\r\n\tVirtual Reality (VR) is a computer-created sensory experience that allows the user to believe in the apparent reality. The user is then either completely surrounded by this virtual world or partly included by listening and watching virtual reality applications. Thereby, the user's senses detect only virtual stimuli produced by a computer, and direct entry of the user's movement in the computer can be achieved. \r\n\tVirtual Environments (VE) are based on objects defined in the computer's memory in such a way that a computer can later attach these items on the screen with the possibility of interaction. By combining elements of the unreal (imaginary) environment and the real environment (which can also be distant), the user creates a feeling of presence in the virtual environment. \r\n\tVirtual reality is mostly applied in the following fields - medicine, military, education, entertainment, design and development, marketing. \r\n\tMedicine is one of the strongest fields of VR’s application. VR is used in the field of surgery, both for training (practicing on virtual human models) and in surgery planning. In psychiatry, the virtual reality is used for treating various psychotic disorders, starting from the fear of flying, to post-traumatic stress disorder, where it marks very good results. \r\n\tSimulations of various vehicles are among the most common applications of virtual reality. Many experts are trained in different simulators, but it is especially important to be able to rehearse situations that in reality rarely occur (for example, hostage rescue). \r\n\tVirtual reality is ideal for the entertainment industry, because of the possibility to create an illusion. There are many amusement parks that have numerous attractions using virtual reality techniques. \r\n\tVirtual reality can also, be used for the presentation of future projects in architecture and for creating prototypes of future products, as a successful tool for the promotion and marketing at exhibitions and fairs. \r\n\tDespite the numerous areas of application, there are limitations as well. Although there has been considerable progress recently, the equipment is still impractical, large, expensive and complex. Certain types of virtual reality can cause nausea. \r\n\tIn this book, we will discuss the key elements in terms of virtual reality, available technologies and resources (hardware and software), as well as the appropriate application of virtual reality, through training and entertainment, with a retrospective view of potential health problems, security, and privacy.
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Architecture, Haptic technologies, Education purposes, Modeling and Simulations, Gaming, VR headsets",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 6th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 27th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 26th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 14th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 14th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101330/images/system/101330.jpg",biography:"Dragan Cvetković graduated in Aeronautics from the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, in 1988. In the Aeronautical Department he defended his doctoral dissertation in December 1997. So far, he has published 63 books, scripts, and practicums about computers and computer programs, aviation weapons, and flight mechanics. He has published a large number of scientific papers in the Republic of Serbia and abroad as well. Since March 20, 2007, he worked at the Singidunum University in Belgrade as an assistant professor. And from October 1, 2013, he has been working as the Dean of the Faculty of Informatics and Computing at the same university. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Cloud computing system (CCS) is the technique industries and organizations use to do their trades. In that dynamically accessible and visualized resources are delivered as a service over the Internet. This system constructs a new type of chance for organizations. CCS is developing as one of the most important factors for the business industry: it can convert the traditional industrial business prototypical, aid it to support product improvement with business approach, and construct able manufacturing networks that reassure effective cooperation. Various categories of CCS adoptions in the industrial area have been studied with direct adoption utilizing technologies and manufacturing. CCS has been in some of the important parts of developed Information Technology (IT). In CCS, entirety is preserved as a service such as platform, infrastructure, and software. These services express a layered system assembly for CCS. There are different kinds of CCS: private (single‐tenant setting), public (idea of sharing), hybrid (mixed internal and external clouds), and community (multitenant setting shared by numerous organizations) clouds. The integrated CCS may refer to one of them. These cloud services are permeating as a particular plug of access. Various types of placement simulations outfit various states. The main study in CCS is to minimize the cost of the cloud, keeping the good and stable quality with less time [1–5].
\n
The cost assistance of accepting clouds in a characteristic developed prize can be manifold. The savings acquired from the exclusion of selected functions that were necessary in customary Information Technology (IT) can be important. With cloud paths (solutions), some applications may be distributed with the company\'s Information Technology (IT) region along CCS technologies. Thus, the Information Technology (IT) control can create the modification that occurs seamlessly to reduce the cost. scheming is significant for creating schedules and controlling decisions. Cost itemization analysis, finding the developed movement, adaptive cost scheming, clearness of feeding, and billings are imperative concerns. Virtualization states to the idea of rational resources from their fundamental physical features in order to progress and enhance flexibility and decrease cost. Integrated cloud computing system (ICCS) platform paths show a significant character in converting prize systems, funding to cost reduction [1, 6–9].
\n
A diversity of smart phones and handheld computers prepared with a GPS and further sensory devices previously exists for clients. A collective sensor that can discover and report separate motivations plots a sequence of data arguments in a higher dimensional data (HDD) time‐space (one time dimension and n data dimensions). Consequently, to improve a practical database application, one requires to examine the following categories: the nature, the presentation, the store, the management, the environment, and the support of data. The challenging phase of HDD organization is considerably more obvious in training, particularly when inadequate recognition, such as intervals, reduces the frequency of accelerators and GPS interval. The HDD is adopted to deal with partial capacity, highly dynamic clients, and partial scalability to larger data sets. Recently, numerous application path simulations have been presented. These models suggested the point‐time and location of data in the information space. If the item transfers farther, it reports its new position and changes the inform threshold for the next apprise [10–14].
\n
Fractional calculus is a field of various studies with applications not only in mathematics but also in other sciences, engineering, economics, and social presentations. It agrees with differential and integral operators, including random powers: real and complex [15, 16]. The essential benefit of the constructing technique of fractional differential equations (ordinary and partial) in methodical forming is their nonlocal property. It is standard that the normal derivative is a local, linear operator, while the derivative of arbitrary order is nonlocal and nonlinear. This proceeds that the successive recognized by a system is not only susceptible upon its present proper but also reliable upon all of its ancient formals. This additionally defined why fractional calculus has industrialized more and more extensively in mechanical, engineering, information theory, and industrial areas. Fractional calculus is received in information theory [17].
\n
In this study, we impose a new ICCS, based on fractional formal operators, taking into account the symmetrical delay in it. This model is useful for higher dimensional data, moving data, and chaos data. Moreover, we employ a fractional differential method to discover the paths (outcomes) of the system by minimizing the cost function. The proposed system delivers a sequence of paths that converge to the optimal path. The theoretical technique is supported by applications.
\n
\n
\n
2. Seeking
\n
In this section, we illustrate the algorithm that we use to minimize the cost of the Information Technology (IT) in the cloud. Here, we suppose that the agents have nonhomogeneous options and pay the cost in order to translate from a position to another one in the state space X∈[0,1], where X is the level of utilizing Information Technology (IT) of the CCS. All agents have the common cost function Φ to have the request χ. Every user applies his optimal decision on the utility of the CCS by minimizing the cost function. Thus, the issue for each user is the minimized control function U(t,X).
\n
The method is based on a new fractional differential transform (FDT). It is well known that this method has solved many problems not only in mathematics but also in physics and engineering (see [18–20]). We need the following fractional formal: the Riemann‐Liouville operators are defined by the formal\n
Dsν℘(t)=dds∫0t(t−ς)−νΓ(1−ν)℘(ς)dς,E1
\n
which coincides with the fractional integral operator\n
Iaν℘(t)=∫at(t−ς)ν−1Γ(ν)℘(ς)dς,E2
\n
such that ν∈(0,1) and ℘ is a continuous function on J=[0,T],T<∞. We use the notation I0ν℘(t)=Iν℘(t) .
\n
In this effort, we deal with the FCCS of the form\n
is the objective function (we suggested integrable function in order to make the minimization of the cost function), χ=(χ1,...,χn)Τ is the request function for n− agent in the cloud, and Φ is the cost function of the cloud system. We aim for a given company a degree of CCS in its present operation, X(t˜)=χ(t˜)=y(t˜)∈[0,1]. Therefore, χ=0 is represented to a company that is not yet translated to advanced position. Therefore, the dynamic of the company\'s position develops depending on Eq. (3). We proposed the system (3) in terms of the fractional formal operator to include the delay in the CCS. The objective function deals with optimal state of the usage of the Information Technology (IT) in the cloud system depending on the cost.
\n
CCS influences notions from utility computing to deliver elements the services used. Such elements are at the fundamental of the public cloud paid‐per‐use representations. Moreover, measured services are a critical part of the reactive loop in autonomic computing, agreeing services to scale on‐demand and to achieve automatic disappointment recovery. Also, CCS delivers the tools and technologies to measure data/compute demanding parallel applications with much more reasonable prices compared to traditional computing system techniques. Our aim is to minimize (3). Therefore, we proceed to introduce a solution for the system (3). In this section, we introduce a numerical solution for Eq. (3) by using a new technique based on the fractional formal concept. The CCS (3) is equivalent to the problem\n
where (νκ)!=Γ(νκ+1),Dκνχ(t)=(Dν...Dν︸)κ−timesχ(t) and\n
Λν(κ)=[Dνκχ(t)]t=t0(νκ)!,ν∈(0,1],E7
\n
is FDT of χ(t).
\n
Equation (3) represents various types of fractional and integer control systems such as the Hamilton Jacobi Bellman equation, Euler equation, Fokker‐Planck equation, and Hybrid systems. The major important advantage of FCCS is their nonlocal property. The CCS (integer case) is a local, linear system, while the FCCS is a nonlocal, nonlinear system. Therefore, the subsequent formal of a system is simulated by its current and previous positions (this asset is beneficial in CC). Thus, fractional formal has developed progressively into practical and manufacturing areas. A virtuous consequence is attained in FCCS by minimizing the time of utility function (χ(t)) and the cost function (Φ) of the cloud. The change in the quality of the cloud may calculate the difference in the promised quality (Qp) and the recent quality (Qr)\n
ΔQ=Qp−Qr.E8
\n
We accept that cost, request, profit, and income functions are continuous and different with respect to time. The request is dwindling in the cost for the service and growing in quality delivered. The CCS is expected to determine its request for Information Technology (IT) services for any assumed value and quality. The base flat of quality essential to function the system is zero, and the base flat of request is at zero quality and cost. The request of the internal customer is such that at a satisfactorily high cost, there will be no feeding the services. Therefore, the quantity of the CCS can be expended as a function of the amount and quality.
\n\n\n
We have the following properties:
\n
Proposition 2.1. Suppose that Θ(κ) and Λ(κ) are FDTs of θ(t) and χ(t), respectively, then\n
If θ(t)=χ(ρt), then Θν(κ)=ρκΛν(κ).
If θ(t)=Dmνχ(ρt), then Θν(κ)=(ν(m+κ))!(νκ)!ρm+κΛν(m+κ),m∈ℕ.
If θ(t)=Iνχ(ρt), then Θν(κ)=(ν(κ−1))!(νκ)!ρκ−1Λν(κ−1).
The procedure of CCS as a contribution to the Information Technology (IT) section can be observed as a resource chain. The Information Technology (IT) section improves the cost of the external part of CCS and deliveries such improved services to the inner consuming parts. Therefore, there are correspondences and there are parts of differences between the traditional resource chain techniques [22] and the suggested one that introduced in this effort (see Figure 1). The proposed CCS model shows dual relegation under the incomes because the Information Technology (IT) section scripts the cost of the incoming cloud system. Nevertheless, the cost reports double relegation by posing Information Technology (IT) services at no control. Moreover, apart from the differing reasons of the numerous objects, information irregularity is an additional problem in resource chain coordination, which causes the bullwhip result.
\n
Figure 1.
The proposed method of FCCS.
\n\n
The proposed FCCS model theoretically looks like a resource chain construction. However, there are significant parts of the changes. We contain the stability and convergence of the system to the optimal solution by using the FDT, which implies the authority to inflict the operating organizational arrangement. The optimizing owns benefit discretely, or the models optimize the cost. The ICCS model, in the recent studies in Information Technology (IT) services, does not meet the resource problems for physical properties such as stock‐outs or excess record. Moreover, we take into account the quality of Information Technology (IT) services under the ICCS model. Value development under CCS is expected to formulate a stationary price component and a quality‐related minimal cost component. This is the new ICCS model that fixed the cost organization and increased the variable labor cost. Under this seeking, higher internal Information Technology (IT) value stages need a suitably high level of value from the ICCS because the price of a considerable value development is gross.
\n\n\n
\n
\n
3. Applications
\n
In this section, we illustrate some prototype applications to explain the accuracy of the FCCS.
From above examples, we conclude that the solution of a fractional system, taking the formal (3), has the following general formula:\n
χ(t)=(χ(0))Eν(λtν).E34
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Results and discussion
\n
For the extra model improvement, it is essential to form some model considerations that come across the demand of applicability and to study major information and price styles.\n
Every worker has a computer linked to the internet. Therefore, the price of acquiring and the price of the network (switches, routers, and network security) are not recognized to the CCS.
The effort of the analysis deceits in the price evaluation of different CCS and service structures. As a consequence, the price for servers is reflected in the mathematical model.
The price (cost) construction and empathy of cost styles have been initially formed in the source of the CCS.
\n
The cost function is suggested and studied by many researchers in various methods [23–25]. For example, the authors used the form\n
Most of these methods do not request the quality of the CCS. Our technique requested the quality and integrated it. Table 1 shows the experimental results, the proposed method, and comparison with the usual method for calculating the cost of CCS. It is well known that Eν satisfies the following asymptotic behavior (see [26]; Theorem 1):\n
Eν(t)∼1νet1/ν,ν≠0.E36
\n
Hence, we have the solution\n
χ(t)≈λνet(ΔQ)1/ν,E37
\n
where ΔQ is the difference in the quality of the CCS, which is suggested in [0,1] and λ=χ(0) is the initial cost of the cloud. In this effort, based on the above discussion, we impose the following formal of the total cost\n
Obviously, the quality of the cloud plays an important role in the cost. Increasing the quality leads to higher cost. At the level ΔQ=ν=0.1 (high quality, low fractional value), we see that the cost is minimized to the quarter, while the level ΔQ=ν=0.5 (the quality is less and higher fractional power), we obtain no much minimization for the cost. Moreover, in the case ΔQ=0.1,=ν=0.75, we have a minimum up to the half. Hence, we conclude that the fractional power of the cloud system also plays an important role to minimize the cost. The fractional power of the system may be realized as the rate of the gain of the FCCS.
The cloud computing system moves the manner activities (business, economy, and industries) and deals with their plans. The cloud computing system uses a new method to improve the economy, industries, and businesses, that is, everything is supposed as a service, be a service you demand or a service you deliver. We employed the concept of fractional formal calculus to impose a mathematical model of the cloud computing system. This system is obligated to various factors such as the controller, the utility of the cloud, structure for the Information Technology (IT) unit, and the cost taking into account the gain of the producers. Although the model has created simplifying conditions, it yielded a selection of outcomes that enhance the literature and have management suggestions. Obviously, any concept that is essential for a dynamic system is restricted in its ability to internment the complexity of Information Technology (IT) control. The proposed system may be viewed as a hybrid system, integrated system, as well as a perturbed system. It included various types of well‐known systems (see [22, 27]). Also, the suggested system is addressed with huge number of data (time and space). Our goal was to introduce a method to minimize the cost function of the cloud. The anticipated framework is comprehensive in that the coverage contains the conceptual model, quantitative computation, logical representation, straddling both the theory and the applications of the problem. The results in Table 1 show the performance of the method, by using fractional formal calculus. The obtainable method raises the quality of the system as well as minimizes the cost in the cloud computing system.
\n
\n
\n
6. Competing interests
\n
The author declares that there are no competing interests.
\n
\n
\n
7. Author\'s contributions
\n
There is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this article.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The author would like to thank the referees for giving useful suggestions for improving the work.
\n
\n',keywords:"fractional calculus, fractional formal, fractional dynamical system, cloud computing",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/52414.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/52414.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52414",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52414",totalDownloads:640,totalViews:86,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 28th 2016",dateReviewed:"August 18th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"December 14th 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Newly, growing amount of data‐demanding applications arrangement with continuous fluctuating data substances, have been investigated by many researchers recently. In these applications, the underlying data management system must support new types of the space‐time changing that indicates to the paths of the cloud computing system (CCS). The time‐space changing causes change in the dimension of data and, consequently, in the CCS. One of the solutions regarding this case is suggesting an integrated cloud computing system (ICCS). In this effort, we introduce a new ICCS, based on fractional formal operators, taking into account the symmetrical delay in it. This model is useful for higher dimensional data, moving data, and chaos data. Moreover, we employ a fractional differential method to discover the paths (outcomes) of the system by minimizing the cost function. The proposed system delivers a sequence of paths that converge to the optimal path. The theoretical technique is supported by the applications.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/52414",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/52414",book:{slug:"complex-systems-sustainability-and-innovation"},signatures:"Rabha W. Ibrahim",authors:[{id:"187375",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabha",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",fullName:"Rabha Ibrahim",slug:"rabha-ibrahim",email:"rabhaibrahim@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Seeking",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Applications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. System 1",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. System 2",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3. System 3",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"6. Competing interests",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"7. Author's contributions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Moschakis I.A., Karatza H.D. Evaluation of gang scheduling performance and cost in a cloud computing system. The Journal of Supercomputing 59.2 (2012): 975–992.\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Chang B.R., Tsai H.F., Chen C.M. Evaluation of virtual machine performance and virtualized consolidation ratio in cloud computing system. Journal of Information Hiding and Multimedia Signal Processing 4.3 (2013): 192–200.\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Ali J., Yupapin P.P. Micro‐cloud computing system by human quantum computer. Journal of Biosensors and Bioelectronics 5.1 (2014): e127.\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Da Silva D.M., et al. Resource management using reliable and efficient delivery of application performance information in a cloud computing system. U.S. Patent No. 8,935,704. 2015.\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Chen T., Wang Y.C. A nonlinearly normalized back propagation network and cloud computing approach for determining cycle time allowance during wafer fabrication. Robotics and Computer‐Integrated Manufacturing In Press (2016).\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Thackston R., Fortenberry R.C. The performance of low‐cost commercial cloud computing as an alternative in computational chemistry. Journal of Computational Chemistry 36.12 (2015): 926–933.\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Sookhak M., et al. Dynamic remote data auditing for securing big data storage in cloud computing. Information Sciences (2015): 9 1–16.\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Sabi H.M., et al. Conceptualizing a model for adoption of cloud computing in education. International Journal of Information Management 36.2 (2016): 183–191.\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Ibrahim R.W., Jalab H.A., and Gani A. Perturbation of fractional multi‐agent systems in cloud entropy computing. Entropy 18.1 (2016): 31.\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Jeong D.H. An integrated framework for managing sensor data uncertainty using cloud computing. Information Systems 38 (2013): 1252–1268.\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Cao N., et al. Privacy‐preserving multi‐keyword ranked search over encrypted cloud data. IEEE Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems 25.1 (2014): 222–233.\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Buyya R., et al. Big data analytics‐enhanced cloud computing: challenges, architectural elements, and future directions. arXiv:1510.06486 (2015):21 (pp. 75–84).\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Hashem I.A.T., et al. The rise of big data on cloud computing: review and open research issues. Information Systems 47 (2015): 98–115.\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Khulal U., et al. Nondestructive quantifying total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB‐N) content in chicken using hyperspectral imaging (HSI) technique combined with different data dimension reduction algorithms. Food Chemistry 197 (2016): 1191–1199.\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Podlubny I. Fractional differential equations, Academic Press, San Diego, Boston, NewYork, London, Tokyo, Toronto, 1999.\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Kilbas A.A., Srivastava H.M., Trujillo J.J. Theory and applications of fractional differential equations, vol. 204. Elsevier Science Limited, Amsterdam 2006.\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Ibrahim R.W., Jalab H.A., Gani A. Cloud entropy management system involving a fractional power. Entropy 18 (2016): 1–11.\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Ibrahim R.W. Fractional complex transforms for fractional differential equations. Advances in Difference Equations 2012.1 (2012): 1–12.\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Ibrahim R.W. Numerical solution for complex systems of fractional order. Journal of Applied Mathematics 2012 (2012) 1–12.\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Ibrahim R.W. Complex transforms for systems of fractional differential equations. Abstract and Applied Analysis, vol. 2012. Hindawi Publishing Corporation, 2012 pp. 1–16 .\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Jumarie G. Fractional differential calculus for non‐differentiable functions. Mechanics, Geometry, Stochastics, Information Theory, Lambert Academic Publishing, Saarbrucken, 2013.\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Saber R., et al., Consensus and cooperation in networked multi‐agent systems, Proceedings of the IEEE, 95.1 (2007): 215–233.\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Li X., Li Y., Liu T., Qiu J., Wang F. The method and tool of cost analysis for cloud computing. 2009 IEEE International Conference on Cloud Computing (2009): 93–100.\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Becker J., Beverungen D., Matzner M., Mller O. Total costs of service life: the need of decision support in selecting, comparing and orchestrating services. First International Conference on Exploring Services Sciences, Berlin (2010).\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Benedikt M., Marc W., Frank T., Costing of cloud computing services: a total cost of ownership approach, 45th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Hawaii (2012).\n'},{id:"B26",body:'Gerhold S. Asymptotics for a variant of the Mittag‐Leffler function. Integral Transforms and Special Functions, 23.6 (2012): 397–403.\n'},{id:"B27",body:'Salih Y.K., et al., A user‐centric game selection model based on user preferences for the selection of the best heterogeneous wireless network. Annals of Telecommunications 70 (2015): 239–248.\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Rabha W. Ibrahim",address:"rabhaibrahim@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Kampung Kerinch, Wilayah Persekutuan, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Torres",authors:[{id:"188117",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Honda",fullName:"Hiroshi Honda",slug:"hiroshi-honda"},{id:"188357",title:"Ms.",name:"Ren",middleName:null,surname:"Gui",fullName:"Ren Gui",slug:"ren-gui"},{id:"188694",title:"Dr.",name:"Yu-Chen",middleName:null,surname:"Lo",fullName:"Yu-Chen Lo",slug:"yu-chen-lo"},{id:"188695",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Torres",fullName:"Jorge Torres",slug:"jorge-torres"},{id:"188696",title:"Dr.",name:"Shwn-Meei",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",fullName:"Shwn-Meei Lee",slug:"shwn-meei-lee"}]},{id:"52426",title:"Stochastic Agent-Based Simulation of the Role of Labor in the Economy",slug:"stochastic-agent-based-simulation-of-the-role-of-labor-in-the-economy",totalDownloads:678,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Alexander Kindler, Natasa Golo and Sorin Solomon",authors:[{id:"187641",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Kindler",fullName:"Alex Kindler",slug:"alex-kindler"},{id:"187644",title:"Prof.",name:"Sorin",middleName:null,surname:"Solomon",fullName:"Sorin Solomon",slug:"sorin-solomon"},{id:"187645",title:"Prof.",name:"Natasa",middleName:null,surname:"Golo",fullName:"Natasa Golo",slug:"natasa-golo"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"155",title:"Sensor Fusion",subtitle:"Foundation and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4e394b8458dc49549ccf603ef6e376b8",slug:"sensor-fusion-foundation-and-applications",bookSignature:"Ciza Thomas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/155.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"43680",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciza",surname:"Thomas",slug:"ciza-thomas",fullName:"Ciza Thomas"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"15909",title:"A Dynamic Context Reasoning based on Evidential Fusion Networks in Home-Based Care",slug:"a-dynamic-context-reasoning-based-on-evidential-fusion-networks-in-home-based-care",signatures:"Hyun Lee, Jae Sung Choi and Ramez Elmasri",authors:[{id:"29125",title:"Dr",name:"Hyun",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",fullName:"Hyun Lee",slug:"hyun-lee"},{id:"35117",title:"Dr.",name:"Jae Sung",middleName:null,surname:"Choi",fullName:"Jae Sung Choi",slug:"jae-sung-choi"},{id:"35118",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramez",middleName:null,surname:"Elmasri",fullName:"Ramez Elmasri",slug:"ramez-elmasri"}]},{id:"15910",title:"Sensor Fusion for Precision Agriculture",slug:"sensor-fusion-for-precision-agriculture",signatures:"Viacheslav I. 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Ollero",authors:[{id:"34663",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramiro",middleName:null,surname:"Martinez",fullName:"Ramiro Martinez",slug:"ramiro-martinez"},{id:"36232",title:"MSc",name:"Adrian",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Gonzalez",fullName:"Adrian Jimenez-Gonzalez",slug:"adrian-jimenez-gonzalez"},{id:"36233",title:"Prof.",name:"Anibal",middleName:null,surname:"Ollero",fullName:"Anibal Ollero",slug:"anibal-ollero"}]},{id:"14977",title:"Sensor Fusion for Enhancement in Intrusion Detection",slug:"sensor-fusion-for-enhancement-in-intrusion-detection",signatures:"Ciza Thomas and Balakrishnan Narayanaswamy",authors:[{id:"43680",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciza",middleName:null,surname:"Thomas",fullName:"Ciza Thomas",slug:"ciza-thomas"},{id:"43682",title:"Dr.",name:"Narayanaswamy",middleName:null,surname:"Balakrishnan",fullName:"Narayanaswamy Balakrishnan",slug:"narayanaswamy-balakrishnan"}]},{id:"15912",title:"Data Association Techniques for Non-Gaussian Measurements",slug:"data-association-techniques-for-non-gaussian-measurements",signatures:"Stephen C. 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1. Introduction
In event of nuclear or radiological emergency, uncontrolled exposure to ionizing radiation can cause fatal or threatening health effects. Dose received by individual determines the nature of such effects and their severity. To protect individual in emergency exposure situation, one needs to assess doses, which have been received, or would be received in emergency exposure situation, to be able to take an informed decision on protective and other response actions, including medical treatment of overexposed person as demanded in the IAEA General Safety Requirements (GSR) Part 7 [1]. The chapter presents a basis for dose assessment in emergency exposure situation and includes three parts:
Explanation of dosimetric quantities, such as basic, protection, and operational quantities, for use in emergency preparedness and response.
Criteria for assessment of doses received or expected to be received in emergency exposure situation.
Framework of estimation of protection quantities from monitoring results in event of nuclear or radiological emergency.
2. Dosimetric quantities
The International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU) in Report 30 [2] formulates a quantitative dosimetric concept in radiobiology as follows:
Biological effects of radiation are correlated with the energy absorbed by ionization and excitation in unit mass of tissue.
Biological effects of radiation are modified by microscopic spatial distribution of energy of radiation imparted to matter.
Dosimetric concept considers two-step assessment of a dose to characterize health consequences of exposure to ionizing radiation. On the first step, an energy of radiation absorbed in a tissue or organ has to be evaluated. On the next step, a human exposure has to be evaluated in term of protection quantities which could be used in models of developing radiation health effects to assess health consequences (risks) associated with irradiation. At this step, quality of radiation has to be considered taking into account its dependence on properties of radiation, properties of tissue or organ, and expected health effect.
2.1 Basic physical quantities
The basic dosimetric quantities include the particle fluence ΦR, the kerma KR, and the absorbed dose DR of radiation R. Basic quantities characterize the field of radiation and its interaction with a medium where the human body could be present:
The fluence, ΦR, is the quotient of dNR by ds, where dNR is the number of particles R incident on a sphere of cross-sectional area ds. Unit of fluence is m−2.
The kerma, KR, for ionizing uncharged particles R, is the quotient of dEtr by dm, where dEtr is the mean sum of the initial kinetic energies of all the charged particles liberated in a mass dm of a material by the uncharged particles incident on dm. Unit of kerma is J/kg. The special name for the unit of kerma is gray (Gy).
The absorbed dose, DR, is the quotient of dε¯ by dm, where dε¯ is the mean energy imparted by ionizing radiation to matter of mass dm. Unit of absorbed dose is J/kg. The special name for the unit of absorbed dose is gray (Gy).
The ICRU provides exact definition of these quantities in [3].
2.2 Protection quantities
Protection quantities are the dosimetric quantities, which characterize the irradiation of the human. GSR Part 7 [1] states that in response to emergency, “consideration shall be given to actions to be taken to avoid or to minimize severe deterministic effects and to reduce the risk of stochastic effects. Deterministic effects shall be evaluated on the basis of relative biological effectiveness (RBE) weighted absorbed dose in tissue or organ. Stochastic effects in a tissue or organ shall be evaluated on the basis of equivalent dose in tissue or organ. The detriment associated with the occurrence of stochastic effects in individuals in an exposed population shall be evaluated on the basis of the effective dose” (para. 4.28 of GSR Part 7 [1]). Dosimetric quantities of RBE-weighted absorbed dose in tissue or organ T, ADT; equivalent dose in tissue or organ T, HT; and effective dose E are defined in GSG-2 [4] and GSR Part 3 [5] and recommended for protection purposes.
The overall theory on the development of biological health effects is not yet developed. The protection quantities are essentially used for evaluation of consequences of human exposure to ionizing radiation in terms of developing deterministic and stochastic health effects separately as listed in Table 1. Figure 1 presents relationship between protection quantities and basic physical quantities.
Dosimetric quantity
Symbol
Unit
Purpose
Protection quantities
RBE-weighted absorbed dose in tissue or organ T
ADT
Gy
For evaluating deterministic effects induced as a result of exposure of an organ or tissue T
Equivalent dose in tissue or organ T
HT
Sv
For evaluating stochastic effects induced as a result of exposure of an organ or tissue T
Effective dose
E
Sv
For evaluating detriment related to the occurrence of stochastic effects in an exposed population
Operational quantities
Personal dose equivalent
HPd
Sv
For monitoring external exposure of an individual
Ambient dose equivalent
H∗d
Sv
For monitoring a radiation field of the strongly penetrating radiation
Directional dose equivalent
H′dΩ
Sv
For monitoring a radiation field of the weakly penetrating radiation
Table 1.
Dosimetric quantities.
Figure 1.
Dosimetric quantities.
Radiation protection quantities could not be measured directly. In particular irradiation conditions, they could be calculated by taking into account estimates of basic protection quantities (results of their measurement or calculation), geometry of irradiation, characteristics of irradiated person, etc. For radiation protection purposes, these quantities are defined for reference persons representing different groups of the public and workers in [6] and standard irradiation geometries for external exposure in [7].
Definitions of these quantities can be found in the GSR Part 3 [5], 2007 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) [8], and EPR Publication [9].
The determination of RBE-weighted dose ADT in a tissue or organ T involves the use of tissue-specific and radiation-specific factors RBET,R as a multiplier of absorbed dose for radiation R, to reflect the relative biological effectiveness of the radiation in inducing severe deterministic effect in organ T at high doses:
ADT=∑RDT,R×RBET,R,E1
where DT,R is the average absorbed dose in the tissue or organ T for radiation R.
Factor RBET,R depends on the quality of radiation and macroscopic distribution of energy of radiation imparted to matter of affected organ or tissue [9]. The role of such heterogeneity is significant in the case of internal exposure [9, 10]. The RBE-weighted absorbed dose in tissue or organ is defined for use together with radiobiological model for assessing the risk of developing severe deterministic effects in critical organs and tissues at high doses [9, 10, 11, 12].
The determination of equivalent dose HT in a tissue or organ T involves the use of a radiation weighting factor wR as a multiplier of absorbed dose for radiation R, to reflect the relative biological effectiveness of the radiation in inducing stochastic effects at low doses:
HT=∑RDT,R×wR.E2
The equivalent dose in tissue or organ is defined for use together with radiobiological model for assessing the risk of developing stochastic effects in organs and tissues at low doses of external [13] and internal [14] exposure.
The determination of effective dose E involves the use of a tissue weighting factor wT as a multiplier of equivalent dose for tissue T, to account for the different sensitivities of different tissues or organs to the induction of stochastic effects and production of radiation detriment [8, 15]:
E=∑THT×wT=∑T,RDT,R×wR×wT.E3
In accordance with the ICRP, the radiation detriment is the total harm to health experienced by an exposed group and its descendants as a result of the group’s exposure to a radiation source. Detriment is a multidimensional concept. Its principal components are the stochastic quantities: probability of attributable fatal cancer, weighted probability of attributable nonfatal cancer, weighted probability of severe heritable effects, and length of life lost if the harm occurs [8]. The 2007 Recommendations of the ICRP state in para. (153) that the main and primary uses of effective dose in radiological protection for both occupational workers and the general public are:
prospective dose assessment for planning and optimization of protection; and
retrospective dose assessment for demonstrating compliance with dose limits, or for comparing with dose constraints or reference levels.
In this regard, organ or tissue equivalent doses, not effective doses, are required for assessing the probability of cancer induction in exposed individuals.
The recommended values of RBET,R,wR and wT are based on a review of published biological and epidemiological studies and are given in the definitions of protection quantities in GSR Part 3 [5].
2.3 Operational quantities
Since radiation protection quantities cannot be measured directly, the ICRU introduced operational quantities for practical use in radiation protection where exposure due to external sources is concerned. Definitions of these quantities can be found in [16, 17, 18, 19, 20] and in GSR Part 3 [5]. The operational quantities provide an estimate of effective or equivalent dose in tissue or organ in such a way that avoids overestimation in most radiation fields encountered in practice [7]. Radiation quality factor Q(L) is used in calculating the operational dose equivalent quantities used in monitoring [21]. The quality factor characterizes the biological effectiveness of the radiation type, based on the ionization density along the tracks of charged particles in tissue. Q is defined as a function of the unrestricted linear energy transfer, Lm (often denoted as L or linear energy transfer, LET), of charged particles in water. Detailed evaluation of the relationship between the physical, protection, and operational quantities was conducted by a joint task group of the ICRP and ICRU [7].
Strongly penetrating radiation and weakly penetrating radiation are considered in radiation dosimetry and are differentiated as follows. For most practical purposes, it may be assumed that strongly penetrating radiation includes photons of energy above about 12 keV, electrons of energy more than about 2 MeV, and neutrons. It may be also assumed that weakly penetrating radiation includes photons of energy below about 12 keV, electrons of energy less than about 2 MeV, and massive charged particles as protons and alpha particles [5].
The operational quantity for individual monitoring is the personal dose equivalent HPd. Any statement of personal dose equivalent has to include a specification of the reference depth d. In order to simplify the notation, d is assumed to be expressed in millimeters.
For strongly penetrating radiation, the reference depth for controlling the radiation detriment in planned exposure situation is 10 mm. Personal dose equivalent HP10 provides a conservative estimate of effective dose to adult for strongly penetrating radiation.
For weakly penetrating radiation, the reference depth for controlling stochastic effects due to irradiation of the basal membrane of the skin is 0.07 mm, and the deterministic effect in lens of the eye is 3 mm [15, 22, 23].
For monitoring of the lens of the eye, a depth of 3 mm is recommended by the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements [3], so the operational quantity to be used is HP3. In practice, however, the use of HP3 has not yet been implemented for routine individual monitoring. In specific cases, when actual workplace radiation fields are known, monitoring of the eye through dosimeters calibrated for HP0.07 could be acceptable. In [23], it is stated that HP0.07 can be considered a good operational quantity for the lens of the eye for exposures to fields for which most of the dose is due to photons, including X radiation. In such cases, it has to be borne in mind that the uncertainty associated with the estimation of equivalent dose will be higher.
The operational quantities recommended for workplace monitoring are defined in a phantom known as the ICRU sphere [18]. This is a sphere of 30 cm diameter made of tissue equivalent material with a density of 1 g/cm3 and an elemental composition (by mass) of 76.2% oxygen, 11.1% carbon, 10.1% hydrogen, and 2.6% nitrogen.
The two quantities recommended by the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements for workplace monitoring [3] are the ambient dose equivalent H∗d and the directional dose equivalent H′dΩ.
The ambient dose equivalent H∗d at a point in a radiation field is the dose equivalent that would be produced by the corresponding aligned and expanded field in the ICRU sphere, at a depth d on the radius opposing the direction of the aligned field.
The expanded field (see Figure 2(b)) is one in which the fluence and its angular and energy distribution are the same throughout the volume of interest as in the actual field at the point of reference (see Figure 2(a)). In the expanded and aligned field (see Figure 2(c)), the fluence and its energy distribution are the same as in the expanded field, but the fluence is unidirectional [12].
Figure 2.
Actual, expanded, and aligned radiation field.
Any statement of ambient dose equivalent has to include a specification of the reference depth d. For strongly penetrating radiation, the recommended depth is 10 mm. When measuring H∗10, the radiation fields have to be uniformed over the sensitive volume of the instrument, and the instrument has to have an isotropic response.
The directional dose equivalent H′dΩ at a point in a radiation field is the dose equivalent that would be produced by the corresponding expanded field in the ICRU sphere, at a depth d on a radius in a specified direction Ω. Any statement of directional dose equivalent has to include a specification of the reference depth d and the direction Ω of the radiation. For strongly penetrating radiation and weakly penetrating radiation, the recommended depths are 10 mm and 0.07 mm, respectively.
If the field is unidirectional, the direction Ω is specified as the angle between the radius opposing the incident field and the specified radius. When the specified radius is parallel to the radiation field (i.e., when Ω = 0°) the quantity H′d0 is equal to H∗d. When measuring H′dΩ, the radiation fields have to be uniformed over the dimensions of the instrument, and the instrument has to have the appropriate directional response.
3. Generic dosimetric criteria
When determining the possible health hazard, three dosimetric quantities must be considered as shown in Table 1:
The RBE-weighted dose ADT, which is used to evaluate the risk of severe deterministic effects
The equivalent dose HT, which is used to evaluate the risk of stochastic effects
The effective dose E, which is used to evaluate the radiogenic detriment for purposes of radiation protection
Protection quantities are applicable in certain dose ranges. Figure 3 provides an example of the applicable ranges for dosimetric quantities characterizing external penetrating radiation to evaluate risk of severe deterministic effects and stochastic effects, i.e., observable increase in the incidence of radiation-induced cancers. The ranges are not exactly defined because of competition of effects. For instance, both the risks of radiogenic cancers and severe deterministic effects have to be evaluated when whole-body absorbed dose is around 1 Gy. Below 100 mGy may not have any severe deterministic effects or an observable increase in the incidence of cancer, even in a very large exposed group. An increase in the cancer incidence rate due to radiation-induced cases is uncertain and will not be detectable [10, 12, 24].
Figure 3.
Probability of severe health effects as a function of absorbed dose for external penetrating radiation.
The system of protective actions and other response actions in an emergency includes numerical values of generic criteria as well as of the corresponding operational criteria that form the basis for decision-making in an emergency.
Table 2 presents levels of RBE-weighted absorbed dose in critical organs and tissues which if exceeded will give rise to severe deterministic effects in 5% of those who are exposed.
Quantity
Level
Comments
Acute external exposure (for less than 10 h)
ADRedmarrow
1 Gy
ADRedmarrow represents the RBE-weighted absorbed dose in internal tissues or organs from exposure in a uniform field of strongly penetrating radiation [1, 4]
ADFetus/Embryo
0.1 Gy
No
ADSoft tissue
25 Gy
Dose delivered to 100cm2 at a depth of 0.5 cm under the body surface in soft tissue [1, 4]
ADSknderma
10 Gy
Dose delivered to the 100cm2 dermis (skin structures at a depth of 40mg/cm2 (or 0.4 mm) below the body surface) [1, 4]
Acute intake of radioactive substance
ADRedmarrowΔ
0.2 Gy
For intake of radionuclides with Z > 90; Δ = 30 d [1, 4]
2 Gy
For intake of radionuclides with Z ≤ 89; Δ = 30 d [1, 4]
ADThyroidΔ
2 Gy
For intake of thyroid-seeking radionuclides; Δ = 30 d [1, 4]
ADLungΔ
30 Gy
For the purposes of these generic criteria, “lung” means the alveolar-interstitial region of the respiratory tract; Δ = 30 d [1, 4]
ADColonΔ
20 Gy
For the purposes of these generic criteria, “colon” presents upper and lower large intestine: Δ = 30 d [1, 4]
ADFetus/EmbryoΔ∼
0. 1 Gy
For this particular case, Δ∼ means the period of in utero development [1, 4]
Table 2.
Criteria for assessing the high doses from external and internal exposure.
Table 3 provides the dosimetric criteria used to define the radiological health hazard level used for taking a decision on implementation of protective and other response actions in emergency exposure situation. These criteria are based on Table 3 of [4], which provides the international generic criteria below which the risk of cancers and other health effects is too low to justify taking any protective or other response actions, such as a medical screening. The criteria were established for exposures at high-dose rates. For the lower-dose rates that will occur off the site following a release resulting from a severe emergency at a light-water reactor or its spent fuel pool, a comparable level of radiation-induced cancer risk would probably occur at a dose two or more times higher [8].
Quantity
Level
Comments
E
100 mSv in 1 year
No
HFetus/Embryo
100 mSv in 1 year
No
HThyroid
100 mSv in 1 year
For intake of thyroid-seeking radionuclides
Table 3.
Criteria for assessing the intermediate doses from external and internal exposure.
For restricting the exposure of emergency workers having assigned tasks in an emergency response, Table 4 provides guidance values in terms of personal dose equivalent HP10 from external exposure to strongly penetrating radiation. The values for HP10 in Table 4 assume that every effort has been made for protection against external exposure to weakly penetrating radiation and against exposure due to intakes or skin contamination (see para. 5.53 of GSR Part 7 [1]). The values of HP10 in Table 4 are used for planning and operational monitoring of the work’s exposure.
Task
Quantity and guidance level
HP10
E
ADT
Lifesaving actions (a) Actions to prevent severe deterministic effects and actions to prevent the development of catastrophic conditions that could significantly affect people and the environment
Criteria for assessing individual doses in emergency workers.
Note: (a)This value may be exceeded—with due consideration of the generic criteria in Table 2—under circumstances in which the expected benefits to others clearly outweigh the emergency worker’s own health risks and the emergency worker volunteers to take the action and understands and accepts these health risks [1].
To assure protection of the emergency workers, the total effective dose and the RBE-weighted absorbed dose in a tissue or organ via all exposure pathways need to be estimated as early as possible in a nuclear or radiological emergency.
4. Estimation of protection quantities
Protection quantities of ADT,HT and E characterize the exposure of an individual for purposes of implementation of protective actions and other actions to protect him or her in emergency exposure situation. The practical goal of radiation monitoring in emergency exposure situation is to provide the information required for estimation of protective quantities.
4.1 Estimation of protection quantities characterizing an external exposure
Properties of external radiation entering the body of individual R, basic physical characteristics of radiation field, such as particle fluence ΦR, the kerma KR, and geometry of irradiation G, provide a basis for estimation of the protection quantities from external exposure. For idealized irradiation geometries, the ICRP in [7] presents the relationship between basic physical quantities and protection quantities for monoenergetic photons, electrons and positrons, neutrons, protons, muons, pions, and helium ions in six considered irradiation geometries: AP, anteroposterior; PA, posteroanterior; LLAT, left lateral; RLAT, right lateral; ROT, rotational; and ISO, isotropic.
As presented in Figure 4, the major characteristic of a field of radiation is a fluence of radiation ΦR. For monoenergetic radiation, an ambient dose equivalent and air kerma are proportional to fluence:
ΦR=Ka,R/ka,R=HR∗d/hR∗d.E4
Figure 4.
General scheme for assessment of individual external dose from monitoring.
For non-monoenergetic radiation
Ka=∑R∫ΦRεR×kaεRdεR,E5
H∗10=∑R∫ΦRεR×h∗10εRdεR,E6
where ΦRεRdεR is the fluence of radiation R with energy between εR and εR+dεR, kaεR is the dose coefficient of air kerma of radiation R with energy εR, and h∗10εR is the dose coefficient of ambient dose equivalent of radiation R with energy εR.
For irradiation geometry G, one has
HP10G=∑R∫ΦRεR×hP10εRGdεR,E7
ADT,G=∑R∫ΦRεR×AdT10εRGdεR,E8
HT,G=∑R∫ΦRεR×hTεRGdεR,E9
EG=∑R∫ΦRεR×eεRGdεR,E10
where kaεR is the dose coefficient of air kerma of radiation R with energy εR, hP10εRG is the dose coefficient of personal dose equivalent of radiation R with energy εR and irradiation geometry G, AdTεRG is the dose coefficient of RBE-weighted dose in organ T of radiation R with energy εR and irradiation geometry G, hTεRG is the dose coefficient of equivalent dose in organ T of radiation R with energy εR and irradiation geometry G, and eεRG is the dose coefficient of effective dose of radiation R with energy εR and irradiation geometry G.
For photon radiation, values of AdTεRG and hTεRG are numerically equal when the same organ or tissue and irradiation geometry are considered.
The internet resource [25] provides tools for evaluation of absorbed dose in different organs from point or volumetric radioactive sources inside or outside the human body.
The publication [26] provides dose coefficients for exposure to bulk sources that are ground, water body and cloud containing radioactive material.
The publication [27] presents a compendium of neutron spectra, which could be used for estimation of protection quantities in accordance with Eqs. (7)–(10). The estimates show that for fission neutrons scattered from the concrete walls of the facility, soil, or from the air surrounding the facility (skyshine), the value of AdTεRG is numerically equal to 1/5 of hTεRG when the same organ or tissue and irradiation geometry are considered. This linkage provide the possibility to use results of operational or routine monitoring of doses in workers for estimation of ADRedmarrow in emergency exposure situation as required by GSR Part 7 and presented in Table 4.
As presented in [7], dose coefficients mentioned above are proportional to the photon energy in range of (0.1–6) MeV. Therefore, for the same irradiation geometry
where εj is any photon energy from range of (0.1–6) MeV.
For mentioned range of photon’ energy, the exposure is proportional to the kerma free-in-air (air kerma) or exposure. Thus, in the same point of field of photon radiation, exposure or kerma in air for an exposure of 100 R is 0.876 Gy [28]. This linkage provides the possibility to use old devices such as exposure meters (R-meters) in environmental monitoring for estimation of air kerma and protection quantities as given in Eq. (11).
The protection quantities ADT,HT and E received from exposure due to external sources can be also estimated from the operational quantities by using the following equations:
E≅HP10.E12
HSkin≅HP0.07.E13
HLense ofeye≅HP0.07.E14
For strongly penetrating radiation, the critical organ for controlling the development of the severe deterministic effects in individual is the red marrow [1, 4]. The ICRU did not recommend depth for controlling the dose in the red marrow. For practical reasons, monitoring of the red marrow through dosimeters calibrated for HP10 could be acceptable. The RBE-weighted absorbed dose in the red marrow received from exposure due to external sources can be estimated from the operational quantities by using the following equation:
ADRedMarrow≅HP10.E15
For weakly penetrating radiation and in emergency exposure situation, the reference depth for controlling severe deterministic effects due to irradiation of the derma of the skin is 0.4 mm and for controlling the severe deterministic effects due to irradiation of shallow soft tissue is 5 mm [1, 4, 9, 10]. The ICRU did not recommend operational quantity for controlling the dose in the skin derma or shallow soft tissue in emergency exposure situation. For practical reasons, monitoring of the skin derma and shallow soft tissue through dosimeters calibrated for HP0.07 could be acceptable. The RBE-weighted absorbed dose in the skin derma or in shallow soft tissue received from exposure due to external sources can be conservatively estimated from the operational quantities by using the following equations:
ADSkin derma≅0.07.E16
ADSoft tissue≅HP3.E17
Based on the foregoing, individual monitoring in planned, emergency and existing exposure situations through individual dosimeters calibrated for HP10 and HP0.07 could be acceptable.
4.2 Estimation of protection quantities characterizing an internal exposure
Internal doses cannot be measured directly; they can only be calculated from intake of radioactive substance through particular route such as respiratory system in the case of inhalation, gastrointestinal tract in the case of ingestion or wound, and undamaged skin in the case of contamination. The individual intake also could not be directly measured and can only be inferred from individual measurements of other quantities, such as measurements of activity in the body or in excretion samples or activity concentration in foodstuff or the environment. In circumstances where individual monitoring is inappropriate, inadequate, or not feasible, the occupational exposure of workers may be assessed on the basis of workplace monitoring and other relevant information such as location and durations of exposure. Individual measurements include measurements made by both direct and indirect methods. Methods for the measurement of activity content in the body, such as whole-body, lung, or thyroid counting, are examples of direct methods. Measurements of activity in collected biological samples or measurements made using personal air sampling are examples of indirect methods.
The conceptual framework for the assessment of doses from individual or environmental measurements is illustrated in Figure 5.
Figure 5.
General scheme for assessment of individual internal dose from monitoring.
Chemical and physical properties of radioactive substance S containing radionuclide, the route of intake into the human body P, and value of intake IS,P composite a base for estimation of the protection quantities from internal exposure.
The measurable characteristics of internal exposure are quantities of body content or excretion rate of radionuclide M and concentration of radioactive substance in the environmental media CtS.
According to the scheme in Figure 5, the value of the intake of radioactive substance S could be obtained by multiplying the integrated over time the measured concentration of radioactive substance in the environmental media CtS by the appropriate value of vPg:
IgS,P=vPg×∫0tCxSdx,E18
where vPg is the consumption rate of an individual of age group g through route P and t is the period of consumption.
According to the scheme in Figure 5, the value of the intake of radioactive substance S is obtained by dividing the measured body content or excretion rate M by the appropriate value of mtgS,P:
IgS,P=M/mtgS,P,E19
where mtgS,P is the fraction of an intake that remains in the body (for direct methods) or that is being excreted from the body (for indirect methods) at time t after the intake. This fraction depends on the radionuclide, its chemical and physical form in substance S, the route of intake P, the age group of age g, and the time t [29, 30].
Special attention has to be paid to the interpretation of bioassay measurements after the use of means for blocking the uptake of radionuclides or for enhancing their excretion, such as the administration of diuretics, laxatives, or blocking or chelating agents, as well as after the removal of contamination and/or surgical intervention at a wound site. These techniques influence and modify the biokinetic behavior of the incorporated radionuclides, thus invalidating the use of the standardized modeling approach for estimating intake and dose from the bioassay measurements.
In such cases, alternative approaches have to be employed, such as discarding data on excretion for excretion samples collected during the period in which excretion rates may be assumed to have been influenced by the treatment or modifying the standard models in order to take into account the effect of the treatment. Examples of analyses performed after the administration of the chelating agent Ca-DTPA (a calcium salt of diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid) in cases of accidental intakes of actinides can be found in [31, 32, 33]. Bioassay measurements for dose assessment purposes are performed after a certain time period, posttreatment with Ca-DTPA, until the excretion of the radionuclide stabilizes in urine samples. Influence of iodine thyroid blocking on biokinetic of iodine in human body is discussed in [34]. Influence of administration of Prussian blue {Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3} on biokinetic of Cs is discussed in [35].
The specific protection quantities of committed RBE-weighted organ dose ADTΔg, committed equivalent organ dose HTτg, and committed effective dose Eτg are used for evaluation of dose in an internal dosimetry:
ADTΔg≅∑S,PIgS,P×AdTΔgS,P,E20
HTτg=∑S,PIgS,P×hTτgS,P,E21
Eτg=∑S,PIgS,P×eτgS,P,E22
where AdTΔgS,P and hTτgS,P are respectively the committed RBE-weighted or equivalent dose in the organ or tissue T due to intake of 1 Bq of radionuclide substance S through pathway P, by the group of age g. These dose factors are the time integrals of the relevant dose rates:
AdTΔgS,P=∫0ΔAḋTtgS,Pdt,E23
hTτgS,P=∫0τḣTtgS,Pdt,E24
eτgS,P=∑ThTτgS,P×wT,E25
where AḋTtgS,P is the RBE-weighted dose rate in organ or tissue T due to intake of 1 Bq of radionuclide substance S through pathway P and ḣTtgS,P is the equivalent dose rate in organ or tissue T due to intake of 1 Bq of radionuclide substance S through pathway P. For estimation of committed RBE-weighted dose, Δ is taken to be 30 days. The τ is the integration time elapsed after an intake of radioactive substances. When τ is not specified, it will be taken to be 50 years for adults and the time to age 70 years for intakes by children and persons younger than 20.
Various biokinetic models for calculating the values of mtgS,P,AdTΔgS,P and hTτgS,P have been developed.
Values of mtgS,P at selected times for a subset of radionuclides have been reported by the ICRP in graphical and tabular form [36, 37]. A compilation of mtgS,P by workers in emergency and planned exposure situation is presented in various publications of the IAEA [29, 38]. The Internet resources containing the values of mtgS,P different radioactive substances are presented in [39].
Special attention has to be paid to the patterns of inhalation intake in nuclear emergency. Chemical form of radionuclides in aerosol particles and their behavior in the human respiratory tract could be very specific [40, 41] and significantly different from these observed in planned exposure situation and presented in Table II.2C of GSR Part 3 [5].
A compilation of dose coefficients AdTΔgS,P for intakes of radionuclides by adults is presented in publications of the IAEA [9, 29].
A compilation of dose coefficients eτgS,P for ingestion and inhalation intakes of radionuclides by workers is presented in ICRP Publication 119 [42]. A compilation of hTτgS,P and eτgS,P for workers and all age groups of members of the public can also be found in the ICRP database in [43]. Data for fetus or embryo due to inhalation or ingestion of radioactive substance by mother are presented in [44, 45] and for infant in [46, 47]. These dose coefficients are based on the calculation methods and parameters given in ICRP Publication 60 [15]. The current published values of eτgS,P will be superseded in due course by new values [6, 36, 42] based on updated biokinetic models and on the methods of calculation and the parameters given in ICRP Publication 103 [8]. A compilation of mtgS,Wond,hTτgS,Wound and eτgS,Wound for penetration of radioactive substance through wound is presented in [48, 49].
4.3 Estimation of protection quantities characterizing a total exposure
The protection quantities E and HT relate to the sum of the effective doses or equivalent doses, respectively, received from exposure due to external sources within a given time period and the committed effective doses or committed equivalent doses, respectively, from exposure due to intakes of radionuclides occurring within the same time period.
The total equivalent dose in organ or tissue T received or committed during a given time period in individuals from age group g can be estimated from the operational quantities by using the following equation:
HTg≅HP10+HTτg,E26
where HP10 is the personal dose equivalent from external exposure and HTτg is assessed by Eq. (21).
The total effective dose E received or committed during a given time period in individuals from age group g can be estimated from the operational quantities by using the following equation:
In the calculation of the committed dose from specific radionuclides, allowance may need to be made for the characteristics of the material taken into the body through inhalation, ingestion, and contaminated wound.
5. Conclusions
To characterize the emergency exposure situation in event of nuclear or radiological emergency, doses to the members of the public, workers, emergency workers, as well as patients and helpers, if applicable, have to be derived from source monitoring, environmental monitoring, or individual monitoring, or from a combination of these. Result of dose assessment needs to be expressed in terms of protection quantities defined in the IAEA General Safety Requirements (GSR) Part 7 [1] and GSR Part 3 [5]. Dose assessment has to be based on the best available monitoring data and has to be promptly updated if any new information relevant for dose assessment becomes available.
The dose assessment has to be as realistic as possible, and in any case, doses for situations in which persons might be in danger of being harmed are not to be underestimated. Overestimation also has to be avoided because there are risks associated with protective actions.
\n',keywords:"emergency, dosimetry, internal exposure, external exposure, deterministic effects, stochastic effects",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65261.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65261.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65261",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65261",totalDownloads:208,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"October 3rd 2018",dateReviewed:"December 6th 2018",datePrePublished:"January 22nd 2019",datePublished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Lessons learned from responses to past radiological and nuclear emergencies have shown that more guidance is needed for assessing doses to those who were affected in emergency exposure situation. The chapter introduces system of dosimetric quantities for use in emergency preparedness and response to nuclear or radiological emergency, which includes RBE-weighted absorbed dose in tissue or organ for evaluation of the risk of severe deterministic effects, equivalent dose in tissue or organ for evaluation of the risk of stochastic effects, and effective dose for evaluation of the detriment due to undetectable stochastic effects. The chapter also provides internationally proved criteria for protection of individual in emergency exposure situation and framework of dose and risk assessment in an emergency. The special attention has been put on evaluation of available sources of dosimetric data needed for dose and risk assessment in an emergency.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65261",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65261",signatures:"Vladimir Kutkov",book:{id:"7668",title:"Ionizing and Non-ionizing Radiation",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Ionizing and Non-ionizing Radiation",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"D.Sc. Adelaja Osibote",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7668.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"245068",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Adelaja",middleName:null,surname:"Osibote",slug:"adelaja-osibote",fullName:"Adelaja Osibote"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Dosimetric quantities",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Basic physical quantities",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Protection quantities",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Operational quantities",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Generic dosimetric criteria",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Estimation of protection quantities",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.1 Estimation of protection quantities characterizing an external exposure",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.2 Estimation of protection quantities characterizing an internal exposure",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.3 Estimation of protection quantities characterizing a total exposure",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Preparedness and response for a nuclear or radiological emergency. General Safety Requirements Part 7. Safety Standard Series No. GSR-Part 7. Vienna: IAEA; 2015. p. 136'},{id:"B2",body:'Quantitative Concepts and Dosimetry in Radiobiology. 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Ashford, Kent: Nuclear Technology Publishing; 2001. 95 p'},{id:"B20",body:'Quantities and Units in Radiation Protection Dosimetry. ICRU Report 51. Bethesda, MD: ICRU; 1993. p. 19'},{id:"B21",body:'The Quality Factor in Radiation Protection. ICRU Report 40. Bethesda, MD: ICRU; 1986. p. 32'},{id:"B22",body:'Guidance on Radiation Dose Limits for the Lens of the Eye. NCRP Comments 26. Bethesda, MD: U.S. NCRP; 2016. p. 145'},{id:"B23",body:'Implications for Occupational Radiation Protection of the New Dose Limit for the Lens of the Eye, IAEA TECDOC Series 1731. Vienna: IAEA; 2013. p. 48'},{id:"B24",body:'Biological effects at low radiation doses. Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation. In: UNSCEAR 2000 Report to the General Assembly (with scientific annexes). Vol. II. Scientific Annex G. New York: United Nations; 2000. pp. 73-176'},{id:"B25",body:'Visual Monte Carlo. Software for radiation protection and internal dosimetry. Available from: http://www.VMCsoftware.com [Accessed: 01-12-2018]'},{id:"B26",body:'External Exposure to radionuclides in air, water and soil. Federal Guidance Report No. 15. Washington DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; 2018. p. 342'},{id:"B27",body:'Compendium of Neutron Spectra and Detector Responses for Radiation Protection Purposes. Supplement to Technical Reports Series No. 318. Technical Report Series No. 403. Vienna: IAEA; 2001. p. 276'},{id:"B28",body:'Podgoršak EB. Radiation Physics for Medical Physicists. 3rd ed. Switzerland: Springer; 2016. p. 955'},{id:"B29",body:'Generic procedures for medical response during a nuclear or radiological emergency, Emergency Preparedness and Response Series EPR-MEDICAL. Vienna: IAEA; 2005. p. 296'},{id:"B30",body:'Occupational Radiation Protection. Safety Standards Series No. GSG-7. Vienna: IAEA; 2018. p. 360'},{id:"B31",body:'Bailey BR, Eckerman KF, Townsend LW. An analysis of a puncture wound case with medical intervention. 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Annals of the ICRP. 2001;31(1-2):511'},{id:"B45",body:'ICRP-Database of Dose Coefficients: Embryo and Fetus. Ver. 2.0. ICRP CD2. Available from: http://www.icrp.org [Accessed: 01-12-2018]'},{id:"B46",body:'ICRP Publication 95. Doses to infants from radionuclides ingested in mothers’ milk. Annals of the ICRP. 2004;34(3-4):287'},{id:"B47",body:'ICRP-Database of Dose Coefficients: Radionuclides in Mother’s Milk. Ver. 2.0. ICRP CD3. Available from: http://www.icrp.org [Accessed: 01-12-2018]'},{id:"B48",body:'Development of a Biokinetic Model for Radionuclide-Contaminated Wounds and Procedures for Their Assessment, Dosimetry and Treatment. NCRP Report 156. Bethesda, MD: NCRP; 2006. p. 428'},{id:"B49",body:'Toohey RE, Bertelli L, Sugarman SL, Wiley AL, Christensen DM. Dose Coefficients for Intakes of Radionuclides via Contaminated Wounds. 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I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. 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