\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10210",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Solar System Planets and Exoplanets",title:"Solar System Planets and Exoplanets",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Solar System Planets and Exoplanets provides a current viewpoint of planetary systems. The solar system’s planets and exoplanets are addressed in an overview manner, and specific space probe data are used to provide a current state of knowledge of Venus and Mars. Recent Mars data and associated observations are addressed in several chapters. Of particular interest are data that suggest the possibility that life could have existed on the planet’s surface during its past when Mars’ atmosphere was wetter and denser. The search for life on Mars is one of the main objectives of space missions, and it is an ongoing theme of this book. Key to the existence of life is the evolution of the radiation output of the Sun that is discussed and projected into the future. Space probe data related to the Asteroid Belt is also presented. Technological advances in terms of operating aircraft on Mars and propulsion systems provide useful commentary regarding future innovations that will enhance upcoming space missions and the search for life.",isbn:"978-1-83969-313-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-312-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-314-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90977",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"solar-system-planets-and-exoplanets",numberOfPages:234,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"b7f57c0e93406f0925482b204ad392ec",bookSignature:"Joseph Bevelacqua",publishedDate:"July 7th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10210.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3791,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:7,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:10,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 12th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 10th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 8th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 29th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 28th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"115462",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",middleName:"John",surname:"Bevelacqua",slug:"joseph-bevelacqua",fullName:"Joseph Bevelacqua",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/115462/images/system/115462.jpeg",biography:"Joseph John Bevelacqua, Ph.D., CHP, RRPT, is the President of Bevelacqua Resources, Richland, Washington, USA, a provider of physics-related consulting services. A theoretical nuclear physicist by training, Dr. Bevelacqua is a Certified Health Physicist, Registered Radiation Protection Technologist, and Certified Senior Reactor Operator and has over 45 years of professional experience. He was a key player in the Three Mile Island and Hanford cleanup activities, and he is an active researcher with over 185 publications and 4 textbooks. His research areas include theoretical nuclear physics, theoretical particle physics, cosmic radiation, astrophysics, planetary studies, earth science, solar physics, cancer therapy using heavy ions and microspheres, gravitation, group theory, mathematical physics, and applied health physics. Additional effort has focused on muon and tau colliders and theoretical studies of a tetraquark, pentaquark, and hexaquark systems. Studies involving quark fusion have also been published. Recent research has involved space medicine, physiological and radiological effects of manned space missions, COVID-19 treatment using low-dose radiation therapy, neutron excess nuclei formation in stellar collisions, and superheavy nuclei. He received a California University’s Professional Excellence Award for his accomplishments. Dr. Bevelacqua is a member of numerous professional organizations including the American Physical Society, American Nuclear Society, American Mathematical Association, Health Physics Society, and Royal Astronomical Society of Canada.",institutionString:"Bevelacqua Resources, United States",position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"623",title:"Solar System",slug:"solar-system"}],chapters:[{id:"77169",title:"Solar System Planets and Exoplanets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98431",slug:"solar-system-planets-and-exoplanets",totalDownloads:349,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Solar System planets have been studied for centuries, but the observation of exoplanets is only a few decades old. Consequently, knowledge of exoplanets is considerably more limited than Solar System planets. This chapter reviews the essential characteristics of Solar System planets and associated data derived from a variety of observational approaches. Exoplanet characteristics and their comparison to Solar System planets are provided as well as general detection methods and planned probes to gather additional data.",signatures:"Joseph Bevelacqua",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77169",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77169",authors:[{id:"115462",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Bevelacqua",slug:"joseph-bevelacqua",fullName:"Joseph Bevelacqua"}],corrections:null},{id:"75534",title:"Millennial Oscillations of Solar Irradiance and Magnetic Field in 600–2600",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96450",slug:"millennial-oscillations-of-solar-irradiance-and-magnetic-field-in-600-2600",totalDownloads:1260,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Daily ephemeris of Sun-Earth distances in two millennia (600–2600) showed significant decreases in February–June by up to 0.005 au in millennium M1 (600–1600) and 0.011au in millennium M2 (1600–2600). The Earth’s aphelion in M2 is shorter because shifted towards mid-July and perihelion longer because shifted to mid-January naturally explaining two-millennial variations (Hallstatt’s cycle) of the baseline solar magnetic field measured from Earth. The S-E distance variations are shown imposed by shifts of Sun’s position towards the spring equinox imposed by the gravitation of large planets, or solar inertial motion (SIM). Daily variations of total solar irradiance (TSI) calculated with these S-E distances revealed TSI increases in February–June by up to 10–12 W/m2 in M1 and 14–18 W/m2 in M2. There is also positive imbalance detected in the annual TSI magnitudes deposited to Earth in millennium M2 compared to millennium M1: up to 1.3 W/m2, for monthly, and up to 20–25 W/m2 for daily TSI magnitudes. This imbalance confirms an ascending phase of the current TSI (Hallstatt’s) cycle in M2. The consequences for terrestrial atmosphere of this additional solar forcing induced by the annual TSI imbalances are evaluated. The implications of extra solar forcing for two modern grand solar minima in M2 are also discussed.",signatures:"Valentina Zharkova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75534",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75534",authors:[{id:"344368",title:"Prof.",name:"Valentina",surname:"Zharkova",slug:"valentina-zharkova",fullName:"Valentina Zharkova"}],corrections:null},{id:"76357",title:"Solar Cycle Variations in the Position of Vortex Structures in the Venus Wake",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96710",slug:"solar-cycle-variations-in-the-position-of-vortex-structures-in-the-venus-wake",totalDownloads:215,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Measurements conducted with the Venus Express (VEX) spacecraft at its entry and exit through vortex structures in the Venus wake reveal that their position varies with the solar cycle. Both crossings are consistently measured closer to Venus during minimum solar cycle conditions and are gradually encountered at larger distances downstream from the planet along the solar cycle. At the same time their width along the VEX trajectory on the plane transverse to the solar wind direction is larger during minimum solar cycle conditions and show a gradual decrease along the solar cycle. As a result the vortex structures are envisioned as features that gradually become thinner as they extend along the Venus wake and agree with the geometry of a vortex flow in fluid dynamics whose thickness decreases with the downstream distance from an obstacle. Similar conditions should also be applicable to Mars and other bodies within the solar system and also possibly to exo-planets in external stellar systems.",signatures:"H. Pérez-de-Tejada and R. Lundin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76357",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76357",authors:[{id:"345070",title:"Dr.",name:"Hector",surname:"Pérez-de-Tejada",slug:"hector-perez-de-tejada",fullName:"Hector Pérez-de-Tejada"},{id:"345560",title:"Dr.",name:"R.",surname:"Lundin",slug:"r.-lundin",fullName:"R. Lundin"}],corrections:null},{id:"76570",title:"Sedimentation and Proposed Algorithms to Detect the Possible Existence of Vegetation and Humidity in the Landing Area of the Mars Exploration Rover-B (Opportunity)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97628",slug:"sedimentation-and-proposed-algorithms-to-detect-the-possible-existence-of-vegetation-and-humidity-in",totalDownloads:267,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Opportunity was launched in 2004 and has been providing interesting data from Mars till 2018. Meridiani Planum was the landing site for the robot. This crater has numerous rock outcrops, which are considered a valuable geological resource that contains keys to the Martian past. In this work, several algorithms have been developed for detecting the possible presence of humidity and vegetation on Mars through the images sent by the Mars Exploration Rover - B Opportunity and by the Viking Orbiter between 1976 and 1980. For this, it was carried out a sedimentary simulation of the study area, as well as an analysis of all the images from the spectral signatures extracted. The results show the existence of three types of water on the surface, as well as concentrations of Neoxanthin, also on landing area surface, that suggest the possible existence of microalgae.",signatures:"Emilio Ramírez-Juidías, Katherine Villavicencio-Valero and Arthur Borja",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76570",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76570",authors:[{id:"222957",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilio",surname:"Ramírez Juidías",slug:"emilio-ramirez-juidias",fullName:"Emilio Ramírez Juidías"},{id:"354759",title:"Dr.",name:"Katherine",surname:"Villavicencio Valero",slug:"katherine-villavicencio-valero",fullName:"Katherine Villavicencio Valero"},{id:"354760",title:"Dr.",name:"Arthur",surname:"Borja",slug:"arthur-borja",fullName:"Arthur Borja"}],corrections:null},{id:"75055",title:"Life on Mars: Clues, Evidence or Proof?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95531",slug:"life-on-mars-clues-evidence-or-proof-",totalDownloads:442,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The search for life on Mars is one of the main objectives of space missions. At “Pahrump Hills Field Site” (Gale Crater, Mojave target), inside the mudstones of the Murray lacustrine sequence, Curiosity rover found organic materials and lozenge shaped laths considered by NASA as pseudomorphic crystals. Besides it detected mineral assemblages suggesting both oxidizing (hematite) and reducing (magnetite) environments, as well as acidic (diagenetic and/or authigenic jarosite) and neutral (apatite) conditions, that might suggest bacterially mediated reactions. Our morphological and morphometrical investigations show that such diagenetic microstructures are unlikely to be lozenge shapes and, in addition to several converging features, they suggest the presence of remnants of complex algal-like biota, similar to terrestrial procaryotes and/or eukaryotes; possible microorganisms that, on the base of absolute dating criteria used by other scholars, lived on Mars about 2.12 +/−0.36 Ga ago.",signatures:"Vincenzo Rizzo, Richard Armstrong, Hong Hua, Nicola Cantasano, Tommaso Nicolò and Giorgio Bianciardi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75055",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75055",authors:[{id:"341758",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincenzo",surname:"Rizzo",slug:"vincenzo-rizzo",fullName:"Vincenzo Rizzo"},{id:"341770",title:"Prof.",name:"Richard",surname:"Armstrong",slug:"richard-armstrong",fullName:"Richard Armstrong"},{id:"341771",title:"Prof.",name:"Hong",surname:"Hua",slug:"hong-hua",fullName:"Hong Hua"},{id:"341772",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicola",surname:"Cantasano",slug:"nicola-cantasano",fullName:"Nicola Cantasano"},{id:"341773",title:"Dr.",name:"Tommaso",surname:"Niccolò",slug:"tommaso-niccolo",fullName:"Tommaso Niccolò"},{id:"341774",title:"Prof.",name:"Giorgio",surname:"Bianciardi",slug:"giorgio-bianciardi",fullName:"Giorgio Bianciardi"}],corrections:null},{id:"76217",title:"New Insights into the Search for Life on Mars",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97176",slug:"new-insights-into-the-search-for-life-on-mars",totalDownloads:321,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The discovery by the Lander Phoenix (summer 2008) that the Mars polar soil is rich of perchloric acid salts (Na, Mg, Ca perchlorate) strongly could change the interpretation of the Martian experiment of 14CO2 release (LR, Labeled release experiment), performed in 70’s by both Viking Landers. The LR experiment gave substantially positive results but, at that time, possibility of Martian bacteria was ruled out because the CGMS instruments on board of both Vikings didn’t detect any trace of complex organic molecules. But Martian organics exist and were found in fair quantities by Curiosity, landed inside the Gale crater on 2012. So it is likely that Viking CGMS, working at about 500°C, could not see any organic substances (natural or bacterial) because, at that temperature, perchlorates decompose, releasing Oxygen that destroyed organics BEFORE their detection. In any case, the discovery of keragenic compounds by Curiosity, could also be indication of a presence of archea bacteria in the distant past of Mars, when the atmosphere of the Red Planet was wetter and denser than now.",signatures:"Cesare Guaita",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76217",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76217",authors:[{id:"346003",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesare",surname:"Guaita",slug:"cesare-guaita",fullName:"Cesare Guaita"}],corrections:null},{id:"74633",title:"The Challenge of Controlling a Small Mars Plane",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95507",slug:"the-challenge-of-controlling-a-small-mars-plane",totalDownloads:396,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Dielectric elastomers (DEs) are lightweight and high-power, making them ideal for power control in a planetary exploration spacecraft. In this chapter, we will discuss the control of an exploration airplane exploring the surface of Mars using DEs. This airplane requires lightweight and powerful actuators to fly in the rare Martian atmosphere. DEs are a possible candidate for use as actuator controlling the airplane since they have high power, and high efficiency. A structural model of a wing having a control surface, a DE, and a linkage was built and a wind tunnel test of a control surface actuation using a DE actuator was carried out.",signatures:"Seiki Chiba and Mikio Waki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74633",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74633",authors:[{id:"33308",title:"Dr.",name:"Seiki",surname:"Chiba",slug:"seiki-chiba",fullName:"Seiki Chiba"},{id:"33315",title:"Mr.",name:"Mikio",surname:"Waki",slug:"mikio-waki",fullName:"Mikio Waki"}],corrections:null},{id:"75736",title:"Martian Moons and Space Transportation Using Chemical and Electric Propulsion Options",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96717",slug:"martian-moons-and-space-transportation-using-chemical-and-electric-propulsion-options",totalDownloads:292,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Using chemical and nuclear electric propulsion for the exploration of the Martian moons will be investigated. Both oxygen/hydrogen chemical propulsion and nuclear electric propulsion with 500 kilowatt electric (kWe) to 10 megawatt electric (MWe) reactors will be assessed. The initial masses, propellant masses, and trip times for a variety of space vehicle payload masses will be compared. For high energy orbital transfer, the nuclear electric propulsion vehicles required a small fraction of the propellant mass over oxygen/hydrogen orbital transfer vehicles (OTVs). The moons, Phobos and Deimos, may hold resources for refueling future space vehicles. In-situ resource utilization (ISRU) can be a powerful method of reducing Earth dependence on space vehicle propellants, liquid water, and breathing gases. Historical studies have identified the potential of water in carbonaceous chondrites on the moons. The moon-derived propellants OTVs that move payloads between the moons and to other important operational Mars orbits. Also, the propellants have been suggested to support reusable Mars landers. To extract the water, the mined mass, its volume and the mining time were estimated. The water mass fraction may be as low as 2x10−4. Very large masses were needed to be extracted for up to 100 MT of water.",signatures:"Bryan Palaszewski",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75736",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75736",authors:[{id:"279275",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Bryan",surname:"Palaszewski",slug:"bryan-palaszewski",fullName:"Bryan Palaszewski"}],corrections:null},{id:"75510",title:"Special Crater Types on Vesta and Ceres as Revealed by Dawn",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96671",slug:"special-crater-types-on-vesta-and-ceres-as-revealed-by-dawn",totalDownloads:249,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The exploration of two small planetary bodies by the Dawn mission revealed multifaced surfaces showing a diverse geology and surface features. Impact crater are the most distinctive features on these planetary bodies. The surfaces of asteroid Vesta and the dwarf planet Ceres reveal craters with an individual appearance as caused by different formation processes. Special topographic and subsurface conditions on both bodies have led to the development of special crater types. This chapter present the three most characteristic crater forms fund on both bodies. Asymmetric craters are found on both bodies, whereas ring-mold craters and floor-fractured craters are only visible on Ceres.",signatures:"Katrin Krohn",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75510",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75510",authors:[{id:"343764",title:"Dr.",name:"Katrin",surname:"Krohn",slug:"katrin-krohn",fullName:"Katrin Krohn"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1629",title:"Astrophysics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"95209a68cff9bc045b51611c513b63bd",slug:"astrophysics",bookSignature:"Ibrahim Kucuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1629.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"102957",title:"Prof.",name:"İbrahim",surname:"Küçük",slug:"ibrahim-kucuk",fullName:"İbrahim Küçük"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8444",title:"Lunar Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f1dcf511a174e8ec89d97ca8c0c6146a",slug:"lunar-science",bookSignature:"Yann H. 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The course of disease is characterized by duality. The main autoimmune processes are manifested in thyrotoxicosis with a lymphocytic infiltration and diffuse thyroid enlargement, which can be associated with orbitopathy in 15–25% and pretibial myxedema in 0.5–4.5% [3]. The autoimmune processes are associated with the development of autoantibodies against different antigens, such as thyroid antigens [TSH receptor, thyroid peroxidase (TPO) enzyme and thyroglobulin (Tg)] and IGF-1 receptor, as well as against extraocular muscle membrane and cytosol antigens, and intracellular particles (flavoprotein subunit of mitochondrial succinate dehydrogenase, sarcalumenin, calsequestrin, collagen XII)] in thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy [4, 5, 6, 7]. The increased production of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, TNFα), chemokines and costimulatory ligands on fibroblasts and adipocytes lead to inflammatory and infiltrating processes, and glycosaminoglycan (GAG) accumulation resulting in local tissue enlargements [8, 9]. In orbitopathy, the local infiltrating processes are responsible for the proptosis and sometimes the damage of nervi optici that can reach vision loss in the final stage. TSH receptor stimulating antibodies are kept to be the causative factors for hyperthyroidism. Autoantibodies against IGF-1 nearby receptor are involved in the edematous-infiltrative processes [10]. Antibodies against thyroid peroxidase (TPO) and thyroglobulin (Tg) are the relevant thyroid autoantibodies in Graves’ Disease [11]. The binding of IgG and IgA autoantibodies to human extraocular muscle was different: IgG types bound endomysially, while IgA types bound to muscle fibers [12].
Deiodinase enzymes, DIO1, DIO2 and DIO3 are responsible for the conversion of T4 to active T3 hormone, the maintenance of the local T3 levels and the inactivation of T4 and T3 hormones [13, 14]. Deiodinase enzymes show tissue-specific expression, which limits their functions. Many drugs, iodine and selenium supply, proinflammatory cytokines and autoantibodies can influence DIO activities [15, 16]. The increased T4 levels are connected to the acceleration of the physiological degradation of DIO2 enzyme [17]. The common localization of DIO2 enzyme between thyroid and eye muscle tissues suggests that its autoantigenic role can be important in Graves’ ophthalmopathy [18, 19]. 5′-deiodinase enzymes (DIO1 and DIO2) play a crucial role in thyroid hormone synthesis. TPO enzyme plays a role in the iodination of tyrosyl residues and their coupling to T3 and T4 in the colloid-embedded Tg with the interaction of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) at the apical plasma membrane of thyrocytes [20]. The schematically illustrated process of thyroid hormone synthesis is exhibited in Figure 1 highlighting the role of DIO1 and DIO2 activities.
Schematic illustration of thyroid hormone synthesis and thyroidal deiodinase activities (DIO1 and DIO2). DIO1: Type 1 deiodinase; DIO2: Type 2 deiodinase; Tg: Thyroglobulin; TPO: Thyroid peroxidase; T2, T3 and T4: Iodothyronines with 2, 3 and 4 iodides.
This review emphasizes the role of deiodinases in the hyperthyroidism of Graves’ Disease with respect to the thyroid functional stages and the relationship with antithyroid autoantibodies and autoantibodies against extraocular muscle and peptides corresponding to amino acid sequence of DIO2, as well as with the antithyroid drug (ATD) therapies.
Three types of deiodinase enzymes (DIO1, DIO2, DIO3) are responsible for the activation and inactivation of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) thyroid hormones [21]. Deiodinase enzymes demonstrate tissue-specific localization. DIO1 enzyme is expressed in the liver, kidney and thyroid parenchymal cells localized in the plasma membrane [22]. Its active center is found in the cytosol. T4 plays as a prohormone for the active T3 hormone. T4 has four iodine bindings at the 3,3′, 5 and 5′ positions. DIO1 enzyme is able to cleave iodine from 5 (inner ring deiodination, step of T4 inactivation) or 5′ position (outer ring deiodination, step of active T3 hormone production). The dual effect of DIO1 enzyme plays a crucial role in the excessive thyroid hormone production, called hyperthyroidism. DIO2 enzyme is a widespread 5′-deiodinase expressed in thyroid, skeletal muscle and adipose tissues, hypothalamus, pituitary, skin, osteoblast, astroglia, retina, cochlea, placenta and endothelial cells localized in the endoplasmic reticulum [23]. Its active center is found in the cytosol. DIO1 expression can be induced transcriptionally by T3 and TSH receptor stimulating antibodies. Fasting and chronic illnesses decrease DIO1 activity. The inhibitory effect on thyroidal DIO1 and DIO2 activities was demonstrated
DIO3 is an enzyme located in the plasma membrane. It has both extra- and intracellular activity [29]. DIO3 plays a crucial role in fetal development and tissue-repair. It is expressed in placenta, uterus, neurons, skin, alveolar cells, glial cells, urothelium, gastrointestinal tract, hypothalamus and skeletal muscle [30]. DIO3 inactivates T3 through inner ring 5-deiodination. Its increased activity is responsible for the consumptive hypothyroidism observated in hepatic hemangiomas [31]. Nether DIO2 nor DIO3 are PTU sensitive enzymes. Hypothyroidism is connected to an increase in DIO1 and DIO2 activities, but DIO3 activities are decreased [22]. Hyperthyroidism is connected to an increase in both thyroidal DIO1 and DIO2, but to a decrease in extrathyroidal DIO2 activities. Iopodic acid, the contrast material with high iodine content decreases the activities of all deiodinase enzymes. The alterations in T4 and T3 levels according to thyroid function have a different effect on the deiodinase enzyme activities in the living cells vs. sonicated cells [23]. No protein synthesis can happen in sonicated cells. Therefore, the sonicated cell content could be regarded as a deiodinase enzyme solution.
Hyperthyroidism is characterized by increased serum FT4 and FT3 levels, which can be associated with Graves’ Disease, toxic goiter, destruction-induced thyrotoxicosis and subacute thyroiditis. Thyroid follicular cells possess both DIO1 and DIO2 enzymes, but not DIO3 enzyme. The amount of produced FT4 and FT3, and the ratio of FT3 to FT4 can help with the diagnosis [32]. Serum FT3 levels are predominant and are better formed than FT4 in hyperthyroidism connected to Graves’ Disease or toxic goiter [33]. In Graves’ hyperthyroidism, the increase in the daily production of T3 and T4 was 7-fold and 3.5-fold, respectively. Laurberg and coworkers demonstrated that the major source of excess T3 derived from increased thyroidal DIO1 and DIO2 activities (in a ratio of 3 to 1). This is in contrast to what is found in euthyroidism, where 20% of T3 came from thyroidal production and 80% from extrathyroidal deiodination [25]. In hyperthyroidism, a large part of T3 levels was produced by the thyroid (in 57–77%) by way of converting T4 to T3 with decreased peripheral deiodination. The extrathyroidal DIO2 activities were decreased in hyperthyroidism with the exception of the thyroidal one due to the increased thyroidal formation of T4 and T3. Maia and coworkers supported that thyroidal DIO1 activity is responsible for 67% of T3 production in hyperthyroidism [22]. In HEK 293 cells, which transiently expressed DIO1 and DIO2 enzymes, the effect of 2–20-200 pM T4 was studied on these cells modeling hypo-, eu- and hyperthyroid states. DIO1 activity was continuous, but DIO2 activity was decreased by the concentration of 200 pM T4. Salvatore and coworkers emphasized the greater role of DIO2 enzyme in the excess T3 in Graves’ hyperthyroidism [34]. Ito and coworkers suggested that thyroidal DIO1 and specifically, DIO2 could be contributed to the higher ratio of FT3 to FT4 in Graves’ hyperthyroidism [35]. The lower ratio of T3 to T4 can help us with the diagnosis of destruction-induced thyrotoxicosis and subacute thyroiditis [36]. Values less than of 20 confirm the above mentioned diseases, while the values above 20 are connected to Graves’ hyperthyroidism. Weetman and coworkers made the DIO1 and DIO2 activities responsible for the syndrome of low T4 with increased T3 levels during PTU treatment [37]. Thyroidal DIO1 activity is mainly regulated by cAMP at pretranslational levels, similarly to TSH receptor stimulating antibody-induced cAMP. Thyroglobulin and iodine contents of thyroid can influence the generation of T4 and T3 through the rate of hydrolysis from the colloid-embedded thyroglobulin. This condition can contribute to the alterations in the production of thyroid hormones. Very few reports could be found, which explained in detail the thyroid hormone production connecting to the formation of the coupling mechanism alone or together with deiodinase conversion. Iodide alone inhibited both thyroidal deiodinase activities rapidly decreasing the circulating T3 by 50% and T4 by 70% [33]. Ipodate is also a potent inhibitor for DIO1 and DIO2 enzymes due to its iodine content of 64%. Ipodate with PTU resulted in a profound decrease in serum T3. In untreated Graves’ hyperthyroidism, the T3 content of Tg was 2-fold of what was found in euthyroidism [38]. In hyperthyroidism, local DIO2 activity is required for the intrapituitary production of T3, which is responsible for the acute decrease in TSH levels [39].
In our study, homogenized (supernatant of 100 000 x g separated by centrifugations) thyroidal, skeletal and eye muscle tissue fractions, called cytosol fractions were applied for the measurements of deiodinase enzyme activities [40]. Thyroid tissues were obtained from the removal of euthyroid goiter; the removal of skeletal muscle during accident surgery and the removal of extraocular muscle during strabismus surgery. All tissue fractions contained DIO2 enzyme, the activity of which was measured in the presence of patient sera with Graves’ Disease with respect to the different thyroid hormonal stages. The DIO2 content of cytosol fractions was proofed before the study using guinea pig sera immunized with TCSS and LVFR peptides. Both peptides were corresponding to amino acid sequences of human DIO2 (GenBank AAD45494–1) and contained the selenocysteine at position 133 in the active center of the enzyme:
The patient sera of hyper-, eu- and hypothyroid Graves’ Disease were added to thyroidal, skeletal and eye muscle cytosol fractions, which contained DIO2 enzyme activities. The study could be considered as an
Fifty-two patients with Graves’ Disease, of whom 37 had ophthalmopathy, were investigated [42]. The difference in the disease duration, the ratio of FT3 to FT4 and the serum levels of TSH receptor antibodies was significant between the Graves’ patients with and without ophthalmopathy. The difference in DIO2 activities was relevant and constant among thyroidal, skeletal and eye muscle cytosol fractions in hyper-, eu- and hypothyroidism in Graves’ ophthalmopathy. The effect of increased serum FT4 levels was 1.9 times greater on eye muscle DIO2 than thyroidal DIO2 activity. The findings demonstrated that, the tissue-specific DIO2 activities also play a crucial role in the T3 content of peripheral tissues in hyperthyroidism. The skeletal muscle and thyroidal DIO2 activities were lower by 27% and 47%, respectively in hyperthyroidism, as well as were lower by 27% and 87%, respectively in hypothyroidism compared to eye muscle DIO2 activity. DIO2 activities of all cytosol fractions were 6.3 times lower in hyperthyroidism and 3.5 times greater in hypothyroidism compared to those in euthyroidism (Figure 2). In hyperthyroidism, the thyroidal DIO2 activity was better inhibited than that of peripheral tissues. In hypothyroidism, increased thyroidal DIO2 activity could be found together with increased peripheral tissue DIO2 activities.
The effect of patient sera with Graves’ Disease on thyroidal, skeletal and eye muscle DIO2 activities with respect to thyroid functional stages based on FT4 levels. DIO2: Type 2 deiodinase.
The effects of FT3 hyperthyroidism were identical on DIO2 activities in all cytosol fractions, but their activities were 2 times higher in euthyroidism compared to those found by increased FT4 levels. No increase in any DIO2 activities could be detected with respect to FT3 levels in hypothyroidism compared to those in euthyroidism. The decrease in all DIO2 activities was the consequence of the increased FT4 levels, which demonstrated a substrate-mediated inhibitory effect in hyperthyroidism. Note, however, that the inhibitory effect of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-1 and TNFα) and the therapy cannot be excluded in some cases. Our previous study confirmed the role of IL-6 in Graves’ ophthalmopathy with active eye signs [43]. The presence of inflammatory orbital events and a longer manifestation of ophthalmopathy were associated with increased serum IL-6 levels. Therefore, the autoimmune features of Graves’ Disease can modify DIO2 activities. The increased DIO2 activities in all cytosol fractions in FT4 hypothyroidism could be explained by the concomitantly increased serum levels of TSH receptor antibodies compared to those in FT3 hypothyroidism. Nevertheless, serum TSH levels were not suppressed by increased serum FT4 levels, which could be explained by the pituitary resistance to T4 [44]. No similar results could be demonstrated for increased T3 levels. Contrary to FT4 hypothyroidism, the lack of increased DIO2 activities in FT3 hypothyroidism support that in this condition the active protein synthesis of DIO2 enzyme is needed for increasing their activities. The partly increased skeletal and eye muscle DIO2 activities in both FT4 and FT3 hyperthyroidism excluded a relevant inactivating role of DIO3 in muscle cytosol fractions.
DIO2 activities in all cytosol fractions were significantly lower in Graves’ ophthalmopathy with increased serum FT3 levels keeping the proportional discrepancies constantly among thyroidal, skeletal and eye muscle DIO2 activities. However, Graves’ sera without ophthalmopathy resulted in a 5-fold increase in all DIO2 activities still keeping the proportional discrepancies constant among thyroidal, skeletal and eye muscle DIO2 activities. The elevation in TSH receptor antibody levels did not associated with DIO2 elevation, but it did with TSH suppression and with a lower ratio of FT3 to FT4. Note that due to the small number of patients without ophthalmopathy, the conclusions can be limited.
The effects of autoantibodies against thyroid peroxidase (TPO) and TSH receptor were investigated on thyroidal, skeletal and eye muscle DIO2 activities in FT3 hyperthyroid Graves’ Disease. A greater number of patients with ophthalmopathy (n = 11) demonstrated anti-TPO antibodies than those without (n = 4) [42]. Anti-TPO antibody positive patients without ophthalmopathy exhibited 5 times greater DIO2 activities in thyroidal and skeletal muscle cytosol fractions, and even 12 times greater in eye muscle cytosol fraction compared to those with ophthalmopathy (Figure 3). DIO2 activities were compared between anti-TPO antibody positive and negative patients. The difference in all DIO2 activities were significant between the patients with and without ophthalmopathy in FT3 hyperthyroid Graves’ Disease, as well as between anti-TPO antibody negative and positive patients. DIO2 activities increased 17 times in patients without ophthalmopathy, but decreased by 39% in patients with ophthalmopathy in the presence of anti-TPO antibodies compared to those who were negative for these autoantibodies (Figure 4). The alterations could be explained by the greater increased serum FT4 levels in anti-TPO antibody positive patients with Graves’ ophthalmopathy in contrast to the patients without ophthalmopathy. The patients without ophthalmopathy showed reduced FT4 levels, which were below the normal range, concomitantly with the elevated serum TSH levels. These result are limited by the small patient number of Graves’ Disease without ophthalmopathy.
The effect of patient sera with Graves’ Disease on thyroidal, skeletal and eye muscle DIO2 activities in anti-TPO antibody positive patients between with (GO) and without (G) ophthalmopathy. DIO2: Type 2 deiodinase; TPO: Thyroid peroxidase.
The effect of patient sera with Graves’ Disease on thyroidal, skeletal and eye muscle DIO2 activities between anti-TPO antibody negative and positive patients with (GO) and without (G) ophthalmopathy. DIO2: Type 2 deiodinase; TPO: Thyroid peroxidase.
In FT3 hyperthyroidism, TSH receptor antibody positivity was greater in Graves’ ophthalmopathy (n = 11, and 9 out of 11 cases were anti-TPO antibody positive) than in those who had no ophthalmopathy (n = 2) [42]. DIO2 activities were significantly increased in all cytosol fractions (increased by 3.6 times) for TSH receptor antibody positive patients compared to TSH receptor antibody negative patients with Graves’ ophthalmopathy, but the opposite was true for patients without ophthalmopathy (Figure 5). Surprisingly, in the absence of ophthalmopathy, TSH receptor antibody positive patients demonstrated relevantly decreased DIO2 activities, which were 10 times lower than those found in TSH receptor antibody negative patients in all cytosol fractions, concomitantly with the increased serum TSH levels.
The effect of patient sera with Graves’ Disease on thyroidal, skeletal and eye muscle DIO2 activities between TSH receptor antibody negative and positive patients with (GO) and without (G) ophthalmopathy. DIO2: Type 2 deiodinase.
Next, the effects of antieye muscle cytosol and membrane autoantibodies on eye muscle DIO2 activity were examined in Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Before the study, the binding reactivity of sera to human eye muscle membrane and cytosol antigens in tissue sections was controlled. In our previous results using immunohistochemistry and immunoblotting methods, antibodies against TCSS peptide, corresponding to amino acid sequence of DIO2 and eye muscle cytosol or membrane antigens (supernatant or pellet fractions of 100 000 x g, separated by centrifugations) were demonstrated, which gave intensive binding reactions to human thyroid, skeletal and eye muscle tissue sections [40].
The binding of guinea pig sera immunized by TCSS peptide could be inhibited by patient sera added in advance, which sera gave positive reactions to eye muscle tissue sections. Toyoda and coworkers investigated the DIO1 enzyme activity in FRTL-5 rat thyroid cells in the presence of IgG type immunoglobulins derived from untreated hyperthyroid Graves’ patients and controls [45]. They demonstrated a relevant increased DIO1 activity, which could be completely abolished by the addition of cycloheximide.
Based on the previously mentioned results we wanted to measure the effects of antieye muscle cytosol and membrane autoantibodies on eye muscle DIO2 activity, as well as to compare DIO2 activity to eye muscle enlargements. The hypothesis was, that antieye muscle autoantibodies may affect DIO2 activity, which can lead to eye muscle enlargement. We investigated the role of antieye muscle antibodies in Graves’ Disease [46]. In turn, the appearance of these autoantibodies was not only connected to ophthalmopathy, but they could also be found in a small part of patients without ophthalmopathy. IgG, IgA and IgM isotype antieye muscle membrane and cytosol autoantibodies were measured with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in 32 patients with hyperthyroid Graves’ Disease, of whom 20 cases had ophthalmopathy. None of IgA isotype autoantibodies could be detected against membrane and cytosol antigens in any of the patients. A greater number of patients with ophthalmopathy demonstrated IgM (n = 10) and IgG (n = 5) antieye muscle autoantibodies than those without ophthalmopathy, of whom 3 cases had IgG type and 3 cases had IgM type autoantibodies. Surprisingly, the addition of serum containing IgG isotype antieye membrane (EyeM) or cytosol (EyeC) autoantibodies resulted in 6.4 times or 3.9 times increased eye muscle DIO2 activity, respectively compared to those found with IgG negative sera (Figure 6). Conversely, the effect of IgM type antieye muscle membrane or cytosol autoantibodies was associated with 3 times or 1.9 times lower eye muscle DIO2 activity, respectively. The presence of IgG type anti-EyeC autoantibodies resulted in 1.5 times greater eye muscle DIO2 activity than anti-EyeM autoantibodies. A similar increase in DIO2 activity could be demonstrated in the presence of IgM type anti-EyeC autoantibodies compared to those with anti-EyeM autoantibodies. In this instance, the increase in eye muscle DIO2 activitiy was 2 times greater. Furthermore, the increase in eye muscle DIO2 activity was 7 times and 5 times higher in the presence of IgG type anti-EyeM and anti-EyeC autoantibodies compared to those in the presence of IgM type anti-EyeM and anti-EyeC autoantibodies, respectively. Eye muscle DIO2 activities strongly correlated with IgG type anti-EyeM and anti-EyeC autoantibody levels. It seems, the autoantibody binding to eye membrane could mediate a signal towards the cytosolic DIO2 enzyme. The findings between eye muscle DIO2 activity and eye muscle enlargement suggest this idea. IgG type anti-EyeM autoantibodies were associated with increased eye muscle enlargement, although the difference was not significant. However, IgM type anti EyeM autoantibodies were associated with a significant decrease in eye muscle enlargement. The fact that IgM type anti-EyeM autoantibodies could play a role in DIO3 activity, could not be excluded. The eye muscle DIO2 activity was more greater in patients with the absence of ophthalmopathy compared to those in the presence of that. Our results suggest that autoantibodies against eye muscle antigens have a role in the development of ophthalmopathy through the eye muscle enlargements. The limitation of this study was the small patient number containing IgM isotype anti-EyeM and IgG isotype anti-EyeC antibodies. Another limitation could be the measurement method of the eye muscle enlargements, which was done using ultrasound in the absence of CT or MRI possibilities.
The effect of patient sera containing IgG and IgM type antieye muscle membrane (EyeM) and cytosol (EyeC) autoantibodies on eye muscle DIO2 activity in Graves’ ophthalmopathy. DIO2: Type 2 deiodinase.
Antithyroid drugs (ATD) are used very often in the therapy of Graves’ hyperthyroidism. Methimazole (MMI) and propylthiouracil (PTU) are the medicines used to block the synthesis of thyroid hormones in Hungary. ATDs are thioamide derivates with the binding reaction to DIO1 enzyme forming an intermediary selenyl-iodide-DIO1 enzyme complex (presumably the same is true for DIO2 also). In addition, they inhibit the activity of TPO enzyme due to the impairment of H2O2 generation and the coupling of iodotyrosines. MMI may be a selective DIO1 blocker and inhibits thyroidal H2O2 generation. However, MMI has no remarkable effect on DIO2 activity. PTU is a very strong inhibitor for DIO1 activity. None of the patients were treated with PTU in the tissue-specific DIO2 activity study.
The difference in thyroidal DIO2 activities was significant between those with and without ophthalmopathy in FT3 hyperthyroidism who did not undergo MMI therapy [42]. MMI therapy was associated with a greater increase in thyroidal, skeletal and eye muscle DIO2 activities in both patients without and with ophthalmopathy (the increase was 17 times and 4 times higher, respectively) compared to the increases in patients who were not treated with MMI. MMI therapy was associated with greater TSH levels and greater ratio of FT3 to FT4 in patients without ophthalmopathy, and greater TSH receptor antibody levels in patients with ophthalmopathy (Figure 7).
The effect of patient sera who were treated with methimazole (MMI) on thyroidal, skeletal and eye muscle DIO2 activities in hyperthyroid Graves’ Disease with and without ophthalmopathy. DIO2: Type 2 deiodinase.
In another study, the occurrence of autoantibodies against DIO2 peptides, such as TCSS (cyspeptide) and LVFR (hompeptide) peptides were investigated in 78 patients with hyperthyroid Graves’ Disease [47]. The relationships were examinated among ATD therapies, antibodies against TPO, thyroglobulin (Tg) and TSH receptor, as well as thyroid hormone levels. The appearance of autoantibodies against cys-, hompeptide or both peptides could be detected in 24, 4 or 9 cases, respectively, in Graves’ Disease. The appearance of these autoantibodies was not associated with the clinical signs of urticaria or ANCA-associated vasculitis. These anticys- and antihompeptide antibodies could be demonstrated in 12 and 3 cases in hyperthyroidism, and in 10 and 1 cases in euthyroidism. A significant difference was found in the occurrence of anticyspeptide antibodies between PTU (n = 3 out of 3 cases) and MMI (n = 13 out of 42 cases) therapies. The frequency of antipeptide antibodies was smaller in Graves’ ophthalmopathy (9 cases for anticyspeptide antibodies and 1 for antihompeptide antibodies). The exact mechanism is not clear, but ATDs are thioamide drugs with the binding feature to DIO and TPO enzymes blocking the T4 conversion to T3, and the iodination with the phenolic coupling of iodothyrosine residues. Their higher binding features are connected to their greater reactivity with free radicals. Not only the asymptomatic occurrence of autoantibodies against cys- and/or hompeptide was surprising in hyperthyroid Graves’ Disease, but also their strong relationship with decreasing anti-TPO and increasing TSH receptor antibody levels (Figure 8). In hyperthyroidism, two antipeptide antibodies possessed distinct features with relation to the occurrence of anti-TPO, anti-Tg and TSH receptor antibody levels, as well as to the thyroid hormone levels and the ratio of FT3 to FT4. Antibodies against cyspeptide were rather stimulating: Positive correlation could be demonstrated between anticyspeptide antibodies and serum FT4 levels; the ratio of FT3 to FT4 was increased when those antibodies were present compared to when they were absent. In Graves’ ophthalmopathy, the serum FT4 and FT3 levels were lower in the presence of antibodies against cyspeptide compared to when those antibodies were absent. The ratio of FT3 to FT4 was increased in patients without ophthalmopathy compared to those when it was present (Figure 9). Antibodies against hompeptide and both peptides were rather inhibiting: anti-TPO and anti-Htg antibodies levels were reduced in their presences compared to when they were absent. In hyperthyroid Graves’ ophthalmopathy, antibodies against both peptides were associated with reduced antibody levels against TPO and Tg, but with increased TSH receptor antibody levels, particularly when the clinical activity score (CAS) was above 4. In FT4 hyperthyroidism, MMI treated Graves’ patients without ophthalmopathy, demonstrated significantly increased FT3 to FT4 ratio with the occurrence of anticyspeptide autoantibodies.
The effect of patient sera containing autoantibodies against peptides (hom – and/or cyspeptide) corresponding to amino acid sequence of DIO2 on the levels of anti-TPO and anti-Tg autoantibodies, as well as on the ratio of FT3 to FT4 in hyperthyroid Graves’ Disease. DIO2: Type 2 deiodinase; TPO: Thyroid peroxidase; Tg: Thyroglobulin.
The effect of patient sera containing autoantibodies against cyspeptide corresponding to amino acid sequence of DIO2 on serum FT4 and FT3 levels, as well as on the ratio of FT3 to FT4 in hyperthyroid Graves’ ophthalmopathy and between the presence and absence of ophthalmopathy. DIO2: Type 2 deiodinase.
The results in thyroid hormone levels supported that the presence of antipeptide antibodies before the treatment and their absence during the treatment with MMI may contribute to the worsening of orbital processes in hyperthyroid Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Antibodies against DIO2 peptides may influence the therapeutic efficacy during the treatment (Figure 10). In MMI treatment, the presence of antibodies against hompeptide only was connected to increased serum FT4 levels, but when autoantibodies against both hom- and cyspeptide were present, it resulted in a relevant decrease in TSH receptor antibody levels. MMI treatment demonstrated lower TSH receptor antibody levels and lower ratio of FT3 to FT4 in the appearance of anticyspeptide autoantibodies compared to those treated with PTU. The exact role of antipeptide antibodies and their relationship with antithyroid autoantibodies, as well as the possibility of the occurrence of autoantibodies against other amino acid sequence of the whole DIO2 protein need futher investigations.
The effect of patient sera containing autoantibodies against peptides (hom- and/or cyspeptide) corresponding to DIO2 amino acid sequence on serum FT4 and TSH receptor antibody levels, as well as on the ratio of FT3 to FT4 in hyperthyroid Graves’ Disease treated with methimazole (MMI) and propylthiouracil (PTU). DIO2: Type 2 deiodinase.
In hyperthyroid Graves’ Disease the thyroid hormone excess is dominantly T3. The thyroidal production of T3 and T4 excess can derive from the thyroidal T4 and T3 formation in the colloid-embedded Tg mediated by thyroidal TPO, and the additional production of T3 due to deiodinase enzymes mediated conversion from T4 resulting in the ratio of 3 to 1 for DIO1 and DIO2 activities in the cytosol, respectively. The results using
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The vacuum thermal evaporation technique, electron beam evaporation, pulsed-layer deposition, direct current/radio frequency magnetron sputtering, and chemical route deposition systems will be discussed in detail.",book:{id:"5541",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",fullTitle:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings"},signatures:"Asim Jilani, Mohamed Shaaban Abdel-wahab and Ahmed Hosny\nHammad",authors:[{id:"192377",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Jilani",slug:"asim-jilani",fullName:"Asim Jilani"},{id:"192972",title:"Dr.",name:"M.Sh",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel-Wahab",slug:"m.sh-abdel-wahab",fullName:"M.Sh Abdel-Wahab"},{id:"192973",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:"H",surname:"Hammad",slug:"ahmed-hammad",fullName:"Ahmed Hammad"}]},{id:"68467",title:"Semiconductor Nanocomposites for Visible Light Photocatalysis of Water Pollutants",slug:"semiconductor-nanocomposites-for-visible-light-photocatalysis-of-water-pollutants",totalDownloads:1803,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Semiconductor photocatalysis gained reputation in the early 1970s when Fujishima and Honda revealed the potential of TiO2 to split water in to hydrogen and oxygen in a photoelectrochemical cell. Their work provided the base for the development of semiconductor photocatalysis for the environmental remediation and energy applications. Photoactivity of some semiconductors was found to be low due to larger band gap energy and higher electron-hole pair recombination rate. To avoid these problems, the development of visible light responsive photocatalytic materials by different approaches, such as metal and/or non-metal doping, co-doping, coupling of semiconductors, composites and heterojunctions materials synthesis has been widely investigated and explored in systematic manner. This chapter emphasizes on the different type of tailored photocatalyst materials having the enhanced visible light absorption properties, lower band gap energy and recombination rate of electron-hole pairs and production of reactive radical species. Visible light active semiconductors for the environmental remediation purposes, particularly for water treatment and disinfection are also discussed in detail. Studies on the photocatalytic degradation of emerging organic compounds like cyanotoxins, VOCs, phenols, pharmaceuticals, etc., by employing variety of modified semiconductors, are summarized, and a mechanistic aspects of the photocatalysis has been discussed.",book:{id:"7671",slug:"concepts-of-semiconductor-photocatalysis",title:"Concepts of Semiconductor Photocatalysis",fullTitle:"Concepts of Semiconductor Photocatalysis"},signatures:"Fatima Imtiaz, Jamshaid Rashid and Ming Xu",authors:[{id:"292882",title:"Dr.",name:"Jamshaid",middleName:null,surname:"Rashid",slug:"jamshaid-rashid",fullName:"Jamshaid Rashid"},{id:"302498",title:"Ms.",name:"Fatima",middleName:null,surname:"Imtiaz",slug:"fatima-imtiaz",fullName:"Fatima Imtiaz"},{id:"308434",title:"Prof.",name:"Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"ming-xu",fullName:"Ming Xu"}]},{id:"17728",title:"Defect Related Luminescence in Silicon Dioxide Network: A Review",slug:"defect-related-luminescence-in-silicon-dioxide-network-a-review",totalDownloads:9472,totalCrossrefCites:46,totalDimensionsCites:98,abstract:null,book:{id:"332",slug:"crystalline-silicon-properties-and-uses",title:"Crystalline Silicon",fullTitle:"Crystalline Silicon - Properties and Uses"},signatures:"Roushdey Salh",authors:[{id:"48391",title:"Dr.",name:"Roushdey",middleName:null,surname:"Salh",slug:"roushdey-salh",fullName:"Roushdey Salh"}]},{id:"58469",title:"The Electrochemical Performance of Deposited Manganese Oxide-Based Film as Electrode Material for Electrochemical Capacitor Application",slug:"the-electrochemical-performance-of-deposited-manganese-oxide-based-film-as-electrode-material-for-el",totalDownloads:1736,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The transition metal oxide has been recognized as one of the promising electrode materials for electrochemical capacitor application. Due to the participation of charge transfer reactions, the capacitance offered by transition metal oxide can be higher compared to double layer capacitance. The investigation on hydrous ruthenium oxide has revealed the surface redox reactions that contributed to the wide potential window shown on cyclic voltammetry curve. Although the performance of ruthenium oxide is impressive, its toxicity has limited itself from commercial application. Manganese oxide is a pseudocapacitive material behaves similar to ruthenium oxide. It consists of various oxidation states which allow the occurrence of redox reactions. It is also environmental friendly, low cost, and natural abundant. The charge storage of manganese oxide film takes into account of the redox reactions between Mn3+ and Mn4+ and can be accounted to two mechanisms. The first one involves the intercalation/deintercalation of electrolyte ions and/or protons upon reduction/oxidation processes. The second contributor for the charge storage is due to the surface adsorption of electrolyte ions on the electrode surface.",book:{id:"6083",slug:"semiconductors-growth-and-characterization",title:"Semiconductors",fullTitle:"Semiconductors - Growth and Characterization"},signatures:"Chan Pei Yi and Siti Rohana Majid",authors:[{id:"197956",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"S.R.",middleName:null,surname:"Majid",slug:"s.r.-majid",fullName:"S.R. Majid"},{id:"216449",title:"Ms.",name:"Pei Yi",middleName:null,surname:"Chan",slug:"pei-yi-chan",fullName:"Pei Yi Chan"}]},{id:"60792",title:"TCAD Device Modelling and Simulation of Wide Bandgap Power Semiconductors",slug:"tcad-device-modelling-and-simulation-of-wide-bandgap-power-semiconductors",totalDownloads:2113,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Technology computer-aided Design (TCAD) is essential for devices technology development, including wide bandgap power semiconductors. However, most TCAD tools were originally developed for silicon and their performance and accuracy for wide bandgap semiconductors is contentious. This chapter will deal with TCAD device modelling of wide bandgap power semiconductors. In particular, modelling and simulating 3C- and 4H-Silicon Carbide (SiC), Gallium Nitride (GaN) and Diamond devices are examined. The challenges associated with modelling the material and device physics are analyzed in detail. It also includes convergence issues and accuracy of predicted performance. Modelling and simulating defects, traps and the effect of these traps on the characteristics are also discussed.",book:{id:"6625",slug:"disruptive-wide-bandgap-semiconductors-related-technologies-and-their-applications",title:"Disruptive Wide Bandgap Semiconductors, Related Technologies, and Their Applications",fullTitle:"Disruptive Wide Bandgap Semiconductors, Related Technologies, and Their Applications"},signatures:"Neophytos Lophitis, Anastasios Arvanitopoulos, Samuel Perkins and\nMarina Antoniou",authors:[{id:"236488",title:"Dr.",name:"Neophytos",middleName:null,surname:"Lophitis",slug:"neophytos-lophitis",fullName:"Neophytos Lophitis"},{id:"247344",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Antoniou",slug:"marina-antoniou",fullName:"Marina Antoniou"},{id:"247347",title:"Mr.",name:"Anastasios",middleName:null,surname:"Arvanitopoulos",slug:"anastasios-arvanitopoulos",fullName:"Anastasios Arvanitopoulos"},{id:"247349",title:"Mr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Perkins",slug:"samuel-perkins",fullName:"Samuel Perkins"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"159",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:317,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11967,editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",slug:"jose-navarro-pedreno",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",biography:"Full professor at University Miguel Hernández of Elche, Spain, previously working at the University of Alicante, Autonomous University of Madrid and Polytechnic University of Valencia. Graduate in Sciences (Chemist), graduate in Geography and History (Geography), master in Water Management, Treatment, master in Fertilizers and Environment and master in Environmental Management; Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences. His research is focused on soil-water and waste-environment relations, mainly on soil-water and soil-waste interactions under different management and waste reuse. His work is reflected in more than 230 communications presented in national and international conferences and congresses, 29 invited lectures from universities, associations and government agencies. Prof. Navarro-Pedreño is also a director of the Ph.D. Program Environment and Sustainability (2012-present) and a member of several societies among which are the Spanish Society of Soil Science, International Union of Soil Sciences, European Society for Soil Conservation, DessertNet and the Spanish Royal Society of Chemistry.",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11968,editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",slug:"salustiano-mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",biography:"Salustiano Mato de la Iglesia (Santiago de Compostela, 1960) is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago and a Professor of zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. He has developed his research activity in the fields of fauna and soil ecology, and in the treatment of organic waste, having been the founder and principal investigator of the Environmental Biotechnology Group of the University of Vigo.\r\nHis research activity in the field of Environmental Biotechnology has been focused on the development of novel organic waste treatment systems through composting. The result of this line of work are three invention patents and various scientific and technical publications in prestigious international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",slug:"josefina-garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",biography:"Josefina Garrido González (Paradela de Abeleda, Ourense 1959), is a doctor in biology from the University of León and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. She has focused her research activity on the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of aquatic beetles, in addition to other lines of research such as the conservation of biodiversity in freshwater ecosystems; conservation of protected areas (Red Natura 2000) and assessment of the effectiveness of wetlands as priority areas for the conservation of aquatic invertebrates; studies of water quality in freshwater ecosystems through biological indicators and physicochemical parameters; surveillance and research of vector arthropods and invasive alien species.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",slug:"francisco-ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",biography:"Fran Ramil Blanco (Porto de Espasante, A Coruña, 1960), is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago de Compostela and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. His research activity is linked to the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of marine benthic invertebrates and especially the Cnidarian group. Since 2004, he has been part of the EcoAfrik project, aimed at the study, protection and conservation of biodiversity and benthic habitats in West Africa. He also participated in the study of vulnerable marine ecosystems associated with seamounts in the South Atlantic and is involved in training young African researchers in the field of marine research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11969,editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",slug:"yizi-shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yizi Shang is a pioneering researcher in hydrology and water resources who has devoted his research career to promoting the conservation and protection of water resources for sustainable development. He is presently associate editor of Water International (official journal of the International Water Resources Association). He was also invited to serve as an associate editor for special issues of the Journal of the American Water Resources Association. He has served as an editorial member for international journals such as Hydrology, Journal of Ecology & Natural Resources, and Hydro Science & Marine Engineering, among others. He has chaired or acted as a technical committee member for twenty-five international forums (conferences). Dr. Shang graduated from Tsinghua University, China, in 2010 with a Ph.D. in Engineering. Prior to that, he worked as a research fellow at Harvard University from 2008 to 2009. Dr. Shang serves as a senior research engineer at the China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research (IWHR) and was awarded as a distinguished researcher at National Taiwan University in 2017.",institutionString:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. Kleczyk, Karin Hayes and Rajesh Mehta",slug:"evaluating-similarities-and-differences-between-machine-learning-and-traditional-statistical-modelin",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:28,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79345",title:"Application of Jump Diffusion Models in Insurance Claim Estimation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99853",signatures:"Leonard Mushunje, Chiedza Elvina Mashiri, Edina Chandiwana and Maxwell Mashasha",slug:"application-of-jump-diffusion-models-in-insurance-claim-estimation-1",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7723",title:"Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:"Applications in Medicine and Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7723.jpg",slug:"artificial-intelligence-applications-in-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 31st 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"a3852659e727f95c98c740ed98146011",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Artificial Intelligence - Applications in Medicine and Biology",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 28th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:317,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/70924",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"70924"},fullPath:"/profiles/70924",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()