber digestion in the rumen, maintained ruminal pH, increased milk production [24, 25] and feed intake and production of organic acids and vitamins to activate the growth of the lactic acid bacteria (LAB) [26]. The commonly used yeast probiotic is Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Numerous literatures on Saccharomyces cerevisiae as supplement are available that dated back to the 1950s and continued under study till today [27]. Significant role of yeast supplementation (live) in diet has been stated for lactating and growing ruminants. Recent studies confirmed that they increase the ruminant’s milk production early lactation period by altering the fermentation of food inside the GIT of ruminants[28]. Latest beef and dairy production systems demand active muscle growth and high milk yield via feeding animal at high ruminal ferment ability rates. This would result in increased risk of metabolic disorders such as acidosis due to dysbiosis in ruminal microbial environment resulting in abnormal functioning in rumen which further leads to poor feed intake, health, and decreased productivity [29]. Therefore, yeast supplementation in ruminant diet is beneficial in the ruminal functioning and overall animal health and maintenance. The ameliorating functions of yeast probiotic on digestibility of high forage diets also underscore the potential use of yeast supplementation to optimize the use of lower quality feeds.
3. Understanding of the ruminant microbial community for development of ideal probiotic yeast for ruminants
Rumen microbial manipulation by using the probiotics to improve the ruminant feed digestion is a promising production improvement strategy. A better understanding of the rumen microbiology is an important step to select and prepare a new yeast strain affecting on functional specific microbes. Latest molecular techniques have provided the opportunity to study the rumen microbiota in detail for development of the ideal probiotic.
3.1 Digestive system of ruminants
Digestive system of ruminant is composed of four parts: reticulum, rumen, omasum and abomasums. The rumen is that part of the digestive system in which fermentation is carried out [30]. The rumen can also be defined as a complex ecosystem in which nutrients consumed by different microorganisms are digested anaerobically. Microbial biomass and volatile fatty acids are most common end products of fermentation which are then used by ruminant host. Interaction of host animal and microorganisms is a symbiotic relationship that helps the ruminant hosts in digestion of fiber-rich and protein-low diets. Rumen microorganisms provide enzymes that are necessary for fermentation processes, which in turn allow ruminants to obtain energy contained in forage [31]. Growth and activity of ruminal microorganisms are influenced by different factors including pH, temperature, osmotic pressure, buffering capacity, and redox potential. These factors are determined by environmental factors. Temperature of the rumen is in the range of 39–39.5°C. But when animal eats, fermentation occurs that generates heat due to which temperature increases up to the limit of 41°C [32, 33]. Short-chain fatty acid generation along with their absorption, saliva production, feed intake level and type, as well as exchange of phosphates and bicarbonates through epithelium of the rumen are the factors that affect pH [34]. In the reticule ruminal environment, these factors determine the buffering capacity as well as pH. There is a constant change in pH but mostly it remains in the range of 5.5–7.0 [35]. When there is an acidic environment in the cell, bacterial intracellular pH decreases. Microbial enzymes are very much sensitive to pH, i.e., bacterial growth is inhibited when there is an acidic pH. This is due to the disproportion of intracellular hydrogen ions [36]. In the rumen, ions and molecules affect osmotic pressure due to which gas tension is created. Fermentation process in the rumen depends upon the environmental factors and the diet due to which these factors also affect rumen osmotic pressure [37] (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Rumen ecosystem: different types of microbial flora present inside the rumen. The most abundant microbes are bacteria.
3.2 Microbial community of GIT
Bacteria are more in number than any other microbes. It is noted that there are five groups of rumen bacteria: (1) free-living in liquid phase, (2) loosely attached with feed, (3) firmly attached with feed, (4) attached with rumen epithelial lining, and (5) attached with protozoa/fungi. The bacterial species inside the rumen are 99.5% obligatory anaerobic. Mostly rumen bacteria are involved in the fermentation of fibers, starch, and sugar present in the feed and converted into volatile fatty acid, H2, and CO2 [38]. Most of the bacteria are responsible for degradation of different types of dietary components [39] (Table 2).
Bacterial diversity of the rumen microbial ecosystem.
Majority of anaerobic rumen fungi is from order Neocallimastigales within the phylum Neocallimastigomycota. On the phylogeny basis, six genera have been identified, which are Piromyces, Neocallimastix, Caecomyces, Anaeromyces, Orpinomyces, and Cyllamyces [40]. In fiber digestion, fungi play a very important role because of the vegetative thallic rhizoids. The main functions of the rumen fungi are the lignin and fiber degradation by producing different types of enzymes [41] (Table 3).
Bacteria, fungi, and archaea present inside the rumen and feces of dairy cows.
3.3 Mechanism of action of probiotic yeast in the rumen
The rumen is the first part of the ruminant stomach which has a well-developed microbial ecosystem containing different types of microbes (bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and bacteriophages). These microbes coexist in ecological equilibrium in unique symbiotic relationship between cows and rumen microbes. The cows supply food to the rumen microbes which in turn digest the feedstuff to provide cows the essential nutrients in the form of microbial protein as organic acid energy sources. The microscopic view of rumen ecosystem showed that it is consisted of a number of bacteria, protozoa and fungi [42]. Bacteria make the largest population in this diverse microbial world. Their function is to digest the fibers, starch, sugar acids, and protein to give useful compounds and elements necessary for the growth and productivity of the cows. The role of protozoa and fungi is less clear. However, these microbes do provide help in digestion of feed. The structure and function of microbial community are influenced by feed composition and mainly by the host genetic potential. Prevotella and Succinivibrionaceae are the dominated rumen bacterial communities, cellulolytic and fibrolytic genera; Neocallimastigaceae are the dominant fecal and rumen fungal communities; and Methanobrevibacter are the dominant fecal and rumen archaeal communities in the adult ruminants. Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes are the dominant phyla of bacterial communities. Bacteroidaceae, Lachnospiraceae, Prevotellaceae, Ruminococcaceae, Succinivibrionaceae, and Veillonellaceae are the most abundant bacterial families in adult ruminant [43]. The term “yeast” is originally derived from the Dutch word gist, which basically refers to the foam that formed during beer fermentation. A variety of roles is played by yeast in veterinary practices, livestock feeding, and medicine as well as in biomedical and pharmaceutical industries [44]. Hayduck first discovered the inhibitory activity of yeast. Probiotics such as yeast or fungi have been extensively used in ruminant feed for the improvement of growth, health, and lactation due to their impact on rumen pH, intake of dry matter, and digestibility of nutrients [45]. Probiotic yeast has potential beneficial effects on the rumen. In the cattle, the ability of live yeast for enhancement of milk yield as well as weight gain is due to the fact that yeast is responsible for stimulating bacterial activity in the rumen [46]. Mechanism of action of yeast mainly stimulates the growth of cellulatic and hemicellulatic bacteria [47]. Increase in the number of bacteria in the rumen is due to the reproducible effects of probiotic yeast. Yeasts remove oxygen from the rumen due to which bacterial performance improves in the rumen. To maintain the metabolic activity, yeast cells consume available oxygen on the surface of freshly ingested feed in the rumen. Few studies showed that there is a significant decrease in redox potential, up to -20 mV by providing yeast supplementation (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Representative scheme of effect of live yeast on the microbial flora of the gastrointestinal tract in ruminants: live yeast improves carbohydrate, protein, and lipid digestion rates by improving the production of cellulolytic, hemi-cellulolytic, and proteolytic and lipolytic bacteria and fungi.
Better conditions have been created by this change for the growth of anaerobic cellulolytic bacteria which in turn stimulates their attachment to forage particles as well as increases the initial rate of cellulolysis. Recalcitrant plant lignocellulosic material is not degraded by ruminants on its own. They rely on rumen microbial flora for its degradation [48]. The main components of the fiber are cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. It has been estimated that 20–70% of the ruminant feed is composed of the cellulose and hemicellulose [49]. The most abundant carbohydrate in plant cell wall is the cellulose which makes up to 40% of the plant cell wall. The microbial cellulolytic enzymes have the capability to digest the β-1,4 links present inside the cellulose, glucose molecules [50] (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
A scheme describing the mode of action of yeast culture: improved the gut microbial balance is related to the O2 slavering by live yeast cells.
3.4 Mechanism of action of probiotic yeast in the lower gut
The lower gut microbial population is affected by dietary supplementation of the probiotic yeast. The probiotics provide a desirable microbial balance due to shift in the balance of friendly and pathogenic microbiota. The GIT having healthy microbial populations are often related with improved host performance and its immune system. In the lower gut, the pathogenic microbial species reduces due to the production of the antimicrobial material (bacteriocin) and the attachment of the friendly microbes to the gut wall, via the competitive exclusive method. The most common modulation of the GIT microflora is provided by probiotics [51].
4. Modern methods to understand and develop fibrolytic probiotics for ruminants
Latest researches have improved our understanding related to the mode of action of probiotic yeast inside the rumen. Well-designed animal studies have verified that target-specific probiotic strains have health and production benefits in the ruminants. These studies have made the livestock industry to accept and understand the probiotic concept [52]. On the other hand, current probiotic has not been chosen for definite purposes in the animal feed. Therefore, some unique molecular methods are needed for selection and characterization of target-specific probiotic strains [53]. It has been noted that during stress conditions, some portion of the live probiotic microbial strain enters in the dormant but metabolically active state called viable but nonculturable (VBNC) state. These microbial cells have an ability to replicate when acclimated to a favorable condition inside the host [54]. Uses of molecular techniques have changed the study of the rumen ecosystem. First is the PCR which is more sensitive than growth on traditional selective media in determining small differences in population sizes in response to dietary changes or upon the inclusion of an additive to the diet and thus may identify changes or shifts within levels of the microbial population which may have been previously overlooked [55] (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Probiotic preparation: general steps for the isolation and characterization of probiotic yeast strains for local animal breed.
In response to various feeding sources, changes within the microbial population can be studied by DNA fingerprinting (DGGE, TTGE, and TGGE). Probiotic can be classified into three different types, like mono-probiotic, poly probiotics, and combined probiotics depending on the probiotic strain function [55] (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
Potential characteristics of typical animal probiotic yeast.
5. Common methods used to identify indigenous probiotic yeast
Yeasts and fungi are the ideal organisms and have been used in vast genetic studies and comparative genomic studies in eukaryotes because of their small and compact genomes.
We have sketched sampling approaches and finalized the protocols that will guide researchers in identifying the most ideal probiotics for animal use. Livestock is under increasing threat of antimicrobial resistance genes; therefore, continued optimization of protocols is urgently needed so that these threats can be reduced through the use of probiotics. Two sequence-based methods are commonly used for the identification of yeast. The first and the most common method used for the identification is PCR amplification of internal transcribed spacer (ITS) of nuclear ribosomal variable region that has been recognized as the universal barcode for the identification of fungi. The second and the advanced approach to identify fungal species or strains is shotgun metagenomics [56]. Microbes are very vital to life present on the earth. Their significance is increasing day by day as their beneficiary potential has been recognized in the field of health and medicine. There are two methods which have been utilized till now for the identification of the microorganisms present in microbial community.
Culture-dependent method
Culture-independent method
Both approaches have their own significance. Culture-based methods are considered effective for the morphological, physiological, and functional characterizations of a particular strain, while culture-independent technology is preferred to unravel the microbial diversity along with genomic and genetic identification of microbial communities. Studies have also indicated that there is a loss of 99% microbes in the laboratory-dependent culturing methods. Culturing-independent method has been recognized as an effective and efficient method to isolate the DNA of a number of microbes from an environmental sample which seems impossible using the cultural methods. The linkage of culture-dependent and culture-independent data has been recognized as a crucial step for the identification of probiotics [57]. For identification of the potential probiotic strains, researchers should use the latest molecular methods, and the probiotic strains should be deposited in some recognized microbial culture collection. Proteomics and metabolomics may also be used for choosing the best yeast species [58]. By utilizing strain’s proteome and metabolome, which are argued to yield a positive influence upon ruminal fermentation, it may be possible to identify specific traits, characteristics, and secondary growth metabolites that play a potential role to enhance the growth of target-specific microorganisms inside the rumen. Even accounting for the potential bias of latest molecular methods, it is obvious that these methods are the dominant tools recently accessible for monitoring the gut for bacterial diversity of dairy animals and developing new yeast strain [59]. Extensive use of molecular methodologies may give insights into the new era where such microbial studies are no longer limited to a handful of laboratories with an abundance of funding and labor. It is noted that the specific yeast strains of known origin act more precisely and efficiently as compared to the yeast strain obtained from any unknown origin [60]. As we note all ruminates live in different parts of the world; therefore, upon the ruminal fermentation different yeast strains may exhibit markedly different effects. Therefore, we should identify new yeast strains for getting best results on the rumen fermentation. Uses of molecular techniques have changed the study of the rumen ecosystem. First is the PCR which is more sensitive than growth on traditional selective media in determining small differences in population sizes in response to dietary changes or upon the inclusion of an additive to the diet and thus may identify changes or shifts within levels of the microbial population which may have been previously overlooked. In response to various feeding sources, changes within the microbial population can be studied by DNA fingerprinting (DGGE, TTGE, and TGGE). To select best yeast strains, proteomics and metabolomics may also be used. By characterizing the proteome and metabolome of microbial isolates endowed with the ability to have a positive impact on the rumen fermentation, it may be possible to identify specific traits, characteristics, and secondary growth metabolites which play genuine role in the improvement of the growth of some important microbial species [61] (Figure 6).
Figure 6.
Interlinked factors involved in the application of probiotic in the ruminant nutrition.
5.1 Culture-dependent techniques
Cultural approach is the widely used method in microbiology to grow a microbe in a laboratory. Sampling is the basic and the crucial step for the identification of the indigenous probiotic yeast. The second step is isolation of the pure yeast strain under laboratory conditions which requires a series of inoculation steps of the microbes on the selective media. After purification of the yeast isolate on the OGA media, the biochemical tests are performed to identify the distinct features of the pure isolates. Morphological features of the isolate are determined by using electron microscope. The next step is the molecular identification of the yeast via 18S rRNA gene sequencing. The probiotic characterization is usually performed according to the standards defined by the WHO [62]. The best probiotic strain is retrieved among all the selected potential candidates, and in vivo experiments are performed using an animal model. After functional testing, all technological and safety measures are accessed, and the probiotic yeast strain is ready for probiotic product and packaging [63].
5.2 Culture-independent techniques
The use of omics approach has been emphasized to study the microbiome of microbes. To identify the potential probiotic strains among the microbial community present in any environment, it is very important to identify all the microorganisms in microbiota and determine their structural and functional differences at genomic level. Below are the currently available omics approaches for the identification, screening, and selection of probiotic strains of indigenous yeast [64] (Figure 7).
Figure 7.
Omics approaches to identify the probiotic.
5.2.1 18S amplicon sequencing
Amplicon sequencing refers to the sequencing of a specific fragment of interest of a microbe using high-throughput sequencing technique. 18S amplicon sequencing is specifically used to determine the most prevalent fungal yeast species present in microbiota [65]. The methodologies used in the recent researches for the identification of bacterial probiotics can be applied in the recognition of indigenous probiotic yeast strains. The comparative and detailed analysis of 18S amplicon sequencing data can help the scientists in the isolation of potential probiotic after the identification of functional and structural characteristics of the indigenous yeast in microbiota. Further experiments and testing would be required to maximize the production and ability of probiotic yeast in the gut of an animal [66]. Furthermore, the 18S amplicon sequencing does not only help in the indigenous yeast identification, but it also reveals the diversity of microeukaryotes when 18S rRNA gene is sequenced [67].
5.2.2 Shotgun metagenomics
Shotgun metagenomics is one of the most advanced techniques of sequencing in which the entire microbiome of microbiota is sequenced. The data generated using this method provides all the information about the genome of an organism [68]. Metagenomics information unravels the composition of microbial community and also indicates the genes, their functions, and associated genetic pathways. The identification of the indigenous yeast and their probiotic potential and capabilities can also be determined using the metagenomics data. Their relationship within the microbial community and their effect on the host can also be studied on the basis of the retrieved information [69].
5.2.3 Metatranscriptomics
Scientists and researchers are using metatrancriptomics to study and analyze the expression profiles of mRNA in a microbial community. The identification of genes, genetic pathways and their regulation, host-microbe interaction, and the symbiotic relation among microbes can easily be determined by using the mRNA expression data. Metatranscriptome approach can be pursued in the identification of indigenous probiotic yeast within the microbiota of an animal. For this purpose the sampling methods and molecular techniques should be improved [70].
5.2.4 Metabolomics
Metabolomics refers to the study of the metabolites or final cellular products. This is also considered one of the useful and efficient methods for the identification of probiotic potential of a microorganism within a microbiota of an animal or selected biological sample [71]. Indigenous probiotic potential of yeast can also be determined using this technique. Studies are still needed to fully understand the function of metabolites in context of probiotic potential and other inhibitory functions of metabolic compounds. As metabolites vary in structure and function, so they could be used in the comparative studies of species and populations. A number of species with high probiotic potential could be approached using metabolomics [72].
6. Challenges in preparation of suitable probiotic yeast
Yeast probiotics not only help to improve the performance factor of cattle, but it also enhances nutrient digestibility. However, the effectiveness of yeast-supplemented products is variable. Therefore, future studies are required to estimate the potency of these diet products as supplements for finishing beef cattle, with an objective to have healthier and productive animals without negotiating their efficiency and costs.
The animal body is a “supraorganism” and refers to the gastrointestinal tract as a virtual organ of the human body. The ongoing research is mainly on probiotics that are used chiefly for the GI tract, whereas there is an impetus need to evaluate the progress on other regions of the body as well.
Yeast supplementation is an effective strategy; thus, it is vital to ensure the stability and viability of yeast-supplemented diet products by developing practicable and cost-effective technologies (e.g., storage, microencapsulation, etc.), which poses marketing and technological challenges for producers at industrial level. Polysaccharides, lipids, and proteins are chiefly used for encapsulation materials in food industry. However, cost-effective production remains a challenge for production of future probiotics and formulation technologies.
Role of yeast probiotics in combating antibiotic-associated diseases has been extensively reported through control trials and ingestion of yeast probiotics (Saccharomyces boulardii) and has positive therapeutic effects specifically in preventing antibiotic-associated diarrhea (ADD), but validated biomarkers for numerous target diseases are probiotic or antibiotic deficient. Therefore, in the field of probiotic investigation, the defining of validated biomarkers needs to be advanced.
There is a dire need to understand the composition and relationship of microbial community within an animal gut for improving the production of dairy products. Advances in the high-throughput technologies, computational tools, and omics approaches give insights into the molecular and genetic potential of an organism. Studies in the omics arena are still needed to fully understand the genetic mechanisms and pathway analysis.
7. Conclusions and future research
Every living organism is different in terms of their genetic makeup. The current progresses in sequencing and functional omics techniques have delivered better understandings into the precise mechanisms underlying probiotic functionality. The emerging understanding of the animal gut microbiota allowed accurate characterization of probiotic effects on the commensal microbiota of animal in vivo. Identification of genes vital to probiotic functionality is providing scientists the capacity to genetically tailor probiotics to encounter the requirements for precise applications. The livestock sector has a larger proportion of land consumption than agriculture keeping in view both grain feed intake and grazing. This trend is expected to rise, putting pressure and competencies on land resources in the agriculture sector. Moreover, there is a high demand for quality production which Cannot be attained by traditional practices for feeding ruminants. Quality cereal feed costs high and is uneconomical for large production. Consequently, this creates an imbalance in nutrition which drastically reduces dairy production. Probiotic yeast can overcome dairy production disparity. It augments nutrient uptake and increases Immunity, overall better health and production. Utilization of probiotic yeast for health and production is influenced by many different factors including probiotic strains, age, and breed of cattle. Essentially, yeast probiotics enhance assimilation by balancing the microflora of the rumen. It facilitates fiber digestion via inducing fermentation and stabilizing high pH. Facilitating an environment that flourishes rumen microbes is one factor. Other avenues need to be explored for probiotic yeast. More probiotic yeast strains are needed to be identified. For the preparation of probiotic feed, a complete nutritional profile generation is required. Furthermore, the amino acid profile of milk produced by dairy heifers fed on yeast probiotic should be analyzed.
8. Recommendations
The recommendations are outlined as follows:
Sampling source should be indigenous for isolation of the probiotic strains.
The identification of the probiotic strains must be based on the international validated molecular methods.
The identified strain name should be deposited in validated microbial culture collection.
The probiotic as well as genetic properties of the probiotic strains should be studied. Good manufacturing practices must be applied with quality assurance and shelf-life conditions established and labeling made clear to include minimum dosage and verifiable health claims.
\n',keywords:"indigenous probiotic yeast, lower gut, microbiota, molecular methods",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64889.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/64889.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64889",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64889",totalDownloads:1439,totalViews:46,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"September 22nd 2018",dateReviewed:"November 27th 2018",datePrePublished:"May 20th 2019",datePublished:"August 7th 2019",dateFinished:"December 21st 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Probiotic yeast enhanced the ruminal gut microbial balance by producing intercellular effectors and important metabolites. The impact of yeast addition on animal health is influenced by different interlinked factors including animal genomics, its gut microbiota, and environment. Therefore, all factors should be considered regarding achieving the maximum outputs from animal probiotic yeast. In the situation of a high feeding cost, microbial feed supplements provide a suitable nutritional approach, which allows increased nutrient digestion rate and accordingly improves animal performance. Many yeast products are commercially available, but their efficiency as probiotic dietary addition in a particular breed is mostly questionable. Therefore, identification of ideal probiotic yeast strain is of great interest in this context. Innovative methods in relation to develop new probiotic are mainly focused on the exploring novel microbial strains from indigenous sources. It has been noted that for the identification of best probiotic strain for the host, a linkage between culture-independent and culture-dependent methods is a functional step. In this chapter, we will discuss the mode of action of probiotic yeast on animal lower gut microbiota and identification of ideal probiotic yeast by using advanced molecular methods.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64889",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64889",signatures:"Shakira Ghazanfar, Aayesha Riaz, Ghulam Muhammad Ali, Saima Naveed, Irum Arif, Sidra Irshad, Naeem Riaz and Khanzadi Nazneen Manzoor",book:{id:"8107",type:"book",title:"Yeasts in Biotechnology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Yeasts in Biotechnology",slug:"yeasts-in-biotechnology",publishedDate:"August 7th 2019",bookSignature:"Thalita Peixoto Basso",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8107.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78923-928-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-927-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-228-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"139174",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Thalita",middleName:null,surname:"Peixoto Basso",slug:"thalita-peixoto-basso",fullName:"Thalita Peixoto Basso"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"202370",title:"Dr.",name:"Shakira",middleName:null,surname:"Ghazanfar",fullName:"Shakira Ghazanfar",slug:"shakira-ghazanfar",email:"shakira_akmal@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Quaid-i-Azam University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"286878",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghulam",middleName:null,surname:"Muhammad Ali",fullName:"Ghulam Muhammad Ali",slug:"ghulam-muhammad-ali",email:"drgmali5@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Quaid-i-Azam University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"286879",title:"Ms.",name:"Irum",middleName:null,surname:"Arif",fullName:"Irum Arif",slug:"irum-arif",email:"irum_arif56@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Quaid-i-Azam University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"286880",title:"Ms.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Irshad",fullName:"Sidra Irshad",slug:"sidra-irshad",email:"sidrairshad29@ymail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Quaid-i-Azam University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"286881",title:"Ms.",name:"Khanzadi",middleName:null,surname:"Nazneen Manzoor",fullName:"Khanzadi Nazneen Manzoor",slug:"khanzadi-nazneen-manzoor",email:"knazneen02@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Quaid-i-Azam University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"297912",title:"Dr.",name:"Naeem",middleName:null,surname:"Riaz",fullName:"Naeem Riaz",slug:"naeem-riaz",email:"naeem_nibge@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Quaid-i-Azam University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"304921",title:"Dr.",name:"Aayesha",middleName:null,surname:"Riaz",fullName:"Aayesha Riaz",slug:"aayesha-riaz",email:"aayeshariaz@uaar.edu.pk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Quaid-i-Azam University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"304923",title:"Dr.",name:"Saima",middleName:null,surname:"Naveed",fullName:"Saima Naveed",slug:"saima-naveed",email:"saimamahad@uvas.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Quaid-i-Azam University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Yeast: an ideal microbial feed supplement for ruminants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Understanding of the ruminant microbial community for development of ideal probiotic yeast for ruminants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Digestive system of ruminants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Microbial community of GIT",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Mechanism of action of probiotic yeast in the rumen",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Mechanism of action of probiotic yeast in the lower gut",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Modern methods to understand and develop fibrolytic probiotics for ruminants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Common methods used to identify indigenous probiotic yeast",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.1 Culture-dependent techniques",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.2 Culture-independent techniques",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"5.2.1 18S amplicon sequencing",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"5.2.2 Shotgun metagenomics",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"5.2.3 Metatranscriptomics",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"5.2.4 Metabolomics",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16",title:"6. Challenges in preparation of suitable probiotic yeast",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"7. Conclusions and future research",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"8. Recommendations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Vohra A, Syal P, Madan A. Probiotic yeasts in livestock sector. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 2016;219:31-47'},{id:"B2",body:'McCann JC, Elolimy AA, Loor JJ. Rumen microbiome, probiotics, and fermentation additives. Veterinary Clinics: Food Animal Practice. 2017;33(3):539-553'},{id:"B3",body:'Sanders ME, Huis J. Bringing a probiotic-containing functional food to the market: microbiological, product, regulatory and labeling issues. In Lactic Acid Bacteria: Genetics, Metabolism and Applications. Dordrecht: Springer; 1999. pp. 293-315'},{id:"B4",body:'Bonatsou S et al. Evaluating the probiotic potential and technological characteristics of yeasts implicated in cv. Kalamata natural black olive fermentation. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2018;271:48-59'},{id:"B5",body:'Ayala D et al. Molecular detection and quantification of viable probiotic strains in animal feedstuffs using the commercial direct fed microbial Lactobacillus animalis NP51 as a model. Journal of Microbiological Methods. 2018;149:36-43'},{id:"B6",body:'Le Thi Hong Van CK, Son HPH. In vitro assessment of potential probiotic microorganisms for application in animal feeding. Journal of Science and Technology. 2016;54(4A):250-258'},{id:"B7",body:'Ajithakumar H et al. Effect of prilled fat and yeast supplementation on milk production, fatty acid profile and economics of feeding in murrah buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences. 2017;6(10):1757-1767'},{id:"B8",body:'Vyas D et al. The effects of active dried and killed dried yeast on subacute ruminal acidosis, ruminal fermentation, and nutrient digestibility in beef heifers. Journal of Animal Science. 2014;92(2):724-732'},{id:"B9",body:'Uyeno Y, Shigemori S, Shimosato T. Effect of probiotics/prebiotics on cattle health and productivity. Microbes and Environments. 2015;30(2):126-132'},{id:"B10",body:'Zoumpopoulou G, Kazou M, Alexandraki V, Angelopoulou A, Papadimitriou K, Pot B, et al. Probiotics and Prebiotics: An Overview on Recent Trends. In Probiotics and Prebiotics in Animal Health and Food Safety. 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Indian Journal of Gastroenterology. 2015;34(2):93-107'},{id:"B22",body:'Bitencourt LL et al. Diet digestibility and performance of dairy cows supplemented with live yeast. Scientia Agricola. 2011;68(3):301-307'},{id:"B23",body:'Beev G, Todorova P, Tchobanova S. Yeast cultures in ruminant nutrition. Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science. 2007;13:357-374'},{id:"B24",body:'Baiomy A. Influence of live yeast culture on milk production, composition and some blood metabolites of ossimi ewes during the milking period. American Journal of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 2011;1(2):158-167'},{id:"B25",body:'Chaucheyras-Durand F, Chevaux E, Martin C, Forano E. Use of yeast probiotics in ruminants: Effects and mechanisms of action on rumen pH, fibre degradation, and microbiota according to the diet. In Probiotic in animals. Intech. 2012'},{id:"B26",body:'Campanile G et al. Effects of Saccharomyces cerevisiae on in vivo organic matter digestibility and milk yield in buffalo cows. Livestock Science. 2008;114(2-3):358-361'},{id:"B27",body:'Newbold CJ, Wallace R, McIntosh F. Mode of action of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a feed additive for ruminants. British Journal of Nutrition. 1996;76(2):249-261'},{id:"B28",body:'Hansen HH, El-Bordeny NE, Ebeid HM. Response of primiparous and multiparous buffaloes to yeast culture supplementation during early and mid-lactation. Animal Nutrition. 2017;3(4):411-418'},{id:"B29",body:'Ogbuewu I et al. Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and its effect on production indices of livestock and poultry—A review. Comparative Clinical Pathology. 2018:1-9'},{id:"B30",body:'Clauss M, Hofmann RR. The digestive system of ruminants, and peculiarities of (wild) cattle. Ecology, evolution and behaviour of wild cattle: Implications for conservation. 2014:57-62.a'},{id:"B31",body:'Burns J. ASAS centennial paper: Utilization of pasture and forages by ruminants: A historical perspective. 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Effects of diet and osmotic pressure on Na+ transport and tissue conductance of sheep isolated rumen epithelium. Experimental Physiology. 2006;91(3):539-550'},{id:"B38",body:'Henderson G et al. Rumen microbial community composition varies with diet and host, but a core microbiome is found across a wide geographical range. Scientific Reports. 2015;5:14567'},{id:"B39",body:'Fouts DE et al. Next generation sequencing to define prokaryotic and fungal diversity in the bovine rumen. PLoS One. 2012;7(11):e48289'},{id:"B40",body:'Liggenstoffer AS et al. Phylogenetic diversity and community structure of anaerobic gut fungi (Phylum neocallimastigomycota) in ruminant and non-ruminant herbivores. The ISME Journal. 2010;4(10):1225'},{id:"B41",body:'Gruninger RJ et al. Anaerobic fungi (Phylum neocallimastigomycota): Advances in understanding their taxonomy, life cycle, ecology, role and biotechnological potential. FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 2014;90(1):1-17'},{id:"B42",body:'Khan RU et al. Direct-fed microbial: Beneficial applications, modes of action and prospects as a safe tool for enhancing ruminant production and safeguarding health. International Journal of Pharmacology. 2016;12(3):220-231'},{id:"B43",body:'Lin B et al. Characterization of the rumen microbial community composition of buffalo breeds consuming diets typical of dairy production systems in Southern China. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 2015;207:75-84'},{id:"B44",body:'Rima H, Steve L, Ismail F. Antimicrobial and probiotic properties of yeasts: From fundamental to novel applications. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2012;3:421'},{id:"B45",body:'Galvão KN et al. Effect of feeding live yeast products to calves with failure of passive transfer on performance and patterns of antibiotic resistance in fecal Escherichia coli. Reproduction Nutrition Development. 2005;45(4):427-440'},{id:"B46",body:'Pinloche E et al. The effects of a probiotic yeast on the bacterial diversity and population structure in the rumen of cattle. PLoS One. 2013;8(7):e67824'},{id:"B47",body:'Cebra JJ. Influences of microbiota on intestinal immune system development. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1999;69(5):1046s-1051s'},{id:"B48",body:'Kumar S et al. Associative patterns among anaerobic fungi, methanogenic archaea, and bacterial communities in response to changes in diet and age in the rumen of dairy cows. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2015;6:781'},{id:"B49",body:'Hungate R. The rumen microbial ecosystem. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 1975;6(1):39-66'},{id:"B50",body:'Flint HJ et al. Polysaccharide utilization by gut bacteria: Potential for new insights from genomic analysis. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2008;6(2):121'},{id:"B51",body:'Oelschlaeger TA. Mechanisms of probiotic actions–A review. International Journal of Medical Microbiology. 2010;300(1):57-62'},{id:"B52",body:'AlZahal O et al. Factors influencing ruminal bacterial community diversity and composition and microbial fibrolytic enzyme abundance in lactating dairy cows with a focus on the role of active dry yeast. Journal of Dairy Science. 2017;100(6):4377-4393'},{id:"B53",body:'Gueimonde M, Salminen S. New methods for selecting and evaluating probiotics. Digestive and Liver Disease. 2006;38:S242-S247'},{id:"B54",body:'Davis C. Enumeration of probiotic strains: Review of culture-dependent and alternative techniques to quantify viable bacteria. Journal of Microbiological Methods. 2014;103:9-17'},{id:"B55",body:'Maldonado N et al. Effect of milk fermented with lactic acid bacteria on diarrheal incidence, growth performance and microbiological and blood profiles of newborn dairy calves. Probiotics and Antimicrobial Proteins. 2018;10(4):668-676'},{id:"B56",body:'Donovan PD et al. Identification of fungi in shotgun metagenomics datasets. PLoS One. 2018;13(2):e0192898'},{id:"B57",body:'Akinbowale OL, Peng H, Barton MD. Antimicrobial resistance in bacteria isolated from aquaculture sources in Australia. Journal of Applied Microbiology. 2006;100(5):1103-1113'},{id:"B58",body:'de Melo Pereira GV et al. How to select a probiotic? A review and update of methods and criteria. Biotechnology Advances. 2018;36(8):2060-2076'},{id:"B59",body:'Islam M, Lee S-S. Recent application technologies of rumen microbiome is the key to enhance feed fermentation. Journal of Life Science. 2018;28(10):1244-1253'},{id:"B60",body:'Bagheripoor-Fallah N et al. Comparison of molecular techniques with other methods for identification and enumeration of probiotics in fermented milk products. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2015;55(3):396-413'},{id:"B61",body:'Yadav R, Shukla P. An overview of advanced technologies for selection of probiotics and their expediency: A review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2017;57(15):3233-3242'},{id:"B62",body:'Panda SH, Goli JK, Das S. Production, optimization and probiotic characterization of potential lactic acid bacteria producing siderophores. AIMS Microbiology. 2017;3(1):88-107'},{id:"B63",body:'Silvestri G et al. Investigation of the microbial ecology of Ciauscolo, a traditional Italian salami, by culture-dependent techniques and PCR-DGGE. Meat Science. 2007;77(3):413-423'},{id:"B64",body:'Greppi A et al. Determination of yeast diversity in ogi, mawè, gowé and tchoukoutou by using culture-dependent and-independent methods. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2013;165(2):84-88'},{id:"B65",body:'He J-Z et al. Microbial composition and diversity of an upland red soil under long-term fertilization treatments as revealed by culture-dependent and culture-independent approaches. Journal of Soils and Sediments. 2008;8(5):349-358'},{id:"B66",body:'Rebollar EA et al. Using “omics” and integrated multi-omics approaches to guide probiotic selection to mitigate chytridiomycosis and other emerging infectious diseases. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2016;7:68'},{id:"B67",body:'Findley K et al. Topographic diversity of fungal and bacterial communities in human skin. Nature. 2013;498(7454):367'},{id:"B68",body:'Ghazanfar S et al. Metagenomics and its application in soil microbial community studies: Biotechnological prospects. Journal of Animal & Plant Sciences. 2010;6(2):611-622'},{id:"B69",body:'Lindahl BD et al. Fungal community analysis by high-throughput sequencing of amplified markers–A user\'s guide. New Phytologist. 2013;199(1):288-299'},{id:"B70",body:'Qin J et al. A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. Nature. 2010;464(7285):59'},{id:"B71",body:'Jung JY et al. Metatranscriptomic analysis of lactic acid bacterial gene expression during kimchi fermentation. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2013;163(2-3):171-179'},{id:"B72",body:'Gosalbes MJ et al. Metatranscriptomic approach to analyze the functional human gut microbiota. PLoS One. 2011;6(3):e17447'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Shakira Ghazanfar",address:"shakira_akmal@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
National Institute of Genomics and Advance Biotechnology (NIGAB), NARC, Pakistan
National Institute of Genomics and Advance Biotechnology (NIGAB), NARC, Pakistan
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Stress is any adverse environmental condition that hampers proper growth of plant. Abiotic stress creates adverse effect on multiple procedures of morphology, biochemistry and physiology that are directly connected with growth and yield of plant. Abiotic stress are quantitative trait hence genes linked to these traits can be identified and used to select desirable alleles responsible for tolerance in plant. Plants can initiate a number of molecular, cellular and physiological modifications to react to and adapt to abiotic stress. Crop productivity is significantly affected by drought, salinity and cold. Abiotic stress reduce water availability to plant roots by increasing water soluble salts in soil and plants suffer from increased osmotic pressure outside the root. Physiological changes include lowering of leaf osmotic potential, water potential and relative water content, creation of nutritional imbalance, enhancing relative stress injury or one or more combination of these factors. Morphological and biochemical changes include changes in root and shoot length, number of leaves, secondary metabolite (glycine betaine, proline, MDA, abscisic acid) accumulation in plant, source and sink ratio. Proposed chapter will concentrate on enhancing plant response to abiotic stress and contemporary breeding application to increasing stress tolerance.",book:{id:"9345",slug:"sustainable-crop-production",title:"Sustainable Crop Production",fullTitle:"Sustainable Crop Production"},signatures:"Summy Yadav, Payal Modi, Akanksha Dave, Akdasbanu Vijapura, Disha Patel and Mohini Patel",authors:[{id:"186963",title:"Dr.",name:"Summy",middleName:null,surname:"Yadav",slug:"summy-yadav",fullName:"Summy Yadav"},{id:"308004",title:"Ms.",name:"Payal",middleName:null,surname:"Modi",slug:"payal-modi",fullName:"Payal Modi"},{id:"308005",title:"Ms.",name:"Akanksha",middleName:null,surname:"Dave",slug:"akanksha-dave",fullName:"Akanksha Dave"},{id:"308006",title:"Ms.",name:"Akdasbanu",middleName:null,surname:"Vijapara",slug:"akdasbanu-vijapara",fullName:"Akdasbanu Vijapara"},{id:"308007",title:"Ms.",name:"Disha",middleName:null,surname:"Patel",slug:"disha-patel",fullName:"Disha Patel"},{id:"308008",title:"Ms.",name:"Mohini",middleName:null,surname:"Patel",slug:"mohini-patel",fullName:"Mohini Patel"}]},{id:"45540",doi:"10.5772/56621",title:"Genes and QTLs for Rice Grain Quality Improvement",slug:"genes-and-qtls-for-rice-grain-quality-improvement",totalDownloads:3762,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:47,abstract:null,book:{id:"3554",slug:"rice-germplasm-genetics-and-improvement",title:"Rice",fullTitle:"Rice - Germplasm, Genetics and Improvement"},signatures:"Jinsong Bao",authors:[{id:"52135",title:"Dr.",name:"Jinsong",middleName:null,surname:"Bao",slug:"jinsong-bao",fullName:"Jinsong Bao"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70658",title:"Factors Affecting Yield of Crops",slug:"factors-affecting-yield-of-crops",totalDownloads:4150,totalCrossrefCites:31,totalDimensionsCites:45,abstract:"A good understanding of dynamics involved in food production is critical for the improvement of food security. It has been demonstrated that an increase in crop yields significantly reduces poverty. Yield, the mass of harvest crop product in a specific area, is influenced by several factors. These factors are grouped in three basic categories known as technological (agricultural practices, managerial decision, etc.), biological (diseases, insects, pests, weeds) and environmental (climatic condition, soil fertility, topography, water quality, etc.). These factors account for yield differences from one region to another worldwide. The current chapter will discuss each of these three basic factors as well as providing some recommendations for overcoming them. In addition, it will provide the importance of climate-smart agriculture in the increase of crop yields while facilitating the achievement of crop production in safe environment. This goes in line with the second goal of 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development of United Nations in transforming our world formulated as end hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.",book:{id:"8153",slug:"agronomy-climate-change-food-security",title:"Agronomy",fullTitle:"Agronomy - Climate Change & Food Security"},signatures:"Tandzi Ngoune Liliane and Mutengwa Shelton Charles",authors:[{id:"313819",title:"Dr.",name:"Liliane",middleName:null,surname:"Tandzi",slug:"liliane-tandzi",fullName:"Liliane Tandzi"},{id:"314316",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles Shelton",middleName:null,surname:"Mutengwa",slug:"charles-shelton-mutengwa",fullName:"Charles Shelton Mutengwa"}]},{id:"40178",title:"Molecular Markers and Marker-Assisted Breeding in Plants",slug:"molecular-markers-and-marker-assisted-breeding-in-plants",totalDownloads:23130,totalCrossrefCites:85,totalDimensionsCites:153,abstract:null,book:{id:"3060",slug:"plant-breeding-from-laboratories-to-fields",title:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields",fullTitle:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields"},signatures:"Guo-Liang Jiang",authors:[{id:"158810",title:"Dr.",name:"Guo-Liang",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"guo-liang-jiang",fullName:"Guo-Liang Jiang"}]},{id:"60074",title:"Pollen Germination in vitro",slug:"pollen-germination-in-vitro",totalDownloads:2812,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Pollen germination in vitro is a reliable method to test the pollen viability. It also addresses many basic questions in sexual reproduction and particularly useful in wide hybridization. Many pollen germination medium ranging from simple sugars to complex one having vitamins, growth regulators, etc. in addition to various minerals have been standardized to germinate pollen artificially. The different media, successful pollen germination methods, procedures from pollen germination studies with wheat, rye, brinjal, pigeonpea and its wild relatives are discussed.",book:{id:"6659",slug:"pollination-in-plants",title:"Pollination in Plants",fullTitle:"Pollination in Plants"},signatures:"Jayaprakash P",authors:[{id:"235465",title:"Dr.",name:"Jayaprakash",middleName:null,surname:"P",slug:"jayaprakash-p",fullName:"Jayaprakash P"}]},{id:"62376",title:"Genotype × Environment Interaction: A Prerequisite for Tomato Variety Development",slug:"genotype-environment-interaction-a-prerequisite-for-tomato-variety-development",totalDownloads:2339,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is the second most important vegetable crop in the world due to its high level of nutrition particularly in vitamins and antioxidants. It is grown in several ecologies of the world due to its adaptability and ease of cultivation. Besides field conditions, tomatoes are grown in controlled environments which range from hydroponics and simple high tunnel structures to highly automated screen houses in advanced countries. However, the yield and quality of the fruits are highly influenced by the environment. This results in unpredictable performances in different growing environments in terms of quality, a phenomenon known as genotype by environment (G × E) interaction which confounds selection efficiency. Various approaches are employed by plant breeders to evaluate and address the challenges posed by genotype by environment interaction. This chapter discusses various field and controlled environments for growing tomatoes and the effect of these environments on the performance of the crop. The various types of genotype × environment interactions and their effect of the tomato plant are discussed. Finally, efforts are made to suggest ways and methods of mitigating the confounding effects of genotype × environment interaction including statistical approaches.",book:{id:"6422",slug:"recent-advances-in-tomato-breeding-and-production",title:"Recent Advances in Tomato Breeding and Production",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Tomato Breeding and Production"},signatures:"Michael Kwabena Osei, Benjamin Annor, Joseph Adjebeng-\nDanquah, Agyemang Danquah, Eric Danquah, Essie Blay and Hans\nAdu-Dapaah",authors:[{id:"204223",title:"Dr.",name:"Agyemang",middleName:null,surname:"Danquah",slug:"agyemang-danquah",fullName:"Agyemang Danquah"},{id:"217531",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Michael Kwabena",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"michael-kwabena-osei",fullName:"Michael Kwabena Osei"},{id:"217760",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Adjebeng-Danquah",slug:"joseph-adjebeng-danquah",fullName:"Joseph Adjebeng-Danquah"},{id:"217768",title:"MSc.",name:"Benjamin",middleName:null,surname:"Annor",slug:"benjamin-annor",fullName:"Benjamin Annor"},{id:"247378",title:"Dr.",name:"Eric Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Danquah",slug:"eric-y.-danquah",fullName:"Eric Y. Danquah"},{id:"248095",title:"Prof.",name:"Essie",middleName:null,surname:"Blay",slug:"essie-blay",fullName:"Essie Blay"},{id:"248096",title:"Prof.",name:"Hans",middleName:null,surname:"Adu-Dapaah",slug:"hans-adu-dapaah",fullName:"Hans Adu-Dapaah"}]},{id:"45153",title:"Irrigation of Sandy Soils, Basics and Scheduling",slug:"irrigation-of-sandy-soils-basics-and-scheduling",totalDownloads:5638,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"3357",slug:"crop-production",title:"Crop Production",fullTitle:"Crop Production"},signatures:"Mohamed S. Alhammadi and Ali M. Al-Shrouf",authors:[{id:"78245",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:"Salman",surname:"Alhammadi",slug:"mohamed-alhammadi",fullName:"Mohamed Alhammadi"},{id:"159904",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Shrouf",slug:"ali-al-shrouf",fullName:"Ali Al-Shrouf"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"29",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
\r\n
\r\n\t
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
\r\n
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\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11975,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Engineering, University of Naples “Parthenope,” Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Italy. 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Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. 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He is an academic staff member of the Department of Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Selçuk University, Turkey. He manages several studies on sperms and embryos and is an editorial board member for several international journals. His studies include sperm cryobiology, in vitro fertilization, and embryo production in animals.",institutionString:"Selçuk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine",institution:null},{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90846/images/system/90846.jpg",biography:"Yusuf Bozkurt has a BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. from Ankara University, Turkey. He is currently a Professor of Biotechnology of Reproduction in the field of Aquaculture, İskenderun Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include reproductive biology and biotechnology with an emphasis on cryo-conservation. He is on the editorial board of several international peer-reviewed journals and has published many papers. Additionally, he has participated in many international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops with oral and poster presentations. He is an active member of many local and international organizations.",institutionString:"İskenderun Technical University",institution:{name:"İskenderun Technical University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",biography:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev is a senior research scientist at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Russia, and at the Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. He received his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology with his thesis “Genetic variability of the tick-borne encephalitis virus in natural foci of Novosibirsk city and its suburbs.” His primary field is molecular virology with research emphasis on vector-borne viruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, rabies virus, molecular genetics, biology, and epidemiology of virus pathogens.",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",biography:"Amlan K. Patra, FRSB, obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from Indian Veterinary Research Institute, India, in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences. He has more than twenty years of research and teaching experience. He held previous positions at the American Institute for Goat Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA, and Free University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on animal nutrition, particularly ruminants and poultry nutrition, gastrointestinal electrophysiology, meta-analysis and modeling in nutrition, and livestock–environment interaction. He has authored around 175 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. 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