Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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The 5-year survival rate for children with high-risk NBL is only 50-60%, and this survival rate has not improved over the last 10 years. High-risk patients receive multimodality treatment, including chemotherapy, surgery, radiation therapy, biologic therapy and immunotherapy, all of which are associated with significant morbidity. Recent years have seen many advances in treatment of neuroblastoma, including therapeutic MIBG, immunotherapy, and personalized targeted therapy based on the genetic alterations seen in the tumor. The primary objective of this book is to provide the readers with a comprehensive review of neuroblastoma, from clinical aspects and the currently available treatment to recent advancements and future directions in the field of NBL treatment. The topics and chapters have been compiled keeping in mind a diverse group of readers in different areas of specialty such as pediatric oncology, surgery, radiation oncology, and immunology, as well as physician scientists and basic researchers working in the field of neuroblastoma.",isbn:"978-953-51-3584-5",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3583-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4619-3",doi:"10.5772/66615",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"neuroblastoma-current-state-and-recent-updates",numberOfPages:168,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"1d1771f2ace21492d8dd4d656366f7f1",bookSignature:"Chandrika Gowda",publishedDate:"October 25th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6006.jpg",numberOfDownloads:11866,numberOfWosCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:8,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:18,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 23rd 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 14th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 20th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 20th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 20th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"175666",title:"Dr.",name:"Chandrika",middleName:null,surname:"Gowda",slug:"chandrika-gowda",fullName:"Chandrika Gowda",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175666/images/6226_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Chandrika Gowda received her medical training in India. She went on to complete her residency training in Pediatrics at the Unterberg Children’s Hospital at Monmouth Medical Center, New Jersey, and fellowship training in Hematology-Oncology at the Penn State Children’s Hospital in Hershey, Pennsylvania. Dr. Gowda is currently a board certified Pediatric Hematologist-Oncologist and has served as an Assistant Professor of pediatrics at Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine for the past 4 years. Dr. Gowda is a physician scientist with major efforts committed toward conducting basic science and translation research in addition to treating children with various cancers. Her research is focused on targeting oncogenic signaling pathways and designing novel targeted therapies in order to treat pediatric cancers like leukemia and neuroblastoma. The main focus of her research is to understand the function of Ikaros tumor suppressor and the regulation of Ikaros activity in childhood cancers, including leukemia and neuroblastoma. She has published several research articles, reviews, and book chapters to her credit. She has also presented her work at various national and international scientific platforms and gained national recognition for her work.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1085",title:"Neuro-Oncology",slug:"neuro-oncology"}],chapters:[{id:"56806",title:"Neuroblastoma: The Clinical Aspects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70486",slug:"neuroblastoma-the-clinical-aspects",totalDownloads:1864,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Neuroblastoma is a predominantly pediatric cancer, arising from the primordial neural crest cells that form the sympathetic nervous system. The prognosis for patients with neuroblastoma can vary from uniform survival in low risk patients to fatality in patients with high risk disease. This chapter gives a brief overview of the epidemiology, genetics, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and discussion of the various staging systems and risk classifications of neuroblastoma. We also briefly describe our understanding of the conventional and novel treatment modalities available and their effects on the current prognosis of patients with neuroblastoma. The purpose of this chapter is to serve as a brief overview of the clinical aspects of neuroblastoma, to serve as a foundation of knowledge for scientists aspiring to develop new therapeutic modalities for this dreadful pediatric disease.",signatures:"Neema Bhat and Lisa McGregor",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56806",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56806",authors:[{id:"206425",title:"Dr.",name:"Neema",surname:"Bhat",slug:"neema-bhat",fullName:"Neema Bhat"},{id:"217168",title:"Dr.",name:"Lisa",surname:"McGregor",slug:"lisa-mcgregor",fullName:"Lisa McGregor"}],corrections:null},{id:"55779",title:"The Origin of Neuroblastoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69422",slug:"the-origin-of-neuroblastoma",totalDownloads:1376,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It is widely accepted that neuroblastoma origin from Neural Crest Cells (NCC). NCC is a group of embryonic cells located in proximity to neural tube. During the embryonic development they migrate to generate the ganglia of sympathetic nervous system and the adrenal medulla. More than 50% of neuroblastoma masses are detected in the abdomen but the phases of tumorigenesis during the embryonic life are still unknown. Neuroblastoma cells show numerous copy number aberrations (CNAs), both numerical and structural. Several non-random CNAs are detected in clinical stage 4 and associated with tumor aggressiveness. On the contrary, neuroblastoma cells of infants or young patients have several numerical CNAs that are associated with a favorable outcome. MYCN oncogene amplification was one of the first genetic abnormalities observed in neuroblastoma and was found correlated to tumor aggressiveness. About 1% of all neuroblastoma show a hereditable fashion. Nowadays, the ALK gene has been discovered as predisposition gene for neuroblastoma. Moreover, thank to the genome-wide association studies, BARD1, LMO1 and LIN28 genes have been found linked to neuroblastoma predisposition. The two-step and multistep models are not satisfied the genesis of this tumor making the study of neuroblastoma tumorigenesis mandatory. Recently, the role of chromosome instability (CIN) became prominent to explain the neuroblastoma development. Indeed, the chromothripsis was observed in neuroblastoma cells of clinical stage 4, supporting the high genomic instability of these cells. The role of CIN in neuroblastoma is still unclear, but several experimental data suggest that CIN has a pivotal part in the genesis of neuroblastoma.",signatures:"Gian Paolo Tonini",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55779",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55779",authors:[{id:"203964",title:"Prof.",name:"Gian Paolo",surname:"Tonini",slug:"gian-paolo-tonini",fullName:"Gian Paolo Tonini"}],corrections:null},{id:"56063",title:"Anatomic Origin and Molecular Genetics in Neuroblastoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69568",slug:"anatomic-origin-and-molecular-genetics-in-neuroblastoma",totalDownloads:1391,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Neuroblastoma is considered as the most common extracranial solid tumor occurring during childhood, but takes place rarely after the age of 10 years. The tumors are considered as embryonal tumors that result from the fetal or early postnatal life development and are formed from neural crest-derived cells, and their origination is from the early nerve cells which are called as neuroblasts of sympathetic nervous system. Being heterogeneous in their biological, genetic, and morphological characteristics, tumors which are distinct from other solid tumors due to their biological heterogeneity result in the clinical pattern changes from spontaneous regression to a highly aggressive metastatic disease. Neuroblastoma tumorigenesis is regulated by Myc oncogene, leading to aggressive tumor subset. Many epigenetic factors play crucial role in the disease induction and development, while regulatory effect and outcome result in epigenetic patterns distinguishing neuroectoderm, neural crest, and more mature neural states. Neuroblastoma patients’ clinical management is based on prognostic categories subtracted from studies correlating outcome and clinico-biological variables. Neuroblastoma anatomic boundaries include primarily autonomic nervous system besides other rare locations. Neuroblastoma molecular pathogenesis classifies the tumor according to the different clinical behaviors that are important for the improvement of the patients outcome and overall survival according to the different therapy modalities applied.",signatures:"Murat Tosun, Hamit Selim Karabekir, Mehmet Ozan Durmaz, Harun\nMuayad Said, Yasemin Soysal and Nuket Gocmen Mas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56063",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56063",authors:[{id:"25211",title:"Prof.",name:"Nuket",surname:"Gocmen Mas",slug:"nuket-gocmen-mas",fullName:"Nuket Gocmen Mas"},{id:"41515",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasemin",surname:"Soysal",slug:"yasemin-soysal",fullName:"Yasemin Soysal"},{id:"54334",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",surname:"Tosun",slug:"murat-tosun",fullName:"Murat Tosun"},{id:"78266",title:"Prof.",name:"Hamit Selim",surname:"Karabekir",slug:"hamit-selim-karabekir",fullName:"Hamit Selim Karabekir"},{id:"191102",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet Ozan",surname:"Durmaz",slug:"mehmet-ozan-durmaz",fullName:"Mehmet Ozan Durmaz"},{id:"204768",title:"Dr.",name:"Harun Muayad",surname:"Said",slug:"harun-muayad-said",fullName:"Harun Muayad Said"}],corrections:null},{id:"56715",title:"Target Therapy in Neuroblastoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70328",slug:"target-therapy-in-neuroblastoma",totalDownloads:1478,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Neuroblastoma is an embryonal malignancy that originates in the sympathetic nervous system. It is the most common solid tumor in infants and the most frequent extracranial solid tumor in children. Neuroblastoma accounts for 10% of childhood malignancies with 75% occurring in children <4 years. Stage, age, clinical and tumor genomic features are the principal criteria for determining treatment policy. Treatment modalities traditionally employed in the management of neuroblastoma are surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. Intensive multimodal treatment in patients with neuroblastoma has resulted in improved survival rates. However, there is a considerable percentage of patients with refractory and relapsed disease. Targeted therapy for neuroblastoma involves treatment aimed at molecular targets that have a unique expression in this childhood cancer. A large number of molecular targets have been identified for the treatment of high-risk and relapsed neuroblastoma. Treatment in this way aims at providing a more selective way to treat the disease and decreasing toxicities associated with the conventional treatment regimen.",signatures:"Tamer Hassan, Mohamed Badr, Usama El Safy, Mervat Hesham,\nLaila Sherief, Mohamed Beshir, Manar Fathy, Mohamed Al Malky\nand Marwa Zakaria",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56715",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56715",authors:[{id:"106463",title:"Prof.",name:"Tamer",surname:"Hassan",slug:"tamer-hassan",fullName:"Tamer Hassan"}],corrections:null},{id:"55723",title:"Molecular Approach to Neuroblastoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69374",slug:"molecular-approach-to-neuroblastoma",totalDownloads:1573,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Neuroblastoma is a notably malignant cancer originates from neuroblastoma stem cells during embryogenesis. It can originate from any region of the peripheral nervous system. Neuroblastoma is a heterogeneous cancer. The cells responsible for heterogeneous structure are neuroblastoma stem cells that initiate the cancer and generate into all the cancer cells and have self‐renewal property. Although some specific surface markers and genetic patterns of neuroblastoma stem cell were determined, all mechanisms have not been illuminated yet. Mutations that are specific to neuroblastoma development, risk group, and disease‐stage are identified. However, epigenetic dysregulations also play major roles in the development of neuroblastoma. Patients gradually develop resistance to conventional chemotherapy or relapse occurs after treatment. New therapy approaches have been developed, either as alternatives to conventional chemotherapy, or in combination with it, in order to overcome the handicaps. Targeted therapies, those directly affecting the cancer cell or the cancer stem cell and having a minimal effect on healthy cells, constitute these approaches. Since neuroblastoma is highly heterogeneous both genetically and epigenetically, the data obtained from molecular mechanisms will greatly contribute to the survival of patients.",signatures:"Bakiye Goker Bagca and Cigir Biray Avci",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55723",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55723",authors:[{id:"116263",title:"Dr.",name:"Çığır",surname:"Biray Avcı",slug:"cigir-biray-avci",fullName:"Çığır Biray Avcı"},{id:"204097",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakiye",surname:"Goker Bagca",slug:"bakiye-goker-bagca",fullName:"Bakiye Goker Bagca"}],corrections:null},{id:"55855",title:"Telomeres and Telomerase in Neuroblastoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69567",slug:"telomeres-and-telomerase-in-neuroblastoma",totalDownloads:1343,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Telomeres are nucleoprotein structures located at the ends of linear chromosomes. In most human adult normal somatic cells, telomeres shorten after each cellular division. This shortening ultimately leads to senescence and/or apoptosis. By contrast, in most cancer cells, telomerase activation compensates this loss and confers to these cells their infinite cell proliferation potential. Neuroblastoma (NBL) is a malignant tumor of the peripheral sympathetic nervous system and the most frequent extracranial solid tumor of childhood. NBLs are remarkably heterogeneous both at the levels of biology, genetic and clinical courses. Indeed, some of NBLs can regress spontaneously or after a mild treatment, while others are in the high-risk category with poor prognosis. The molecular bases underlying this heterogeneity are poorly understood. MYCN (V-Myc Avian Myelocytomatosis Viral Oncogene Neuroblastoma-derived Homolog) amplification, recognized as strongly associated with unfavorable patient outcome, is found in only 40% of the high-risk disease, indicating the involvement of other mechanisms. Recent observations suggest that telomerase expression and telomere dysfunctions may be one critical step in NBL development. This review provides recent insights on telomeres/telomerase regulation in NBL. Because of their involvement in the tumor cell biology, telomere and telomerase are currently at the core of new drug development.",signatures:"Joëlle El Hajj, Delphine Garsuault, Claire Bouyer, Eric Nguyen,\nGeorge Hilal and Evelyne Ségal-Bendirdjian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55855",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55855",authors:[{id:"202791",title:"Dr.",name:"Evelyne",surname:"Ségal-Bendirdjian",slug:"evelyne-segal-bendirdjian",fullName:"Evelyne Ségal-Bendirdjian"},{id:"207535",title:"MSc.",name:"Joëlle",surname:"El Hajj",slug:"joelle-el-hajj",fullName:"Joëlle El Hajj"},{id:"207537",title:"MSc.",name:"Delphine",surname:"Garsuault",slug:"delphine-garsuault",fullName:"Delphine Garsuault"},{id:"207539",title:"Dr.",name:"Claire",surname:"Bouyer",slug:"claire-bouyer",fullName:"Claire Bouyer"},{id:"207540",title:"Dr.",name:"Eric",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"eric-nguyen",fullName:"Eric Nguyen"},{id:"207541",title:"Dr.",name:"George",surname:"Hilal",slug:"george-hilal",fullName:"George Hilal"}],corrections:null},{id:"55963",title:"Epigenetic Approaches in Neuroblastoma Disease Pathogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69566",slug:"epigenetic-approaches-in-neuroblastoma-disease-pathogenesis",totalDownloads:1410,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Neuroblastoma is an embryonal extracranial solid tumor originating from undifferentiated neural crest cell and it is the most common among children. Neuroblastoma is highly heterogeneous, and on these bases different outcomes are observed across the subtypes. Its clinical impact (~13% of all pediatric cancer mortality) has made this aggressive malignancy the focus of a considerable translational research effort. New insights into tumor biology are leading to the development of novel therapeutic approaches, which include small-molecule inhibitors as well as epigenetic approaches, noncoding-RNA, and cell-based immunologic therapies. Recently, chromatin immunoprecipitation with high-throughput sequencing and RNA-sequencing studies have demonstrated that epigenetic changes contribute to the aggressive pathophysiology of pediatric neuroblastoma disease. Epigenetic abnormalities are feature of human cancer cells and the epigenetic alterations may be the key toward tumorigenesis. In particular, the increase of deacetylation has been involved in epigenetically mediated tumor-suppressor gene silencing. In addition, several studies evaluated the 5-methylcytosine (5 mC) distribution patterns, which distinguish cancer cells from normal cells, and how CpG methylation contributes to the oncogenic phenotype.",signatures:"Francesca Felicia Caputi, Sanzio Candeletti and Patrizia Romualdi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55963",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55963",authors:[{id:"203175",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Francesca F",surname:"Caputi",slug:"francesca-f-caputi",fullName:"Francesca F Caputi"},{id:"203956",title:"Prof.",name:"Sanzio",surname:"Candeletti",slug:"sanzio-candeletti",fullName:"Sanzio Candeletti"},{id:"203957",title:"Prof.",name:"Patrizia",surname:"Romualdi",slug:"patrizia-romualdi",fullName:"Patrizia Romualdi"}],corrections:null},{id:"56227",title:"Considerations for the Development of Innovative Therapies Against Aggressive Neuroblastoma: Immunotherapy and Twist1 Targeting",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70000",slug:"considerations-for-the-development-of-innovative-therapies-against-aggressive-neuroblastoma-immunoth",totalDownloads:1433,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Neuroblastoma (NB) is one of the major challenges of pediatric oncology with a 5‐year survival rate of less than 40% despite intense therapy. The aggressiveness of the disease has been recently correlated to the degree of myeloid cells infiltrating the tumor. Together with the tumor cells and immunosuppressive cytokines (e.g., IL‐10 and TGF‐β), these cells hamper the generation of an efficient antitumor immune response and, therefore, favor tumor growth and metastasis. Novel therapeutic approaches are designed to target immune cells instead of cancer cells. To improve their efficacy, recent cancer immunotherapy strategies have focused on the depletion, blockade, or reprogramming of these tolerogenic immune effectors. Therefore, the principal clinical challenge is currently to identify therapeutic strategies which could overcome the primary and secondary resistances to these cancer immunotherapies. In this review, we discuss the dialogue of immune microenvironment of neuroblastoma and the immunotherapeutic strategies to cure neuroblastoma.",signatures:"Tala Shekarian and Sandrine Valsesia‐Wittmann",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56227",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56227",authors:[{id:"203955",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandrine",surname:"Valsesia-Wittmann",slug:"sandrine-valsesia-wittmann",fullName:"Sandrine Valsesia-Wittmann"},{id:"203958",title:"Dr.",name:"Tala",surname:"Shekarian",slug:"tala-shekarian",fullName:"Tala Shekarian"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3148",title:"Trends in Cell Signaling Pathways in Neuronal Fate Decision",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30d6aecb66f395a002906718143f5156",slug:"trends-in-cell-signaling-pathways-in-neuronal-fate-decision",bookSignature:"Sabine 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\r\n\tThe number of people is rising steadily and the human impact on the environment is approaching its critical level, requiring ultimate effort to reduce the footprint on the surrounding environment. To make justified and timely decisions for sustainable existence, reliable and detailed information about environmental parameters is inevitable. \r\n\tWe need such information of the environmental indicators day and night, from the crowded cities and the most remote locations. Therefore the study, development, and application of automated sensing systems have been booming during the last decades and the progress in this field is really fast.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe current book intends to provide the reader with the most recent trends in the development of sensing technologies for environmental control and monitoring, application of these novel technologies for the detection and monitoring of different environmental indicators, but also identification of hazardous chemical compounds and pathogens, and to introduce various aspects of using the online sensing data for decision-making in different fields of social life. \r\n\t
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She received a Ph.D. in environmental chemistry in 2011 for her studies on biosensors for biogenic amines. Her research activities are focused on the purification, identification and characterization of bioactive molecules and on the design and development of biosensing systems for variety range of applications. She is an expert in the application of liquid chromatography systems for the extraction and purification of bioactive compounds. 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1. Introduction to stainless steel
Among the various sources of materials available, selection of stainless steel is one of the important classes of engineering materials considered in the past and present scenario. According to chemical elements, the stainless steel is classified into different grades with respect to microstructures such as ferritic, austenitic, martensitic and duplex stainless steel (the combination of austenite and ferrite). These different grades have been used in various applications. The most common uses are listed below:
Automotive and transportation
Architecture and construction
Food and catering
Medical
Energy and heavy industries
It is the primary stainless steel used in aviation construction. The grades with 3xx series are often referred as austenitic stainless steel. Each grade has followed with a specified letter that represents chemical element information. Low carbon austenitic stainless steel is represented with ‘L’; High carbon steel with ‘H’; Nitrogen bearing steel with ‘N’; some cases with modified composition say ‘LN’ from base alloy.
2. Friction welding and its importance
Friction welding is a metal-joining process made by continuous-rubbing action at the interface of two different materials, which leads to heat dissipation. Due to continuous action of rotation, the heat generated at the interface results in deformation to the plastic stage by the conversion of mechanical energy into thermal energy under pressure resulting in good bond strength of the material.
Friction welding is more economical and time-consuming, which requires a low input of energy and high production rate with less material wastage in joining dissimilar metals or alloys. During friction welding of steels, the weld interface produces heat with temperature range of 900 to 1300°C.
3. Problems in fusion welding on stainless steel
In general, austenitic stainless steels are easily weldable [1]. Based on physical properties on ferritic, martensitic and duplex stainless steels, austenitic stainless steel is considerably different than others [2]. In fusion welding process, particularly in gas tungsten, electron beam and laser welding, there is a possibility with unexpected phase propagation. Due to metallurgical changes in weld interface, phase changes in delta ferrite formations, grain boundary corrosion and sigma phase will arise. For avoiding this, pre- and postheat treatment are needed to prevent the metallurgical defects [3–7]. Moreover, joining of austenitic stainless steel under cryogenic or corrosive environment, the ferrite quantity to be minimized or controlled to avoid property degradation during service. It addition to this, it may also have a chance to sensitization in fusion welds [8–10].
4. Effect of friction welding in austenitic stainless steel
Due to high ductility and excellent corrosion resistance, austenitic stainless steel is increased in wide range of applications. Even though stainless steel is effectively used in commercial applications, problems have often been reported during welding operation. Many of the researchers are working.
It is observed that publications of most of the research papers are concerned with similar and dissimilar welding of 300 series grade of austenitic stainless steel. When comparing with fusion welding process, joining of austenitic stainless steel is increased subsequently using solid state process during the last decade. In metal joining process, wide categories of variables included in each circumstance and hence standardization of welding is difficult to find out in industrial aspect for avoiding such difficulties, research work is carried out to set the better performance in welding of austenitic stainless steel.
5. Research findings on friction welding of austenitic stainless steel to other material combinations
Many researchers have worked in friction welding which focused on joining similar and dissimilar combinations of austenitic stainless steel with different metal based alloys. Researchers have worked on dissimilar combinations of materials by resulting good bond strength under quality aspects in friction welding [11–14]. When a similar combination of austenitic stainless steel is performed, the value of tensile strength is decreased with increase in friction pressure [15]. Similarly, Paventhan et al. [16] studied a fatigue behavior by joining medium carbon steel and austenitic stainless steel by conducting experiments using bending fatigue testing. Further, experimental investigation was done on the friction welding of 6063 aluminum alloy with AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel by Sammaiah et al. [17] to determine the correlation between the microstructure and the joint strength. Similarly Fu et al. [18] investigated the welded joint of T2 copper and 1Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel under the external electrostatic filed and the distributions of elements in weld zone (WZ) were analyzed in the welded joint. The influence of welding parameters on hot corrosion was examined by Arivazhagan et al. [19] to study the weldment and corrosion behaivor in elevated temperature on AISI 4140 and AISI 304. Subsequently, Sahin investigated a characterization of plastically deformed austenitic stainless steel by friction welding using statistical approach [20]. During fusion welding process of joining pure Ti to stainless steel, the formation of brittle intermetallic compounds developed in the weld metal. This problems lead to degrade the properties of weld joints. Muralimohan et al. [21] made an attempt to introduce thin Ni interlayer which overcomes the problems between Ti-SS by avoiding direct contact between two base metals. Satyanarayana et al. [22] studied the effect of austenitic-ferritic stainless steel combination in terms of microstructure and mechanical properties. The influence of strength and variations are compared together and its fracture behaviors are evaluated. Winiczenko and Kaczorowski [23] investigated the study of mechanical properties and microstructure of friction welded joint of ductile iron with stainless steel and studied the fracture morphology and phase transformations during friction welding. They also showed some enrichment of ductile iron with Cr and Ni atoms near to the weld joint through energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry.
Some studies on similar and dissimilar combination of stainless steel materials are undergone to understand the impact and tensile strength behaviors using electron beam welding and friction welding [24]. The effect of tensile strength and impact at different loading rate was examined by Yokoyama et al. [25] on aluminum alloy and stainless steel using friction welding.
However, the combination of austenitic stainless steel to copper is very limited. This chapter shows a simple and novel approach to determine the welding parameters using Taguchi design by studying its mechanical and metallurgical properties.
6. Experimental details
The dissimilar joint combinations of austenitic stainless steel (304L) to copper material are taken into account for examination. The materials were chosen with a cylindrical rod of diameter 24 mm and length 75 mm. The surface is well polished and cleaned by using acetone. The chemical composition of base materials used for this experiment is shown in Table 1.
Element (%)
C
Si
Mn
P
S
Ni
Cr
Fe
Zn
Cu
AISI 304L
0.03
0.39
1.63
0.042
0.027
8.99
19.05
71.12
–
–
Copper
–
–
–
–
–
0.01
0.11
0.13
99.59
Table 1.
Chemical composition of base materials.
The factors such as friction pressure, upset pressure, burn-off length and rotational speed is the main parameters involved in friction welding process. Taguchi\'s orthogonal array is a simple and largely useful method, for conducting experiments in a systematic way using a restricted number of experiments required for the investigation. The factors considered for the experimentation are listed in Table 2.
Factors
Levels
1
2
3
Friction pressure (MPa)
22
33
43
Upset pressure (MPa)
65
87
108
Burn-off length (mm)
1
2
3
Rotational speed (rpm)
500
1000
1500
Table 2.
Experimental factors and their levels.
7. Surface appearance on weld
Figure 1 shows the appearance of 304L SS and copper combination made by friction welding. The welded joint between 304L and copper material reveals the formation of flash regions which contains predominantly copper, shown in Figure 3. This is has a result of the lower flow stress of copper, the heat generated during welding temperature makes softer in copper and starts flowing in terms of flash formation as compared to austenitic stainless steel side. Due to the ductility in copper material, flash is produced on the copper side with reduced length than stainless steel side.
Figure 1.
304L SS-Cu welded joints.
8. Mechanical testing
8.1. Tensile testing
The mechanical test was carried out on the weld line by sectioning the welded samples. Tensile test was carried out at room temperature using a WAW1000E universal testing machine having the maximum load of 100 kN and 5 mm/min crosshead speed. The welded joints were machined for tensile testing according to ASTM E8 standard and joint strength was analyzed in the weld region. A scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used for observing the fractured surface on tensile tested sample as well as the type of fracture obtained for the material.
The input parameters developed based on Taguchi method were utilized to evaluate the friction welded joints by conducting experiments. The tensile strength results of the welded joints are listed in Table 3. Most of the samples are fractured in copper side and not in austenitic stainless steel side (Figure 2). This is due to high ductility in copper material that fracture results in copper material. Due to chemical in-homogeneity and microstructural changes, the tensile strength values, might have some variations with all the input parameters.
S. No
FP (MPa)
UP (MPa)
BOL (mm)
Rotational speed (r/min)
UTS (MPa)
Fracture location
1
22
65
1
500
201
Copper
2
22
65
2
1000
196
Copper
3
22
65
3
1500
192
Copper
4
22
87
1
1000
203
Copper
5
22
87
2
1500
198
Copper
6
22
87
3
500
197
Copper
7
22
108
1
1500
205
Copper
8
22
108
2
500
204
Copper
9
22
108
3
1000
199
Copper
10
33
65
1
500
196
Copper
11
33
65
2
1000
192
Copper
12
33
65
3
1500
187
Copper
13
33
87
1
1000
198
Copper
14
33
87
2
1500
194
Weld
15
33
87
3
500
193
Copper
16
33
108
1
1500
200
Weld
17
33
108
2
500
199
Copper
18
33
108
3
1000
195
Weld
19
43
65
1
500
192
Copper
20
43
65
2
1000
187
Weld
21
43
65
3
1500
183
Weld
22
43
87
1
1000
194
Weld
23
43
87
2
1500
189
Copper
24
43
87
3
500
188
Weld
25
43
108
1
1500
196
Copper
26
43
108
2
500
195
Weld
27
43
108
3
1000
190
Copper
Table 3.
Taguchi\'s L27 orthogonal array.
Figure 2.
Tensile tested samples on 304L-Cu joint.
Among all the samples made by friction welding, the sample S21 and S7 are obtained as lowest (183 MPa) and highest (205 MPa) of tensile strength values respectively. Though the UTS of 304L and Cu base material has 647 and 232 MPa, the friction welded joint results with a maximum of 205 MPa. It indicates clearly that, the maximum tensile strength is more or less equal to the base material of copper. With higher the friction and rotational speed and low upset pressure, minimum tensile strength was observed. Similarly, higher tensile strength was obtained by increasing upset pressure and rotational speed of the welded joint. When the rotational speed increases, irregularities in faces are smoothed out by lowering frictional contact with increase in upset pressure. As a result, the material becomes plastic and achieved with complete contact with interface of the other material. Hence, any impurities present on interface remains trapped with increase in quality of the welded joint. Fracture analysis was done by using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in tensile tested specimens are shown in Figure 3. It shows a dimple pattern in the whole width of the specimen and confirms the ductile mode of fracture.
Figure 3.
SEM image in tensile fractured sample on 304L-Cu.
Energy dispersive analysis of X-rays (EDAX) analysis was carried out to study the phases that exist at the welding interface. The software permitted piloting the beam to scan along a surface or a line in order to achieve X-ray cartography or concentration profiles by elements [20]. SEM with EDAX analysis was carried out on the tensile fractured sample. SEM microstructure in the friction-welded 304L-Cu joint and EDAX analysis results are given in Figure 4, while the distributions of elements within the determined location are shown in Table 4. The analysis shows that the diffusion zones consisted of Cu and O atoms at the fractured surface. The diffusion zone is rich in Cu with a weight of 94.58%, followed by 5.42% O. Thus, the diffusion zone with a different element was confirmed with a copper material.
Figure 4.
EDAX analysis on tensile sample in 304L-Cu.
Element
Weight (%)
Atomic (%)
O K
5.42
18.54
Cu K
94.58
81.46
Total
100%
Table 4.
EDAX analysis in tensile fractured sample on 304L-Cu joint.
8.2. Impact testing
Impact testing was done by using Charpy V notch impact test machine to measure the impact toughness of joints at room temperature. The specimen size was 55 mm × 10 mm × 10 mm and the samples were prepared with ASTM standards. The samples to be tested were machined from the welded blocks. Notches were prepared precisely at the midpoint of the weld interface. The fractured surface of the impact tested sample was examined by using scanning electron microscope (SEM). Experiments are conducted using Taguchi\'s L9 orthogonal array and the impact test results are presented in Table 5.
Experimental run
Input parameters
Impact strength (J/cm2)
Friction pressure (MPa)
Upset pressure (MPa)
Burn-off length (mm)
Rotational speed (r/min)
1
22
65
1
500
16
2
22
87
2
1000
70
3
22
108
3
1500
66
4
33
65
2
1500
28
5
33
87
3
500
32
6
33
108
1
1000
8
7
43
65
3
1000
4
8
43
87
1
1500
30
9
43
108
2
500
38
Table 5.
Impact test results on 304L-Cu joint.
It was found that, the impact sample S7 has extremely low value of 4 J/cm2 and the impact sample S2 has the highest value of 70 J/cm2. The impact tested samples are shown in Figure 5. With high frictional pressure and a decrease in upset pressure, the impact toughness value is much reduced in weld interface. Due to the low upset pressure, the interface having irregularities and bonding toughness is much affected. At the same time, if increased with upset pressure and decreased with friction pressure, the value of toughness is drastically increased.
Figure 5.
Impact tested samples on 304L-Cu joint.
Due to increase in heat during friction, the presence of intermetallic layers are formed which results in poor weld strength. Based on the experiment, the energy absorbed by the material results with accumulation of copper particles on stainless steel side rather than with low energy absorbed by the material. The fractured surface of the impact tested sample was examined by using scanning electron microscope (SEM) to study the behavior of the material with different magnifications. The fracture shows ductile mode of fracture with coarse dimple features exhibited in the copper material by showing different magnifications shown in Figure 6. Toughness is higher with the low friction pressure as a resulted of higher deformation and failure occurs slightly away from the interface as evidenced by showing ductile failure. This supports the argument that the joint has good interface, which is formed with good toughness.
Figure 6.
SEM image in impact fractured sample on 304L-Cu joint.
SEM with EDAX analysis is shown in Figure 7 and their elements observed are listed in Table 6. The diffusion zone observed on the impact tested samples and shows with rich Cu in the fractured sample which is occurred in copper material rather than the stainless steel material.
Figure 7.
EDAX analysis on impact sample in 304L-Cu.
Element
Weight (%)
Atomic (%)
O K
3.61
12.90
Si K
0.32
0.65
Cu K
96.07
86.45
Total
100%
Table 6.
EDAX analysis in impact fractured sample on 304L-Cu joint.
8.3. Hardness testing
Vickers micro-hardness measurements were made across the weld on all samples to identify the strength in the three microstructural zones such as weld zone (WZ), base metal zone (BMZ) and heat affected zone (HAZ) in the respective materials. Vickers micro-hardness test was carried out across the weld interface using a load of 500 g and dwell time of 15 s along the weld interface. Vickers micro-hardness measurements were carried out accordance with ASTM E384-09 and ASTM E407-99 standards, respectively. The hardness values are taken at each location while the average of three readings was taken for analysis.
In the case of hardness in welded joint of austenitic stainless steel and copper, it was not possible to take the hardness in the weld zone, as the weld is just a sticky mushy zone. Hardness variation was obtained using 500 g load by Vickers micro-hardness testing and measuring locations with 0.5 mm intervals taken into consideration. The hardness variations in horizontal distance to the center in the welding interface of the joints are shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8.
Hardness graph in 304L-Cu joint.
It could be observed that, the hardness values of copper near to the weld interface are slightly increased when compared to the base material of copper. At the same time, hardness value of 304L SS slightly decreased near to weld interface when it compared to the base material of stainless steel. Due to heat dissipation at weld interface, intermetallic layers and thermal diffusivity occur which causes hardness variations.
9. Metallographic examination
9.1. Optical microscopy
The optical microscope study was carried out to examine the grain behaviors in the interfaces and heat-affected regions. The microstructures were examined by sectioning the weld samples, parallel to the radial direction and the specimens were prepared according to standard metallographic procedures. The welded surface of the samples was ground with 1200 grinding paper and polished with 1 μm diamond paste and the samples were etched with a vilella\'s regent (5 ml HCl, 1 g picric acid, 100 ml ethanol and 2 drops zephiran). The specimen is well-polished and etched by 10% oxalic acid. The welded joint was examined using a metallurgical microscope and microstructural behaviors were analyzed in base metal, heat affected zone (HAZ) and the weld zone.
Figure 9 shows the micrograph showing microstructures in weld region as well as heat-affected zone and parent metal across the interface. Due to the heat applied during the welding operations, the flash thickness was varied from one another resulting in plastic deformation at the interface. Due to cylindrical rods with a circular geometry, the rotational speed affects the frictional pressure from the weld center to the surface of the sample in radial directions. The parent metal of copper was observed with coarse alpha grains and by heat-affected zone, and the grains were recrystallized due to heat generated in the interface of weld region. In austenitic stainless steel, the parent metal was observed with carbide particles and annealed twin boundaries, whereas in the heat affected zone, recrystallized grains were appeared.
Figure 9.
Microstructural observation of welded samples (a) Austenitic Stainless Steel, (b) Copper and (C) Weld Interface.
9.2. Atomic force microscopy
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a powerful technique which can allow direct spatial mapping of surface morphology having nanometer resolution. The roughness images were taken over by the integrated optical microscope and operated in tapping mode using silicon probes. Topographic and phase images were achieved concurrently by a resonance frequency of approximately 300 kHz for the probe oscillation and a free-oscillation amplitude of 62 ± 2 nm. The microstructure of interphase layer of dissimilar material is seen in atomic force microscopy. The maximum roughness shows with 45 nm in 304L, 236 nm in copper and 246 nm on the interface. The maximum roughness in the interface zone has more or less equal to the same roughness as of copper.
From the roughness graph and 3D images (Figure 10), was observed that the difference between the average roughness of dissimilar material is very less and negligible in the interface region. When studying roughness size, the parent materials of 304L SS and copper are having peaks in the range of 15–35 and 30–90 nm, respectively. In the welding zone, the peak appeared is with a range of 60–130 nm showing considerable increase in roughness.
Figure 10.
AFM histogram and 3D image in 304L-Cu (a) Austenitic Stainless Steel, (b) Copper and (c) Weld Interface.
10. Conclusion
In this study, the welding characteristics under different welding parameters are taken into account. From the mechanical and metallurgical characteristics on friction welding of austenitic stainless steel and copper, the following conclusions can be drawn.
During friction welding, the metal tends to decrease in length of copper by showing a flash formation rather than stainless steel side.
Tensile strength was achieved with a maximum of 205 MPa. The bond strength is achieved nearing to base material of copper material with increase in upset pressure.
Energy absorbed by the welded sample is varied from 4 to 70 J/cm2. The bond strength is mainly depends upon one of the important welding parameter called upset pressure. This kind of statement is well suites in current study of impact. When the upset pressure is lowered, the impact toughness is much decreased to 4 J/cm2. But in case of high upset pressure, the resulting value is drastically increased to 70 J/cm2.
Micro-hardness measurements in 304L-Cu results with absence of hardness value in weld zone. Due to sticky layer at the interface of stainless steel as well as copper joint, the weld zone is negligible and measured values in the HAZ and their base materials, respectively.
Due to the absence of weld zone in 304L-Cu, surface roughness was studied using atomic force microscopy to identify the weld region. Measurement of roughness values made in weld interface is more or less equal to copper material.
Though austenitic stainless steels are used more than any other grades, the joining efficiency is differed with respect to welding parameters. Finally, it is suggested that there is a large scope in the research work on welding of 300 series grade with wide range of applications.
\n',keywords:"friction welding, AFM, copper, stainless steel, microstructure",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/56808.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/56808.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56808",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56808",totalDownloads:1348,totalViews:416,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:37,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"February 23rd 2017",dateReviewed:"August 9th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"December 20th 2017",dateFinished:"August 30th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Austenitic stainless steels are most preferred over other types of stainless steel families. Welding of stainless steel using friction welding is widely seen in the current scenario. Since the time consumed for friction welding is very less, metallurgical defects are almost reduced without pre- and postheat treatment. The problems encountered in friction welding during joining of austenitic stainless steel are very limited when compared to fusion welding process. The studies have undergone with joining of austenitic stainless steel and copper material to evaluate the friction welding parameter for finding the good bond strength.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/56808",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/56808",book:{id:"6057",slug:"austenitic-stainless-steels-new-aspects"},signatures:"Shanjeevi Chinnakannan",authors:[{id:"205805",title:"Dr.",name:"C",middleName:null,surname:"Shanjeevi",fullName:"C Shanjeevi",slug:"c-shanjeevi",email:"shanjeevii@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction to stainless steel",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Friction welding and its importance",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Problems in fusion welding on stainless steel",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Effect of friction welding in austenitic stainless steel",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Research findings on friction welding of austenitic stainless steel to other material combinations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Experimental details",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Surface appearance on weld",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Mechanical testing",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"8.1. Tensile testing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"8.2. Impact testing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"8.3. Hardness testing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"9. Metallographic examination",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"9.1. Optical microscopy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"9.2. Atomic force microscopy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"10. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Anik S, Tulbentci K. 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Effect of ferrite on stress corrosion cracking in duplex stainless steel weld metals at room temperature. Corrosion. 1979;34-46'},{id:"B8",body:'Szumachowki ER, Reid HF. Cryogenic toughness of SMA austenitic stainless steel weld metals part-1 role of ferrite. Welding Journal. 1978;57:325s-333s'},{id:"B9",body:'Satyanarayana VV, Madhusudhan Reddy G, Mohandas T, Venkata Rao G. Continuous drive friction welding studies on AISI 430 ferritic stainless steel welds. Science and Technology of Welding and Joining. 2003;8(3):184-193'},{id:"B10",body:'Satyanarayana VV, Madhusudhan Reddy G, Mohandas T. Continuous drive friction welding studies on AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel welds. Materials and Manufacturing Processes. 2004;19(3):487-505'},{id:"B11",body:'Ananthapadmanaban D, Seshagiri Rao V, Abraham N, Prasad Rao K. A study of mechanical properties of friction welded mild steel to stainless steel joints. Materials and Design. 2009;30:2642-2646'},{id:"B13",body:'Hascalik A, Unal E, Ozdemir N. Fatigue behavior of AISI 304 steel to AISI 4340 steel welded by friction welding. Journal of Materials Science. 2006;41:3233-3239'},{id:"B23",body:'Subhash Chander G, Madhusudhan Reddy G, Venugopal Rao A. Influence of rotational speed on microstructure and mechanical properties of dissimilar metal AISI 304-AISI 4140 continuous drive friction welds. Journal of Iron and Steel Research. 2012;19(10):64-73'},{id:"B25",body:'Dey HC, Ashfaq M, Bhaduri AK, Prasad RK. Joining of titanium to 304L stainless steel by friction welding. Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 2009;209:5862-5870'},{id:"B12",body:'Sathiya P, Aravindan S, Noorul Haq A. Mechanical and metallurgical properties of friction welded AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology. 2005;26:505-511. DOI: 10.1007/s00170-004-2018-6'},{id:"B14",body:'Paventhan R, Lakshminarayanan PR, Balasubramanian V. Fatigue behavior of friction welded medium carbon steel and austenitic stainless steel dissimilar joints. Materials and Design. 2011;32:1888-1894'},{id:"B15",body:'Sammaiah P, Suresh A, Tagore GRN. Mechanical properties of friction welded 6063 aluminum alloy and austenitic stainless steel. Journal of Materials Science. 2010;45:5512-5552. DOI: 10.1007/s10853-010-4609-y'},{id:"B16",body:'Fu L, Du SG. Effects of external electric field on microstructure and property of friction welded joint between copper and stainless steel. Journal of Materials Science. 2006;41: 4137-4142'},{id:"B17",body:'Arivazhagan N, Singh S, Prakash S, Madhusudhan Reddy G. An assessment of hardness, impact strength, and hot corrosion behavior of friction-welded dissimilar weldments between AISI 4140 and AISI 304. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology. 2008;39:679-689'},{id:"B18",body:'Sahin M. Characterization of properties in plastically deformed austenitic-stainless steels joined by friction welding. Materials and Design. 2009;30:135-144'},{id:"B19",body:'Muralimohan CH, Ashfaq M, Ashiri R, Muthupandi V, Sivaprasad K. Analysis and characterization of the role of Ni interlayer in the friction welding of titanium and 304 austenitic stainless steel. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A. 2016;47A:347'},{id:"B20",body:'Satyanarayana VV, Madhusudhan Reddy G, Mohandas T. Dissimilar metal friction welding of austenitic-ferritic stainless steels. Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 2005;160:128-137'},{id:"B21",body:'Winiczenko R, Kaczorowski M. Friction welding of ductile iron with stainless steel. Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 2013;213:453-462'},{id:"B22",body:'Madhusudan Reddy G, Srinivasa Rao K. Microstructure and mechanical properties of similar and dissimilar stainless steel electron beam and friction welds. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology. 2009;45:875-888. DOI: 10.1007/s00170-009-2019-6'},{id:"B24",body:'Yokoyama T, Ogawa K. Impact tensile properties of 6061 aluminium alloy to SUS 304 stainless steel friction-welded butt joints. Welding International. 2003;17(7):514-523'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Shanjeevi Chinnakannan",address:"shanjeevii@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Veltech Dr. RR & Dr. SR University, Chennai, India
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1. Introduction
Soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) is the third most important food crop in Indonesia after rice and maize. Soybean plays an important role as a vegetable protein source for most of the community in the country, which is predominantly consumed as tempe and tofu. In 2020, the average soybean consumption level was around 11–12 kg/capita/year. The need for this commodity tends to increase along with the population increase. During the period 2000 to 2019, domestic production contributed 30–35% to the total need, while the rest (65–70%) was imported. The latest report [1] showed that the domestic production of soybean in 2020 was approximately 0.63 million tons, whereas the total need was approaching 3.29 million tons, thus about 81% of soybean was imported.
This condition was related to the discouraged situation of soybean production during the last 10 years (2010–2020). The average productivity during this period was 1.50–1.54 t/ha and no significant increase was recorded [2]. Also, only a slight increase in the harvested area occurred. A number of problems were noted regarding such conditions, including (a) high competition of land use with other commodities, (b) low stability of the yield as soybeans are highly susceptible to pest and disease attacks, (c) efforts to extend the planting area has not been fully succeeded, (d) relatively low quality of seeds as the soybean seed industry has not been well developed, (e) less conducive of soybean trading system, (f) less intensive cultivation techniques, and (g) low profit of soybean farming relative to other crops.
Soybean was targeted to be self-sufficiency by the Government in 2014 through four main strategies as follows: (1) gradually increasing the productivity (2) improving the roles of public and private sectors as well as local government in soybean development, (3) improving the marketing and trading system to be more conducive to farmers, and (4) improving the source of farming capital and partnerships. As a follow-up of such strategies, action steps were undertaken to achieve soybean self-sufficiency, including (a) supporting the research activities, which concerned on the release of new improved varieties with high yield potential, resistance to biotic and abiotic stress, short maturity; assembling the advanced cultivation technologies; and implementing different methods of dissemination, (b) initiating the growth of seed industry in soybean producing areas, (c) subsidizing the fertilizer prices, and (d) improving the access for agricultural tools and machinery application. However, these efforts have not fully succeeded as the increased rate of soybean productivity at the farmer level was considerably low, the planting and harvested areas were stagnant and even tended to decline, resulting in a decreased domestic production. As a consequence, a large amount of soybean is imported annually, suggesting more efforts and proper strategies are needed to achieve soybean self-sufficiency in Indonesia.
This paper will discuss the soybean production matters in Indonesia, including the current status and predicted soybean production and demand, the national program for increasing production, land availability for soybean development and specific production technologies for the different agroecosystems as well as the essential socio-economic aspects to support the achievement of soybean self-sufficiency in Indonesia.
2. Soybean production and demand
The development of the harvested area, productivity, production, and import of soybean in Indonesia during the period 2016–2020 and the prediction for the year 2024 are presented in Table 1. Until 2020, the harvested area and production highly fluctuated, whereas the productivity tended to increase. It is estimated that the soybean harvested area until 2024 will not significantly expand as soybean hardly competes with other commodities, particularly maize. There was a considerable increase in soybean production (49.07%) during 2019–2020 as a result of expanding the harvested area. However, for the next four years, it is predicted that soybean production will tend to decline by 3% per year [3]. This was due to the competition of land use with other profitable commodities, such as corn and chili, resulting in a decrease in the harvested area of about 5% per year. Even though the productivity increased by 2% per year, this value was set below the rate of declined harvested area, thus giving no significant increase in soybean production. As a result, a large amount of soybean needs to be imported with an average of 2.49 million tons per year.
The development and projected of harvested area, production, and import of soybean in Indonesia during the period 2016–2024 [3].
Agreement figures of Central Bureau of Statistics (BPS) and the Indonesian Ministry of Agriculture.
Forecast of the Indonesian Agricultural Data and Information Center.
Note:
The national demand ranged from 2.73 up to 3.29 million tons during the period 2020–2024, which is mostly for consumption purposes. The consumption level of soybeans during this period is predicted to fluctuate and tends to increase by 1.46% per year. In 2019, the figure was 10.17 kg and it slightly increased to 12.15 kg/capita/year in 2020 [3]. It is assumed to be associated with the global pandemic of Covid-19, which led to a decline in people’s purchasing power for animal protein sources and shifting to soybean as an affordable protein source, particularly as tempe and tofu. In addition, the increase in soybean consumption is also influenced by the healthy lifestyle of the middle and upper class who prefer a vegetarian diet. It seems that the consumption level will go back to 10.74 kg/capita/year in 2024. Table 1 shows that the self-sufficiency in soybean within the next four years (2021–2024) can be achieved with an additional harvested area of 1.3–1.5 million hectares per year and productivity of 1.7–1.8 t/ha. Even though it seems hard to achieve such figures, the Government relentlessly encourages both the Ministry of Agriculture and farmers to increase the national soybean production.
3. National soybean program
Since 2000, the Government has been working hard to increase soybean production in order to achieve self-sufficiency through the program entitled “Gema Palagung”, “Bangkit Kedelai”, and “Farmer’s School for Integrated Crop Management/FSICM for soybean”. In 2018, a particular intercropping program between soybean with upland paddy or maize was launched, covering an area of 22 thousand hectares in 22 provinces [4]. Initially, the Government established the target for soybean self-sufficiently in 2014. However, as it unsucceded, the target was postponed to be 2017 and again postponed to be 2018, and then to 2020. In 2017–2018, the Ministry of Agriculture had a target of soybean planting area approaching 2 million hectares. Planting started from October to December 2017 with the first target of 500 thousand ha (approximately 25% of the total target). The remaining 1.5 million hectares expectedly can be fulfilled in the next planting season in 20 provinces, from Aceh in the west to East Nusa Tenggara in the eastern part of Indonesia. Meanwhile, another 500 hectares of land were available from the existing traditional farmers. It is estimated that in 2018, the soybean planting area will be becoming 2.5 million hectares [5] and would meet the domestic demand if the productivity was 1.5 t/ha.
Nevertheless, such a target was hard to be achieved as in fact, the total soybean production was only 650,000 tons in 2018 with a harvesting area of 493,546 hectares. In addition to climate and technical/cultivation factors, this failure was also related to economic aspects. It is obvious that soybean farming requires high input, possesses a high risk of crop failure, particularly due to pest and disease attacks, and inadequate income or less profitability. Planting of soybean starting from land preparation to harvesting and processing costs seven to nine million IRD per hectare and 60% of which is accounted for labor cost. The soybean production process in the field is also inefficient as most of the activities are done manually. In fact, the Government has established the selling price of soybean at the farm level that was about IDR 8,500 per kg in 2017 as Minister of Trade’s Regulation no 27/2017. However, the price is normally following the market conditions and frequently is below the selling price determined by the Government, particularly during the harvesting season giving a low profit to soybean farming.
4. Land availability for soybean development
Indonesia has a wide and diverse potential land for the development of soybean. Table 2 shows that there are 3.8 million hectares of irrigated paddy fields and 3.6 million hectares of non-irrigated paddy fields available (optimal land). In irrigated paddy fields, soybean can be grown using a cropping system of paddy-paddy-soybean, and a paddy-soybean cropping system in non-irrigated paddy fields. The main obstacle of soybean cultivation in optimal land is competition with other commodities that have higher economic value, especially maize. Therefore, soybean development in this optimal land should be selected to those lands that have less water available for growing maize. The need for water to grow soybean is only about half compared to growing maize.
Islands as central of soybean production
Irrigated lowland (ha)
Non-irrigated lowland (ha)
Drylands (ha)
Sumatera
676,816
852,985
3,655,378
Jawa
2,258,066
1,549,255
2,613,514
Bali+Nusa Tenggara
197,316
245,619
921,281
Kalimantan
214,298
432,462
1,605,806
Sulawesi
430,621
508,033
1,981,629
Maluku
10,094
9,448
252,032
Papua
17,180
8,558
468,358
Indonesia
3,804,391
3,606,360
11,497,998
Table 2.
Irrigated and non-irrigated lowlands available for soybean development in Indonesia [6].
There is also the potential of sub-optimal lands for the development of soybean in Indonesia, including dry acidic land, dryland with dry climate, and tidal land area, accounting for 4.5 million ha, 1.2 million ha, and 0.8 million ha, respectively (Table 3). The acidic land showed the least favorable for soybean production due to lower fertility, potential toxicity from soluble forms of microelements such as Al, Mn, and Fe, and unfavorable physical properties [8, 9, 10]. Therefore, to obtain high soybean productivity in this type of land (soil), use of ameliorants and high doses of inorganic fertilizers are needed. On the dry land with a dry climate, the main constraint faced is the short wet month that is only around 3–4 months/year with a rainfall >200 mm/month. In this region, soybean needs to compete with other staple food crops, such as upland rice and maize. In tidal swampland, constraints like water-saturated root, high pyrite, the toxicity of Al, Fe, and Mn, as well as deficiencies of N, P, K, Ca, and Mg may limit soybean production [10, 11]. Therefore, specific cultivation technology is essential for such different types of land.
Island
Dry acidic soil (× 1,000 ha)
Dryland with dry climate (× 1,000 ha)
Tidal swampland (× 1,000 ha)
Total (× 1,000 ha)
AOU
AFC
AFP
AOU
AFC
AFP
AOU
AFC
AFP
Sumatera
536.6
104.3
659.5
24.9
34.0
58.3
137.4
13.5
271.2
1,839.7
Jawa
46.3
0.0
202.2
8.7
0.0
31.6
0.3
0.0
0.0
289.1
Bali+NT
1.6
0.0
0.0
257.8
10.7
30.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
300.5
Kalimantan
329.9
227.9
1,297.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
82.1
1.6
46.5
1,985.8
Sulawesi
25.8
14.2
0.0
61.0
42.8
0.0
0.8
0.0
0.0
144.6
Maluku
0.0
39.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.7
3.3
0.3
45.9
Papua
11.0
304.3
671.4
9.7
163.5
437.2
0.4
84.8
128.0
1,810.3
Indonesia
951.2
690.3
2,830.9
362.1
251.0
557.5
223.7
103.2
446.0
6,415.9
Table 3.
The suboptimal lands available for soybean development in Indonesia [7].
Note: AOU = Area of Other Uses, AFC = Area of Forest Conversion, AFP = Area of Forest Production, NT = Nusa Tenggara.
5. Cultivation technology for various agroecosystem
5.1 Lowland
Soybean cultivation in the irrigated paddy lowland generally follows the cropping pattern of paddy-secondary food crop, while the pattern is paddy-secondary food crop in the non-irrigated paddy land (rainfed land). It seems that soybeans yet have to compete with other commodities, especially maize or other food crops. Currently, the productivity of soybean using existing farmer’s technology is about 1.5–1.8 t/ha. Using high-yielding improved varieties and good environmental management through the application of advanced cultivation technology makes it possible to achieve soybean productivity as high as 3.0 t/ha in the lowland.
A number of new improved soybean varieties have the yield potential of more than 3.0 t/ha, namely Dega1, Detap 1, Mutiara 1, Dering 2, Biosoy 1, and Demas 2 [12] as presented in Table 5. In additon to new improved varieties, plant spacing is also an important factor in achieving high yield through optimal plant populations. Planting Burangrang, Grobogan, and Anjasmoro varieties at a spacing of 20–30 cm × 40 cm, two plants per hole with optimal fertilization in Malang, East Java gave a grain yield of 3.96 t/ha, 3.93 t/ha, and 3.36 t/ha, respectively [13]. Thus, to achieve the soybean yield >3.0 t/ha, the population of >340 thousand plants/ha which is obtained using a plant spacing of 30 cm × 15 cm needs to be applied as well as planting 2 plants/hole and optimal fertilizer application i.e.: 11.5 kg/ha N + 36 kg/ha P2O5+ 30 kg/ha K2O at 10 days after planting, and 21.1 kg/ha N + 11.1 kg/ha S at 25 days after planting (Table 4).
Soybean variety
Plant spacing (cm), two plants/hill
50×15
40×15
30×15
Number of crops can be harvested (×1,000)
Dega 1
240.68bc
255.20 b
345.29 a
Detap 1
204.41 c
252.01 b
344.62 a
Derap 1
202.60 c
249.16 b
350.24 a
Devon 1
204.72 c
260.55 b
358.90 a
Seed yield (t/ha)
Dega 1
1.98 d
2.21 d
3.12 b
Detap 1
2.14 d
2.61 c
3.53 a
Derap 1
1.90 d
1.97 d
3.15 b
Devon 1
2.11 d
2.69 c
3.75 a
Table 4.
The yield of soybean varieties in several plant spacing in irrigated paddy fields in Banyuwangi-East Java [14].
Note: The values within the same observation followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 5% DMRT level.
A study in the rainfed Alfisol soil of Maros, South Sulawesi, which had a pH level of 6.2–6.7 and moderate soil fertility showed that soybean yield increased from 1.6 t/ha (existing technology) to 2.7 t/ha through the application of advanced cultivation technology [15]. This technology consisted of using good quality seed, sufficient fertilizer (30 kg/ha N + 48 kg/ha P2O4 + 30 kg/ha K2O), rhizobium inoculant 250 g/50 kg of seeds, and organic fertilizer (1.5 t/ha). The performance of soybean crops grown after paddy in the irrigated lowland is presented in Figure 1. Using such technology, the labor cost accounts for the largest portion of the total production costs, reaching about 65% and 72% for advanced and existing technology, respectively. Nevertheless, both the R/C and B/C ratio of applying the advanced technology is higher relative to those of the existing technology (Table 5).
Figure 1.
The performance of soybean crop grown after paddy in the irrigated low land.
Financial analysis of soybean farming for advanced and farmer’s technologies in the rainfed land of South Sulawesi in the dry season (May to August) of 2017 [15].
With a selling price of soybean IDR 6,000/kg.
Note:
5.2 Dryland
The cropping patterns in the dryland are generally maize-maize, upland paddy-maize, maize-peanuts, or maize-soybeans. Meanwhile, in a dryland with a dry climate, farmers normally only grow maize or upland paddy during the rainy season. The rainfall in the dryland with a dry climate is approximately <2000 mm per year with a dry period >7 months per year (<100 mm rainfall per month). This type of agroecology is mostly found in Bali and Nusa Tenggara, Sulawesi, and Java [11]. However, the insufficient and non-uniform distribution of rainfall in the dryland considerably results in drought stress during the growing period of soybean and may cause yield reduction and even harvesting failure [16]. In this particular land, soybean development can only be performed through intercropping with maize as it is one of the major staple foods as well as a source of cash income for farmers [17]. Maize productivity in the dryland is relatively low, which ranges from 2.5 to 5.0 t/ha [2]. This is caused by the erratic distribution of rainfall and less optimal maize cultivation by farmers. The introduction of soybean in the dryland through intercropping with maize is expectedly would increase the land productivity and farmer’s income. Intercropping system has been adopted all over the world as it can increase land-use efficiency [18, 19].
The use of adapted cultivars and optimal plant spacing in soybean intercropping systems can increase land productivity, reduce the risk of crop failure, increase crop yields and farmers’ income [19, 20, 21]. The cropping pattern of soybean monoculture in the dryland with a dry climate could produce dry seed about 1.4–2.4 t/ha depending on the variety used and distribution of rainfall. However, this cropping pattern is difficult to be developed in the dryland as such a pattern was less profitable relative to growing maize [9]. Therefore, the development of soybean in the dryland, particularly in the maize producing area should be done by intercropping. Soybean intercropping with a plant spacing of 30 cm × 15 cm, planting two seeds per-hill and planting maize in a double row with a plant spacing of (40 × 20) cm × 200 cm and one seed per hill (Figure 2) is able to produce high maize yield and increase the farming profit. Intercropping soybean variety of Dena 1 with maize in the dry land with dry climate (Tuban, East Java) showed higher benefit than using Argomulyo and Dega 1 varieties (Table 6). Dena 1 variety is particularly released for intercropping purposes as it is tolerant to shading up to 50%. Other soybean varieties that are suitable for intercropping with other crops, including young plantation crops are Dena 2, Denasa 1, and Denasa 2 (Table 5). Also, there are soybean varieties tolerant to drought stress, namely Dering 1, Dering 2, and Dering 3 (Table 7).
Figure 2.
The optimal crop layout for soybean intercropping with maize in the dryland (a) and the crop performances in the field (b) [9].
Planting patterns
Yield (t/ha)
Total revenue (IDR 000/ha)
Cost production (IDR 000/ha)
Total cost (IDR 000/ha)
Total benefit (IDR 000/ha)
Maize
Soybean
Maize
Soybean
Semanding
‘Maize NK212’ monoculture
5.488
0
21,952
8,032
0
8,032
13,920
‘Argomulyo’ monoculture
0
2.430
15,795
0
7,022
7,022
8,773
‘Dena 1’ monoculture
0
1.873
12,174.5
0
6,802
6,802
5,372.5
‘Dega 1’ monoculture
0
1.417
9,210.5
0
6,622
6,622
2,588.5
‘Maize NK 212’ + ‘Argomulyo’
4.876
1.447
28,909.5
7,972
4,540
12,512
16,397.5
‘Maize NK212’ + ‘Dena 1’
6.297
1.017
31,798.5
8,252
4,400
12,652
19,146.5
‘Maize NK212’ + ‘Dega 1’
5.635
0.820
27,870
8,047
4,180
12,227
15,643
Merakurak
‘Maize NK212’ monoculture
5.648
0
22,592
9,737
0
9,737
12,855
‘Argomulyo’ monoculture
0
2.880
18,720
0
7,342
7,342
11,378
‘Dena 1’ monoculture
0
2.280
14,820
0
6,962
6,962
7,858
‘Dega 1’ monoculture
0
3.060
19,890
0
7,542
7,542
12,348
‘Maize NK212’ + ‘Argomulyo’
3.657
1.927
27,153.5
9,817
4,520
14,337
12,816
‘Maize NK212’ + ‘Dena 1’
4.157
1.687
27,595.5
9,927
4,360
14,287
13,306.5
‘Maize NK212’ + ‘Dega 1’
3.367
1.613
23,952.5
9,787
4,380
14,167
9,785.5
Table 6.
Farming income of soybean intercropping with maize, Tuban District, East Java, Indonesia, planting season 2019 [9].
Notes: The population of maize crops 100% (plant spacing of 80 cm × 20 cm, 2 seeds per-hill) was 62,500 crops/ha and soybean 333,333 crops/ha. The selling price of maize and soybean (dry seeds) were IDR 4,000/kg and IDR 6,500/kg, respectively.
Variety
Seed coat color
100-seed weight (g)
Protein (% dw)
Fat (% dw)
Potential yield (t/ha)
Specific characters
Year of release
Gepak Kuning
Yellow
8.3–10.3
35.4–41.1
13.4–15.1
2.9
Adaptive in irrigated lowland and upland, both in rainy and dry seasons
2008
Dering 1
Yellow
10.7
34.2
17.1
2.8
Drought tolerant; adaptive in irrigated lowland and dry land (upland)
2012
Dering 2
Light yellow
14.8
35.9
19.7
3.3
Drought tolerant during the reproductive phase
2019
Dering 3
Light yellow
13.9
40.5
17.5
3.0
Drought tolerant during the reproductive phase
2019
Gema
Light yellow
11.3–11.9
37.8–39.1
15.6–19.1
3.1
Adaptive in irrigated lowland and dryland (upland)
2011
Dena 1
Yellow
14.3
36.7
18.8
2.9
Tolerant up to 50% crop-shading
2014
Dena 2
Yellow
13.0
36.5
18.2
2.8
Highly tolerant up to 50% crop-shading
2014
Demas 1
Yellow
13.0
36.1
19.9
2.5
Adaptive in a dryland with acidic soil; good planted at the altitude of 0–600 m asl
2014
Demas 2
Light yellow
14.9
37.5
19.7
3.3
Adaptive in dryland with acidic soil; early maturity; large-seed size
2019
Demas 3
Light yellow
14.4
37.2
17.7
2.9
Adaptive in dryland with acidic soil; early maturity; large-seed size; break-pods tolerant
2019
Devon 1
Yellow
14.3
34.8
17.3
3.1
High isoflavone content (2219.7 μg/g)
2015
Devon 2
Yellow
17.0
37.9
18.8
2.9
High isoflavone content (303.7 μg/g)
2017
Anjasmoro
Yellow
14.8–15.3
41.8–42.1
17.2–18.6
2.3
Broadly adaptive in all land conditions
2001
Panderman
Light yellow
18.0–19.0
36.9
17.7
2.4
—
2003
Grobogan
Yellow
18.0
43.9
18.4
3.4
Broadly adaptive in all land conditions, particularly irrigated lowland
2008
Burangrang
Yellow
20.0
39.0–41.6
14.9–17.0
2.5
—
1999
Argomulyo
Yellow
19.3–20.8
37.0–40.2
18.0–19.0
2.0
—
1998
Dega 1
Yellow
22.9
37.8
17.3
3.8
Adaptive in irrigated lowland
2016
Detap 1
Yellow
15.4
40.1
16.2
3.6
Resistant to leaf rust
2017
Deja 1
Yellow
12.9
39.6
17.3
2.9
Highly tolerant to water saturation stress
2017
Deja 2
Yellow
14.8
37.9
17.2
2.8
Tolerant to water saturation stress
2017
Depas 1
Yellow
11.9
39.8
19.5
2.8
Adaptive in tidal land type C; good planted at the altitude of 0–600 m asl
2020
Depas 2
Yellow
11.4
39.7
19.2
2.9
Adaptive in tidal land type C; good planted at the altitude of 0–600 m asl
2020
Denasa 1
Yellow
18.1
36.4
19.6
3.4
Highly tolerant up to 50% crop-shading
2021
Denasa 2
Light yellow
18.6
34.1
20.6
3.4
Tolerant up to 50% crop-shading
2021
Biosoy 1
Yellow
21.7
39.7
18.4
3.3
Gamma irradiated soybean
2018
Biosoy 2
Yellow
22.4
40.5
20.1
3.6
Gamma irradiated soybean
2018
Mutiara 1
Yellow
23.2
37.7
13.8
4.1
High production in irrigated lowland; adaptive in irrigated lowland and dryland (upland)
2010
Mallika
Black
9.0–10.0
37.0
20.0
2.9
Well adaptive in low land and high land; in rainy and dry season
2007
Detam 1
Black
14.8
45.4
13.1
3.5
High protein, suitable for soy sauce
2008
Detam 2
Black
13.5
45.6
14.8
3.0
High protein, moderate drought tolerant, suitable for soy sauce
2008
Detam 3 Prida
Black
11.8
36.4
18.7
3.2
Moderate drought tolerant; early maturity
2013
Detam 4 Prida
Black
11.0
40.3
19.7
2.9
Drought tolerant; early maturity
2013
Table 7.
Physicochemical composition and specific characteristic of Indonesia soybean varieties [12, 22, 23].
Note: db = dry basis.
5.3 Acidic soil
As discussed previously, acidic soils are the least favorable condition for soybean cultivation, therefore the use of ameliorants and high doses of inorganic fertilizers is essential in terms of increasing productivity. The application of 23 kg/ha N + 27 kg/ha P2O5+ 30 kg/ha K2O + 1,500 kg/ha organic fertilizers and rhizobium biofertilizer 0.25 kg/50 g seeds in acidic soil with a pH of 5.30 and Al saturation of 30% exhibits a good growing performance of four soybean varieties, namely Anjasmoro, Panderman, Dega 1, and Demas 1 [24]. These varieties give a yield of 2.52 t, 2.29 t, 2.72 t, and 1.78 t per hectare, respectively. Demas 1, Demas 2, and Demas 3 varieties are tolerant to acid soil with a potential yield ranging from 2.5 t up to 3.3 t/ha (Table 7). Biofertilizers also have a significant role in increasing soybean yield through the natural processes of nitrogen fixation, solubilizing phosphorus, stimulating plant growth, improving soil texture, pH, and other soil properties [25, 26].
In the acidic soil of Banten with a pH of 5.5, the use of 200 g/ha of biofertilizer could substitute 50% of the recommended inorganic fertilizer [27]. Another study in acidic soil in Lampung reported that the use of Rhizobium biofertilizer tolerant to acidic soil about 1.5 t/ha and organic fertilizer enriched with P and Ca, could replace the use of 100% N and P, and 50% of K. The yield also increased more than 50% relative to control and gave higher yield compared to recommended NPK dosage [28]. The performance of soybean crops grown in acidic soil is presented in Figure 3.
Figure 3.
The performance of soybean crop at 40 days after planting in the acidic soil in Lampung, Indonesia.
5.4 Tidal swampland
In tidal swampland, water-saturated roots, high pyrite, the toxicity of Al, Fe, and Mn, deficiencies of N, P, K, Ca, and Mg are the major constraints in soybean development [8, 10]. Among such limitations, low soil pH and high Al saturation are more concerned regarding soybean growth as they may cause a decrease in nitrogen fixation and nutrient uptake, particularly phosphorus which is important for cell growth and photosynthesis. It was reported that liming can improve the growth and yield of soybean in the tidal swampland of South Kalimantan [10]. The highest yield was obtained at a rate of liming equivalent to 10% of Al saturation, which was applied by mixing the lime with soil up to 20 cm depth. Another study in tidal swampland of South Kalimantan investigated that using dolomite to decrease the Al-dd saturation by 20% by using organic fertilizers (1.25 t/ha), application of bio-fertilizer (0.25 kg/50 kg seeds), and inorganic fertilizer (23 kg/ha N, 27 kg/ha P2O5 and 30 kg/ha K2O) gave the yield about 2.0 t/ha [24].
In addition, soil water management can be applied to reduce the pyrite content as the soil is in a reductive condition [29]. The response to water-saturated conditions varied among soybean varieties. Tanggamus and Anjasmoro, the yellow-seeded soybean are classified as adaptive varieties, while the black-seeded soybean varieties, such as Cikuray, Ceneng, and Lokal Malang are less adaptive when grown under the saturated condition in tidal swampland. However, using the technology called water-saturated soybean farming [30], which consisted of appropriate application of Ca (dolomit) and NPK fertilizers with optimal plant population, the yield of soybean cultivation in tidal swampland in South Sumatera could reach 3.2–3.5 t/ha. There are some soybean varieties adapted to tidal swampland, namely Depas 1 and Depas 2 (Table 7).
A study on soybean cultivation in tidal swampland of South Kalimantan [22] also reported that the use of technological package (listed as an alternative technology in Table 8) consisting of the application of dolomite until soil Al saturation is reduced to 30%, NPK fertilizer with a dosage of 23 kg/ha N + 27 kg/ha P2O5 + 30 kg/ha K2O + 1,500 kg/ha organic fertilizers, and rhizobium inoculant of 0.25 kg/50 kg seed as well as the saturated soil culture (SSC) technology was able to increase the number of filled pods per plant and yield per hectare relative to farmer’s existing technology. Using the SSC and alternative technology packages, the seed yield increased by 27% and 17%, respectively compared to that of farmers’ existing technology (Table 8). The performance of soybean crops treated with an alternative technology is presented in Figure 4.
Technological package
Number of filled pods/plant
100 seeds weight (g)
Seed yield (t/ha)
Increased yield (%)
Existing
30.70 b
15.52 a
2.067 a
100
SSC
34.55 ab
15.40 a
2.422 b
117
Alternative
40.80 a
15.45 a
2.625 c
127
Table 8.
Number of filled pods, 100-seed weight, and soybean seed yield obtained from the application of different technological packages in tidal swampland. Wanaraya District, Barito Kuala Regency, South Kalimantan [24].
Note: The values followed by the same letter do not differ at the 5% DMRT level. SSC = Saturated Soil Culture.
Figure 4.
An example of the performance of 40 days after planting of soybean crops in tidal swamps with soil Al saturation of 30% in South Kalimantan Province, Indonesia.
5.5 Shaded land
In addition to several types of agroecosystem as described previously, growing soybean under shading is also potential for soybean development. Shaded land is available under young high state crop plantations, such as teak, palm oil, and eucalyptus trees. The land associated with teak and eucalyptus trees is generally under the management of State Company, namely Perhutani where the lands/areas are managed by the local community (FACI/Forest Area Community Institution), while the land planted with palm oil crops belongs to the Government. However, there is no accurate data regarding the potential shaded land that can be used for soybean development. This includes the dry land agroecology with flat or hilly topography. Therefore, soybean planting in this agroecology can be only done in the beginning of the rainy season.
The yield of soybean grown under the shading of four to six-year-old of palm oil tree (50% shading) was relatively lower (0.54 t/ha) than that of without shading (2.6 t/ha). Burangrang, Anjasmoro, and Grobogan varieties show similar tolerance to such shading. The recommended N fertilizer application is 100–150 kg/ha [31]. In another study, the application of 34.5 kg/ha N + 36 kg/ha P2O5 + 60 kg/ha K2O + 20 t/ha manure and planting space of 20 cm × 20 cm using three soybean varieties (Dena 1, Anjasmoro, and Grobogan) were able to produce seeds of about 1.8 t/ha at 25% shading level and about 1.4 t/ha at 50% shading level [32]. In particular, Dena 1, Dena 2, Denasa 1, and Denasa 2 varieties are released for shading cultivation of soybean (Table 7).
In terms of soybean grown under the two-year-old teak tree in Blora, Central Java, using the technological package of NPK fertilization (30 kg/ha N+ 66 kg/ha P2O5 + 30 kg K2O), biofertilizer (20 g/10 kg of seed), “legowo” planting space (30 cm–50 cm × 15 cm) or regular planting space (40 cm × 15 cm), gave a yield about 1.5 t/ha. Meanwhile, using the existing technology (farmer’s method), only 0.75 t/ha of seeds was obtained (Table 9) [33]. Soybean grown under the young teak stands and eucalyptus trees is presented in Figure 5.
Farming income of soybean farming under teak shade, Blora Regency, Central Java, 2018 [33].
Planting spacing was 40 cm × 15 cm (technology of Iletri).
Planting spacing was 20 cm × 20 cm (existing technology).
Revenue = the average of yield multiplied by the selling price of soybean seeds i.e. IDR 7,000/kg. Figure in the bracket showed total income was minus or soybean farming lost.
Note:
Figure 5.
Soybean grown under the teak stands (left) and eucalyptus trees (right) in Blora, Central Java.
6. Challenges and opportunities to achieve soybean self-sufficiency
6.1 Challenges
There are three primary challenges in terms of increasing the soybean production in Indonesia in order to achieve self-sufficiency, i.e. low fertility of the available land, less competition of existing soybean varieties in terms of the quality traits, and relatively low selling price of locally produced soybean.
Java Island is the most fertile and largest planted area of soybean in Indonesia. Shifting the soybean planting area to outside of Java has been started since the 1980s. The available land for crop cultivation in such areas, including soybean, is more than 40 million hectares, however, the major soil type is ultisol. This mostly exists in Sumatra, Bali, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua. Constraints, like acidity, low content of organic matter, and phosphorus (P) availability naturally occurred in ultisol soil, thus more inputs are needed to provide optimal conditions for producing soybean [34].
Quality traits of local or domestic soybean are also important to drive or push the production of soybean in Indonesia. However, there is a limited quality trait of local soybean to compete with imported soybean. Previously, the improved soybean varieties belonged to small and medium-seeded, which is not desired for tempeh ingredients. Large-seeded (> 14 g/100 seeds) is favored for tempeh preparation as it would give a good appearance and high volume development, while small to large seed sizes are suitable for tofu making [22]. Therefore, for the last two decades, a number of improved varieties with large seed sizes have been released (Table 7) to meet such preferences. However, the released varieties concerning health benefits, such as Devon 1 and Devon 2 with high isoflavone content (Table 7) that has antioxidant activity, have not been attractive for consumers and farmers based on this superiority or character as the market is not yet available. Therefore, lack of market quality traits is also an essential challenge for producing local soybean.
In the case of price, the imported soybean always has a lower price than the local soybean. It is calculated [35] that the profitable price for farmers is minimally IDR 9,000 per kg or US$ 0.6/kg (US$ 1 = IDR 14,000). With this selling price, farmers would be able to cover the expenses for soybean production activity and gain some profit. However, the price of local soybean at the farm level is frequently around IDR 6,500 per kg, causing less interest of farmers to grow soybean. Therefore, the current average soybean productivity at the farm level (1.5 t/ha) needs to be increased to at least 3.0 t/ha, thus soybean farming income can compete with those of other commodities, such as maize as presented in Table 10.
Parameter
Commodity farming
Maize
Soybean (Farmer technology)
Soybean (Improved technology)
Productivity (t/ha)
5,648
1,873
3,060
Selling price (IDR/kg)
4,000
6,500
6,500
Revenue (IDR/ha)
22,592,000
12,174,500
19,890,000
Production cost (IDR/ha)
9,737,000
6,800,200
7,542,000
Profit (IDR/ha)
12,855,000
5,372,500
12,348,000
B/C
1.32
0.79
1.64
Table 10.
Income of maize farming compared to soybean farming using existing farmer technology and improved technology [9].
6.2 Opportunities
Indonesia has a good chance to increase soybean production and fulfills domestic needs. This opportunity can be seen from the market demand, land and improved varieties availability, and the Government’s strong will. Soybean demand as food and feed increases continuously and be expected to increase in the next years. The highest portion of demand comes from processed food mainly tempeh and tofu. Another high demand is coming from the cattle feed industry which is expected to increase continuously as part of increasing cattle production. Therefore, by increasing the national soybean production, the Government wants to fulfill these demands by using national production and reducing imports [36].
Other potential opportunities are the availability of source seeds, especially in the form of “Breeder Seeds” for the production of certified seed of “Foundation Seeds”, “Stock Seeds”, and “Extension Seeds” to fulfill the need for quality soybean seed for the area of production. The “Breeder Seeds” available are various soybean varieties with a various specific traits, including the variety tolerance to pod borer and pod sucking insect, shading, flooding, and drought. The readiness of soybean production technology for various agroecosystems can also be stated as an opportunity because those significantly contribute to the high productivity and also for the production of soybean in the country.
7. Conclusion
Soybean in Indonesia is the third important staple food after rice and maize. The need for this commodity continuously increases every year due to the increase in population. The trend of domestic soybean production tended to decline and do not meet the demand leading to the increase of soybean import every year. There are three challenges that require drastic changes so that local soybean production is able to meet domestic needs. First, the current productivity at the farm level, which is around 1.5 t/ha must be increased to at least 2.0–3.0 t/ha. It will also help soybean farming income compete with those of other commodities. Second, the soybean harvested area which only reaches 0.3 million hectares in 2019 must be increased at least become 1.7 million hectares. The potential soybean planting areas in Indonesia are the optimal land including irrigated lowland and rainfed after paddy (rice), as well as suboptimal lands such as dryland, acidic land, tidal land, and shaded land under young plantation crops. Soybean productivity in those kinds of agroecosystems can reach 1.8–3.0 t/ha, depending on the type of land, the improved varieties used, and the applied of cultivation technological package. Third, it is necessary to develop agricultural machinery that can reduce the farming cost, so that soybean farming is more efficient and able to provide higher profit.
Some efforts should be made to increase national soybean production to achieve self-sufficiency, including improving the attractiveness point of soybean farming, launching the program(s) to increase soybean production starting from the central government to the regions, accelerating technology transfer dan adoption of the high yielding improved varieties, reducing soybean import gradually, improving the cooperation among stakeholders, and providing a good market guarantee for soybean farming.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank to the Indonesian Agency for Agricultural Research and Development (IAARD) through the Indonesian Legumes and Tuber Crops Research Institute (ILETRI) for the support of research results facilities to compile this manuscript.
Conflicts of interest
We declare that we have no conflicts of interest on the entire manuscript.
\n',keywords:"Indonesia, soybean, self-sufficiency",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79556.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79556.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79556",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79556",totalDownloads:136,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"May 7th 2021",dateReviewed:"October 18th 2021",datePrePublished:"December 4th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"December 4th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Soybean is the third important food crop in Indonesia after rice and maize, particularly as a good source of protein. The demand for soybean consumption tends to increase annually. In 2020, the figure was about 3.28 million tons, while the domestic production was 0.63 million tons, thus around 81% of the soybean needed was imported. Efforts to increase the domestic soybean production have been conducted since the last decade, which is concerned with increasing the current productivity (1.5 t/ha) through introducing the high-yielding improved varieties and extending the harvested area, particularly to outside of Java. The potential planting area is focused on the irrigated lowland after rice (optimal land) and suboptimal lands (dry, acid, tidal, and shaded lands). The series of the study showed that the yield potential of soybean grown in such lands varied from 1.8 t/ha to 3.0 t/ha. A number of soybeans improved varieties adapted to different land types or agro-ecological conditions also have been released and supported with advanced cultivation technology. The results, challenges, and opportunities to achieve soybean self-sufficiency are discussed in this paper.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79556",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79556",signatures:"Arief Harsono, Didik Harnowo, Erliana Ginting and Dian Adi Anggraeni Elisabeth",book:{id:"10749",type:"book",title:"Legumes Research - Volume 1",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Legumes Research - Volume 1",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez and Dr. Alfonso Clemente",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10749.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83969-491-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-490-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-492-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Soybean production and demand",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. National soybean program",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Land availability for soybean development",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Cultivation technology for various agroecosystem",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1 Lowland",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2 Dryland",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.3 Acidic soil",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.4 Tidal swampland",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.5 Shaded land",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"6. Challenges and opportunities to achieve soybean self-sufficiency",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"6.1 Challenges",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"6.2 Opportunities",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Conflicts of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Indonesian Ministry of Agriculture. Results of the National Working Meeting of the Ministry of Agriculture, January 2021. Jakarta: Ministry of Agriculture; 2021'},{id:"B2",body:'CBS. Indonesian Statistics (in Indonesia). Jakarta: Central Bureau of Statistics; 2020. http://www.bps.go.id. [Accessed January 23, 2020]'},{id:"B3",body:'Center for Agricultural Data and Information Systems. Food Agricultural Commodity Outlook: Soybean. Jakarta: Secretariat General of teh Ministry of Agriculture; 2020. p. 47'},{id:"B4",body:'Director General of Food Crops. Instructions for Intercropping. Jakarta: Ministry of Agriculture; 2018. p. 24'},{id:"B5",body:'Harsono A. Soybean self-sufficiency has not been achieved: Problems and solutions. In: The Policy Brief was Presented at the Research Professor Communication Forum; 23–24 April 2019; Bogor: Ministry of Agriculture; 2019. p. 6'},{id:"B6",body:'Indonesian Agricultural Statistics. Center for Agricultural Data and Information System. Jakarta: Ministry of Agriculture Republic of Indonesia; 2019. pp. 105-128'},{id:"B7",body:'Mulyani A, Nursyamsi D, Harnowo D. The potential and challenges for the use of suboptimal land for the development of legume and tuber crops. In: Proceedings of the National Seminar on Legume and Tuber Crops 2016. Bogor: Indonesian Center for Food Crops Research and Development (IAARD); 2017. pp. 16-30'},{id:"B8",body:'Ruckstuhl KE, Johnson EA, Miyanishi K. Introduction. The boreal forest and global change. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 2008;363:2245-2249. DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2007.2196'},{id:"B9",body:'Nikodem A, Kodešova R, Drabek O, Bubeničkova L, Borůvka L, Pavlů L, et al. A numerical study of the impact of precipitation redistribution in a beech forest canopy on water and aluminum transport in a podzol. Vadose Zone Journal. 2010;9:238-251. DOI: 10.2136/vzj2009.0083'},{id:"B10",body:'Elisabeth DAA, Harsono A. Economic competitiveness of soybean and maize intercropping on dry land with dry climate. Jurnal Pengkajian dan Pengembangan Teknologi Pertanian. 2020;4(1):53-62. DOI: 10.21082/jpptp.v4n1.2020.p53-62'},{id:"B11",body:'Wijanarko A, Taufiq A. Effect of lime application on soil properties and soybean yield on tidal land. Agrivita. 2016;38(1):14-23. DOI: 10.17503/agrivita.v38i1.683'},{id:"B12",body:'Balitkabi. Description of Various Improved Legume and Tuber Crops Variety. Malang: Indonesian Legumes and Tuber Crops Research Institute. The Indonesian Agency for Agricultural Research and Development; 2016. pp. 1-86'},{id:"B13",body:'Widyaningrum I, Nugroho A, Heddy YBS. Pengaruh jarak tanam dan varietas terhadap pertumbuhan dan hasil tanaman kedelai (Glycine max L.). Jurnal Produksi Tanaman. 2018;6(8):1796-1802'},{id:"B14",body:'Harsono A, Sucahyono D, Elisabeth DAA, Adhie M, Suyitno, Sugiono. Uji paket teknologi kedelai dengan produktivitas 3,5 t/ha (Evaluation of soybean technology package for productivity of 3.5/ha). Malang: Research Report of the Indonesian Legumes and Tuber Crops Research Institute; 2020. p. 11 (Unpublished)'},{id:"B15",body:'Elisabeth DAA, Mutmaidah S, Harsono A. Adoption determinants of biofertilizer technology for soybean in rainfed area. Earth and Environmental Science. 2019;347(2019):1-10. DOI: 10.1088/1755-1315/347/1/012114'},{id:"B16",body:'Yazar A, Ali A. Water harvesting in dry environments. In: Farooq M, Siddique K, editors. Innovations in Dryland Agriculture. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing AG; 2017. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-47928-6_3'},{id:"B17",body:'Prasanna BM. Maize in the developing world: Trends, challenges, and opportunities. In: Proceedings of International Maize Conference; 22–24 November 2012; Sulawesi, Indonesia. Jakarta: Indonesian Agency for Agricultural Research and Development (IAARD); 2013. pp. 26-38'},{id:"B18",body:'Mahallati MN, Koocheki A, Mondani F, Feizi H, Amirmoradi S. Determination of optimal strip width in strip intercropping of maize (Zea mays L.) and bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in Northeast Iran. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2014;106(3):390-404. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.10.009'},{id:"B19",body:'Yang F, Wang XC, Liao DP, Lu FZ, Gao RC, Liu WG, et al. Yield response to different planting geometries in maize-soybean relay strip intercropping systems. Agronomy Journal. 2015;107(1):296-304. DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d210842'},{id:"B20",body:'Lithourgidis AS, Dordas CA, Damalas CA, Vlachostergios DN. Annual intercrops: An alternative pathway for sustainable agriculture. Australian Journal of Crop Science. 2011;5(4):396-410'},{id:"B21",body:'Flores-Sanchez D, Pastor A, Lantinga EA, Rossing WAH, Kropff MJ. Exploring maize-legume intercropping systems in Southwest Mexico. Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems. 2013;37(7):739-761. DOI: 10.1080/21683565.2013.763888'},{id:"B22",body:'Ginting E, Antarlina SS, Widowati S. Varietas unggul kedelai untuk bahan baku industri pangan. Jurnal Litbang Pertanian. 2009;28(3):79-87'},{id:"B23",body:'Balitkabi. Deskripsi Varietas Baru. Malang: Indonesian Legumes and Tuber Crops Research Institute; 2021. https://balitkabi.litbang.pertanian.go.id/deskripsi-varietas-baru/'},{id:"B24",body:'Harsono A, Elisabeth DAA, Indiati SW, Rozi F, Harnowo D, Sundari T, et al. Soybean cultivation technology package on tidal swamp lands in Indonesia. Annual Research & Review in Biology. 2021;6(7):47-57'},{id:"B25",body:'Tiwari P, Singh JS. A plant growth promoting rhizospheric Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain inhibits seed germination in Triticum aestivum (L) and Zea mays (L). Microbiology Research. 2017;8(2):7233. DOI: 10.4081/mr.2017.7233'},{id:"B26",body:'Vimal SR, Patel VK, Singh JS. Plant growth promoting Curtobacterium albidum strain SRV4: an agriculturally important microbe to alleviate salinity stress in paddy plants. Ecological Indicators. 2018;105:553-562. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoind.2018 05.014'},{id:"B27",body:'Purba R. The growth and production of soybean towards organic fertilization on dryland in Pandeglang, Banten. Jurnal Pengkajian dan Pengembangan Teknologi Pertanian. 2016;19(3):253-261'},{id:"B28",body:'Harsono A, Husein E, Sucahyono D, Muzaiyanah S. Biofertilizers to support soybean production on acid soil. Buletin Palawija. 2014;28:102-114'},{id:"B29",body:'Ghulamahdi M, Melati M, Sagala D. Production of soybean varieties under saturated culture on tidal swamps. Jurnal Agronomi Indonesia. 2009;37(3):226-232. DOI: 10.24831/jai.v37i3.1301'},{id:"B30",body:'Ghulamahdi M, Chaerunisa SR, Lubisa I, Taylor P. Response of five soybean varieties under saturated soil culture and temporary flooding on tidal swamp. Procedia Environmental Sciences. 2016;33(2016):87-93. DOI: 10.1016/j.proenv.2016.03.060'},{id:"B31",body:'Napitupulu A. 2016. The Analysis of Urea Dosage and Soybean Variety (Glycine max L.) Multicropping under Oilpalm Area (A Case Study in Medan Deli Serdang Subdistrict). Master Thesis. USU Medan. www.repository.usu.ac.id/bitsream/handle/123456789/2864/127001021.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. [Accessed April 16, 2021]'},{id:"B32",body:'Handriawan A, Respatie DW, Tohari. The effect of shade intensity to the growth and result of three soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill) cultivars at the land of Bugel Coastal Sand, Kulon Progo. Vegetalika. 2016;5(3):1-14. DOI: 10.22146/veg.25346'},{id:"B33",body:'Elisabeth DAA, Suhartina. Farmers’ response on introduction of soybean cultivation technology under teak shade. In: AIP Conference Proceedings. Vol. 2120, No. 1. New York: AIP Publishing LLC; 2019. p. 040013'},{id:"B34",body:'Rochayati S, Dariah A. Pengembangan lahan kering masam: peluang, tantangan, dan strategi, serta teknologi pengelolaan. In: Prospek Pertanian Lahan Kering dalam Mendukung Ketahanan Pangan. The Indonesian Agency for Agricultural Research and Development (IAARD). Jakarta: LITBANG-PRESS; 2012. pp. 187-206'},{id:"B35",body:'Aldillah R. Projections for Indonesian soybean production and consumption. Journal of Application Quantitative Economic. 2015;8(1):9-23'},{id:"B36",body:'Hasbianto A, Hartati S, Weebadde CK. Opportunity, challenges, and strategies to increase soybean production in Indonesia. Jurnal Informasi Pertanian (JIP). 2020;1(1):72-79'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Arief Harsono",address:"rifharsono@yahoo.co.id",affiliation:'
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thermoregulation and being a resource for stem cells. Hair is a derivative of the epidermis and consists of two distinct parts: the follicle and the hair shaft. The follicle is the essential unit for the generation of hair. The hair shaft consists of a cortex and cuticle cells, and a medulla for some types of hairs. Hair follicle has a continuous growth and rest sequence named hair cycle. The duration of growth and rest cycles is coordinated by many endocrine, vascular and neural stimuli and depends not only on localization of the hair but also on various factors, like age and nutritional habits. Distinctive anatomy and physiology of hair follicle are presented in this chapter. Extensive knowledge on anatomical and physiological aspects of hair can contribute to understand and heal different hair disorders.",book:{id:"5461",slug:"hair-and-scalp-disorders",title:"Hair and Scalp Disorders",fullTitle:"Hair and Scalp Disorders"},signatures:"Bilgen Erdoğan",authors:[{id:"193661",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilgen",middleName:null,surname:"Erdoğan",slug:"bilgen-erdogan",fullName:"Bilgen Erdoğan"}]},{id:"42520",doi:"10.5772/55026",title:"Discovery and Delineation of Dermatan 4-O-Sulfotransferase-1 (D4ST1)-Deficient Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome",slug:"discovery-and-delineation-of-dermatan-4-o-sulfotransferase-1-d4st1-deficient-ehlers-danlos-syndrome",totalDownloads:2844,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:null,book:{id:"3038",slug:"current-genetics-in-dermatology",title:"Current Genetics in Dermatology",fullTitle:"Current Genetics in Dermatology"},signatures:"Tomoki Kosho",authors:[{id:"153541",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomoki",middleName:null,surname:"Kosho",slug:"tomoki-kosho",fullName:"Tomoki Kosho"}]},{id:"52801",doi:"10.5772/66156",title:"Psychosocial Aspects of Hair Loss",slug:"psychosocial-aspects-of-hair-loss",totalDownloads:2558,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Hair loss (alopecia) is a common dermatological condition that affects men and women of all ages. It can be due to a wide variety of causes including scarring and non-scarring diseases. Although alopecia is not a life-threatening condition, it has significant psychological impact on the quality of life. Mental disorders such as anxiety, depression, social phobia, posttraumatic stress disorder, and suicidal thoughts are increased among alopecia patients. On the other hand, alopecia frequency increases during the course of psychological disorders. In this chapter, psychosocial aspects of hair loss and the relationship between alopecia and psychological disorders are reviewed.",book:{id:"5461",slug:"hair-and-scalp-disorders",title:"Hair and Scalp Disorders",fullTitle:"Hair and Scalp Disorders"},signatures:"Hilal Gokalp",authors:[{id:"193580",title:"M.D.",name:"Hilal",middleName:null,surname:"Gokalp",slug:"hilal-gokalp",fullName:"Hilal Gokalp"}]},{id:"62733",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79807",title:"Ethosomes: An Exciting and Promising Alcoholic Carrier System for Treating Androgenic Alopecia",slug:"ethosomes-an-exciting-and-promising-alcoholic-carrier-system-for-treating-androgenic-alopecia",totalDownloads:1091,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Androgenetic alopecia (male-pattern hair loss) is characterized by the deposition of dihydrotestosterone at the pilosebaceous unit of the scalp. Oral administration of drugs (like finasteride) which can reverse androgenic alopecia causes undesired effects to the body. Targeting these drugs directly to the pilosebaceous unit of the scalp will enhance the pharmacological response at the desired site by reducing undesired systemic side effects. This chapter discusses about ethosomes, a specially tailored ethanolic vesicular carriers which can efficiently deliver various drugs with different physicochemical properties to and through the skin. The unique characteristics of the ethosomal carriers, their composition, preparation methods, and the mechanism of permeation, safety, and practical experience (finasteride and herbal extracts) have been discussed in detail.",book:{id:"6961",slug:"alopecia",title:"Alopecia",fullTitle:"Alopecia"},signatures:"Veintramuthu Sankar, Santhanam Ramesh and Karthik Siram",authors:[{id:"254541",title:"Prof.",name:"Sankar",middleName:null,surname:"Veintramuthu",slug:"sankar-veintramuthu",fullName:"Sankar Veintramuthu"},{id:"260986",title:"Mr.",name:"Karthik",middleName:null,surname:"Siram",slug:"karthik-siram",fullName:"Karthik Siram"},{id:"260991",title:"Dr.",name:"Santhanam",middleName:null,surname:"Ramesh",slug:"santhanam-ramesh",fullName:"Santhanam Ramesh"}]},{id:"63066",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79656",title:"Pharmacological Treatment of Alopecia",slug:"pharmacological-treatment-of-alopecia",totalDownloads:1462,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In this chapter, we will explore non-surgical treatments of alopecia. Unlike many other areas of medicine, pharmacological treatments for alopecia are relatively new. There are only two treatments which are approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA); the rest are drugs developed for other indications which have gained popular off-label use to promote hair growth. The reasons for this are many, including the designation of alopecia by the FDA as a cosmetic disease. This designation has restricted alopecia development programs to compounds with virtually no side effects. Unfortunately, it has also led to off-label use of far more dangerous compounds as alopecia treatments, without the benefit of controlled trials. There is a growing recognition that alopecia, particularly alopecia areata and chemotherapy-induced alopecia, are disorders which significantly alter the quality of life, similar to acne vulgaris and psoriasis, and merit treatment accordingly. There have also been several recent advances in our understanding of the hair cycle, revealing new targets for developing alopecia therapies. As a result, there is a more robust slate of programs for developing new pharmacological treatments for alopecia. In this chapter, we will review current pharmacological treatments for alopecia and selected treatments under development (i.e., those with significant preclinical or clinical data which have appeared in the published literature).",book:{id:"6961",slug:"alopecia",title:"Alopecia",fullTitle:"Alopecia"},signatures:"Robert Gensure",authors:[{id:"16515",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Gensure",slug:"robert-gensure",fullName:"Robert Gensure"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"53880",title:"Anatomy and Physiology of Hair",slug:"anatomy-and-physiology-of-hair",totalDownloads:7836,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Hair is one of the characteristic features of mammals and has various functions such as protection against external factors; producing sebum, apocrine sweat and pheromones; impact on social and sexual interactions; thermoregulation and being a resource for stem cells. Hair is a derivative of the epidermis and consists of two distinct parts: the follicle and the hair shaft. The follicle is the essential unit for the generation of hair. The hair shaft consists of a cortex and cuticle cells, and a medulla for some types of hairs. Hair follicle has a continuous growth and rest sequence named hair cycle. The duration of growth and rest cycles is coordinated by many endocrine, vascular and neural stimuli and depends not only on localization of the hair but also on various factors, like age and nutritional habits. Distinctive anatomy and physiology of hair follicle are presented in this chapter. Extensive knowledge on anatomical and physiological aspects of hair can contribute to understand and heal different hair disorders.",book:{id:"5461",slug:"hair-and-scalp-disorders",title:"Hair and Scalp Disorders",fullTitle:"Hair and Scalp Disorders"},signatures:"Bilgen Erdoğan",authors:[{id:"193661",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilgen",middleName:null,surname:"Erdoğan",slug:"bilgen-erdogan",fullName:"Bilgen Erdoğan"}]},{id:"53947",title:"Infections, Infestations and Neoplasms of the Scalp",slug:"infections-infestations-and-neoplasms-of-the-scalp",totalDownloads:3547,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter reviews common cutaneous infections, infestations, and neoplasms of the scalp. Infections of the scalp are subdivided into three major groups. The most seen are: (1) Bacterial: Folliculitis, folliculitis decalvans, tufted hair folliculitis and acne keloidalis nuchae. (2) Fungal: Tinea capitis, favus and kerion celsi. (3) Protozoal: Syphilitic alopecia. Pediculosis capitis is the most common worldwide infestation of the scalp. The neoplasms of the scalp are large group of different diseases due to arising different origin. In the following section, trichilemmal cyst, proliferating trichilemmal cyst, nevus sebaceous and cylindroma are discussed in detail.",book:{id:"5461",slug:"hair-and-scalp-disorders",title:"Hair and Scalp Disorders",fullTitle:"Hair and Scalp Disorders"},signatures:"Filiz Canpolat",authors:[{id:"191617",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Filiz",middleName:null,surname:"Canpolat",slug:"filiz-canpolat",fullName:"Filiz Canpolat"}]},{id:"53525",title:"Trichoscopy and Trichogram",slug:"trichoscopy-and-trichogram",totalDownloads:2633,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Hair and scalp examination techniques can be classified into three categories: noninvasive methods (clinical history, general examination, photography, hair count, weighing shed hair, pull test, global hair counts, dermoscopy, electron microscopy, laser scanning microscopy, etc.); semi‐invasive methods (the trichogram, unit areatrichogram); and invasive methods (biopsies in cicatritial alopecia). Scalp dermoscopy or trichoscopy is one of thenoninvasive techniques for the evaluation of patients with hair loss that allows for magnified visualization of the hair and scalp skin. It may be performed with a manual dermoscope (10× magnification) or a videodermoscope (up to 1000× magnification). This method is simple, quick, and easy to perform, is well‐accepted by patients, and is useful for monitoring treatment, determining severity of the disease and follow‐up. It is a simple, minimally invasive and rapid technique for measuring hair follicle activity. Trichogram represents a semi‐invasive technique for the evaluation of patients with hair loss that allows the microscopic examination of hairs plucked from the scalp and provides information about the state of the proximal end of the hair shaft and the distal end. The trichogram is a useful complementary tool for clinical evaluation, diagnosis, and the monitoring of treatment response.",book:{id:"5461",slug:"hair-and-scalp-disorders",title:"Hair and Scalp Disorders",fullTitle:"Hair and Scalp Disorders"},signatures:"Melike Kibar",authors:[{id:"189899",title:"Dr.",name:"Melike",middleName:null,surname:"Kibar Ozturk",slug:"melike-kibar-ozturk",fullName:"Melike Kibar Ozturk"}]},{id:"42524",title:"Hereditary Palmoplantar Keratosis",slug:"hereditary-palmoplantar-keratosis",totalDownloads:4592,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"3038",slug:"current-genetics-in-dermatology",title:"Current Genetics in Dermatology",fullTitle:"Current Genetics in Dermatology"},signatures:"Tamihiro Kawakami",authors:[{id:"155091",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tamihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Kawakami",slug:"tamihiro-kawakami",fullName:"Tamihiro Kawakami"}]},{id:"63066",title:"Pharmacological Treatment of Alopecia",slug:"pharmacological-treatment-of-alopecia",totalDownloads:1460,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In this chapter, we will explore non-surgical treatments of alopecia. Unlike many other areas of medicine, pharmacological treatments for alopecia are relatively new. There are only two treatments which are approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA); the rest are drugs developed for other indications which have gained popular off-label use to promote hair growth. The reasons for this are many, including the designation of alopecia by the FDA as a cosmetic disease. This designation has restricted alopecia development programs to compounds with virtually no side effects. Unfortunately, it has also led to off-label use of far more dangerous compounds as alopecia treatments, without the benefit of controlled trials. There is a growing recognition that alopecia, particularly alopecia areata and chemotherapy-induced alopecia, are disorders which significantly alter the quality of life, similar to acne vulgaris and psoriasis, and merit treatment accordingly. There have also been several recent advances in our understanding of the hair cycle, revealing new targets for developing alopecia therapies. As a result, there is a more robust slate of programs for developing new pharmacological treatments for alopecia. In this chapter, we will review current pharmacological treatments for alopecia and selected treatments under development (i.e., those with significant preclinical or clinical data which have appeared in the published literature).",book:{id:"6961",slug:"alopecia",title:"Alopecia",fullTitle:"Alopecia"},signatures:"Robert Gensure",authors:[{id:"16515",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Gensure",slug:"robert-gensure",fullName:"Robert Gensure"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1003",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. 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For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. 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His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. He has also edited two international books and authored more than 150 communications or posters for the most important international and Italian ophthalmology conferences.",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7560",title:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods",subtitle:"Image Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7560.jpg",slug:"non-invasive-diagnostic-methods-image-processing",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mariusz Marzec and Robert Koprowski",hash:"d92fd8cf5a90a47f2b8a310837a5600e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods - Image Processing",editors:[{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. 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He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6843",title:"Biomechanics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6843.jpg",slug:"biomechanics",publishedDate:"January 30th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hadi Mohammadi",hash:"85132976010be1d7f3dbd88662b785e5",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Biomechanics",editors:[{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. 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