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\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
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\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
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\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
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\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
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\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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Tuckerman",authors:[{id:"62175",title:"Prof.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Tuckerman",fullName:"Mark Tuckerman",slug:"mark-tuckerman"}]},{id:"21147",title:"Optical Properties and Applications of Silicon Carbide in Astrophysics",slug:"optical-properties-and-applications-of-silicon-carbide-in-astrophysics",signatures:"Karly M. Pitman, Angela K. Speck, Anne M. Hofmeister and Adrian B. Corman",authors:[{id:"56813",title:"Dr.",name:"Karly",middleName:null,surname:"Pitman",fullName:"Karly Pitman",slug:"karly-pitman"},{id:"56815",title:"Dr.",name:"Angela",middleName:null,surname:"Speck",fullName:"Angela Speck",slug:"angela-speck"},{id:"56816",title:"Dr.",name:"Anne",middleName:null,surname:"Hofmeister",fullName:"Anne Hofmeister",slug:"anne-hofmeister"},{id:"56817",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrian",middleName:null,surname:"Corman",fullName:"Adrian Corman",slug:"adrian-corman"}]},{id:"21148",title:"Introducing Ohmic Contacts into Silicon Carbide Technology",slug:"introducing-ohmic-contacts-into-silicon-carbide-technology",signatures:"Zhongchang Wang, Susumu Tsukimoto, Mitsuhiro Saito and Yuichi Ikuhara",authors:[{id:"39169",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhongchang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Zhongchang Wang",slug:"zhongchang-wang"},{id:"56988",title:"Dr.",name:"Susumu",middleName:null,surname:"Tsukimoto",fullName:"Susumu 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Laref",authors:[{id:"55638",title:"Dr.",name:"Amel",middleName:null,surname:"Laref",fullName:"Amel Laref",slug:"amel-laref"},{id:"135896",title:"Dr.",name:"Slimane",middleName:null,surname:"Laref",fullName:"Slimane Laref",slug:"slimane-laref"}]},{id:"21153",title:"Dielectrics for High Temperature SiC Device Insulation: Review of New Polymeric and Ceramic Materials",slug:"dielectrics-for-high-temperature-sic-device-insulation-review-of-new-polymeric-and-ceramic-materials",signatures:"Sombel Diaham, Marie-Laure Locatelli and Zarel Valdez-Nava",authors:[{id:"57115",title:"Dr.",name:"Sombel",middleName:null,surname:"Diaham",fullName:"Sombel Diaham",slug:"sombel-diaham"},{id:"57224",title:"Dr.",name:"Marie-Laure",middleName:null,surname:"Locatelli",fullName:"Marie-Laure Locatelli",slug:"marie-laure-locatelli"},{id:"57225",title:"Mr.",name:"Zarel",middleName:null,surname:"Valdez-Nava",fullName:"Zarel Valdez-Nava",slug:"zarel-valdez-nava"}]},{id:"21154",title:"Application of Silicon Carbide in Abrasive Water Jet Machining",slug:"application-of-silicon-carbide-in-abrasive-water-jet-machining",signatures:"Ahsan Ali Khan and Mohammad Yeakub Ali",authors:[{id:"48662",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahsan",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",fullName:"Ahsan Khan",slug:"ahsan-khan"},{id:"54756",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:"Yeakub",surname:"Ali",fullName:"Mohammad Ali",slug:"mohammad-ali"}]},{id:"21155",title:"Silicon Carbide Filled Polymer Composite for Erosive Environment Application: A Comparative Analysis of Experimental and FE Simulation Results",slug:"silicon-carbide-filled-polymer-composite-for-erosive-environment-application-a-comparative-analysis-",signatures:"Sandhyarani Biswas, Amar Patnaik and Pradeep Kumar",authors:[{id:"39793",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandhyarani",middleName:null,surname:"Biswas",fullName:"Sandhyarani Biswas",slug:"sandhyarani-biswas"},{id:"43660",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Amar",middleName:null,surname:"Patnaik",fullName:"Amar Patnaik",slug:"amar-patnaik"}]},{id:"21156",title:"Comparative Assessment of Si Schottky Diode Family in DC-DC Converter",slug:"comparative-assessment-of-si-schottky-diode-family-in-dc-dc-converter",signatures:"Nor Zaihar Yahaya",authors:[{id:"47660",title:"Dr.",name:"Nor Zaihar",middleName:null,surname:"Yahaya",fullName:"Nor Zaihar Yahaya",slug:"nor-zaihar-yahaya"}]},{id:"21157",title:"Compilation on Synthesis, Characterization and Properties of Silicon and Boron Carbonitride Films",slug:"compilation-on-synthesis-characterization-and-properties-of-silicon-and-boron-carbonitride-films",signatures:"P. Hoffmann, N. Fainer, M. Kosinova, O. Baake and W. Ensinger",authors:[{id:"56722",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Hoffmann",fullName:"Peter Hoffmann",slug:"peter-hoffmann"},{id:"56726",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Kosinova",fullName:"Marina Kosinova",slug:"marina-kosinova"},{id:"56727",title:"Prof.",name:"Wolfgang",middleName:null,surname:"Ensinger",fullName:"Wolfgang Ensinger",slug:"wolfgang-ensinger"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1565",title:"Bolometers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c193ef12df5ac7a70b88a3b56c786e45",slug:"bolometers",bookSignature:"A. G. Unil Perera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1565.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92217",title:"Prof.",name:"Unil",surname:"Perera",slug:"unil-perera",fullName:"Unil Perera"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3623",title:"Advanced Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technologies",subtitle:"Semiconductor Devices Circuits and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"advanced-microwave-and-millimeter-wave-technologies-semiconductor-devices-circuits-and-systems",bookSignature:"Moumita Mukherjee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3623.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24251",title:"Dr.",name:"Moumita",surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"moumita-mukherjee",fullName:"Moumita Mukherjee"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3707",title:"Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technologies",subtitle:"from Photonic Bandgap Devices to Antenna and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"microwave-and-millimeter-wave-technologies-from-photonic-bandgap-devices-to-antenna-and-applications",bookSignature:"Igor Minin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3707.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"123258",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",surname:"Minin",slug:"igor-minin",fullName:"Igor Minin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3708",title:"Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technologies",subtitle:"Modern UWB antennas and equipment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"microwave-and-millimeter-wave-technologies-modern-uwb-antennas-and-equipment",bookSignature:"Igor Minin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3708.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"123258",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",surname:"Minin",slug:"igor-minin",fullName:"Igor Minin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4617",title:"Advanced Electromagnetic Waves",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dffb45dc681f2d74f30ad9ab9c2c527f",slug:"advanced-electromagnetic-waves",bookSignature:"Saad Osman Bashir",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4617.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"100186",title:"Prof.",name:"Saad",surname:"Bashir",slug:"saad-bashir",fullName:"Saad Bashir"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"74548",title:"The Significance of Family-of-Origin Dynamics for Adults’ Health and Psychological Wellbeing: The Perspective of Bowen Family System Theory",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95354",slug:"the-significance-of-family-of-origin-dynamics-for-adults-health-and-psychological-wellbeing-the-pers",body:'The quality of life of an adult is determined by the interaction of many factors, yet psychological well-being and physical health can be considered as the essential variables ensuring the quality of life. Therefore, researchers seek to understand what factors and how they contribute to a person’s psychological well-being and physical health. Numerous studies reveal the importance of individual psychological and physical factors for these variables, but the significance of family interactional dynamics has become increasingly recognized over the last few decades. There is strong evidence that more favorable interactions with a spouse/partner usually predict better health as well as psychological well-being outcomes of an adult [1, 2, 3]. Additionally, the newest data suggest that broader family interactional context accounts for the significant changes in a person’s physical health and morbidity as well as in psychosocial functioning (e.g., [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]). Thus, the body of research provides clear evidence that supports the necessity to understand physical health and psychological well-being from a systemic perspective. However, understanding the associations between variables without a clear theory is difficult to achieve. Bowen family systems theory (BFST) is a systemic theory binding together family processes and individual factors. It has been vastly studied and has gained recognition for explaining different intrapsychic as well as interpersonal phenomena in the interactional context of the nuclear and genetic family [7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. Bowen [17] claimed that an individual’s physical and emotional issues could be explained by the interactional processes in the family system. The chapter defines the main assumptions of the BFST as well as summarizes the main results of three studies demonstrating how family and personal factors defined by the BFST, such as family emotional system, triangulation, differentiation of self, relate to adults’ health and psychological well-being.
The BFST describes different interactional processes that are carried across the generations and determine an individual’s level of autonomy and emotional reactivity as well as the global functioning of the family [17, 18]. According to the theory, any personal or relational issue/symptom can be explained as a result of diffused anxiety produced by destructive interactional patterns among family members [15, 17]. Bowen described six interrelated concepts that address family processes, with differentiation of self (DoS), regarded as the central one as it appears in the manifestation of every other phenomenon described by Bowen [19]. It explains two fundamental aspects of psychosocial functioning: the ability to separate own feelings from thinking and to remain capable of making decisions under stress as well as the ability to develop close intimate relationships while remaining autonomous [12, 14, 16, 17, 20]. The DoS develops within the significant relationships with parents whose DoS shapes their mutual relationship as well as the relationship with their children and is transferred to the next generation through the nuclear family emotional system (NFES), triangulation, and family projection [17].
NFES can be referred to as a cumulative phenomenon since it binds the rest of the five concepts together (DoS, triangulation, multigenerational transmission process, family projection process, emotional cutoff) and explains the pathways of symptom development. The evolution of NFES begins even before an adult decides to have an intimate relationship. NFES develops gradually and depends on the quality of relationships with families-of-origin, the adjustment of partners to each other before having children as a two-person system, and their adjustment as a three-person system when a child is born. The partners’ level of DoS plays a critical role in the development of NFES since the lower DoS predicts more fusion and anxiety between the partners. Bowen [18] postulated that a person usually subconsciously chooses a partner with a similar level of DoS. The lower DoS predicts more fusion and anxiety between the partners. Partners with low differentiation are emotionally reactive, have little personal autonomy, seek emotional support, appraisal, and needs’ gratification. Under stress, they cannot think clearly and make effective decisions, tend to become overreactive and overwhelmed by the emotions. Marital discord usually develops ‘when neither spouse will “give in” to the other in the fusion, or when the one who has been giving in or adapting refuses to continue’ [17, p. 115]. The conflict can manifest with a wide range of interactional patterns from simple quarrels to overt violent acts as well as alienating from each other. Despite the tendency to establish a partnership with a person who has a similar level of differentiation, one partner usually has a slightly higher level of differentiation, and, in turn, he or she absorbs less undifferentiation and anxiety by communicating over-protectiveness, worry, or criticism to the less functional partner. The latter soaks up more of undifferentiation and anxiety, accepting her helplessness, powerlessness. Such interactions allow avoiding a conflict; however, they strengthen the unequal positions of the partners by allowing the more functional partner to gain more strength while the less functional partner develops emotional, social, or physical symptoms. Such interactional dynamics result in high levels of anxiety in the couple that has to be channeled somewhere else. Within the triadic systems, parents with low DoS tend to transfer their diffused anxiety to children through triangulation processes. Kerr and Bowen [19] noted that the two-person system is unstable because of the constant fluctuation of anxiety levels between partners and as it increases, the two-person system forms a triangle by involving a third person in their relationship. After pulling a child into their conflictual relationship, parents usually seek the child’s compassion, emotional support, or openly set a child against a partner. In this way, a child is forced to support the side of one of the parents, mediate in their conflict, comfort, etc., which may lead to a loyalty conflict in a child. Therefore, continual triangulation may result in children’s mental or physical health problems and has detrimental effects on a child’s development as well as functioning in adulthood [21, 22]. Involvement in triangulation does not enable children to become more differentiated than parents, restricts their autonomy, and strengthens emotional reactivity and anxiety [15, 18, 23, 24, 25]. Summarizing, NFES reflects the levels of differentiation and anxiety in the family system through three presumable patterns of the symptoms: chronic marital problems, physical or psychological illness of a partner, impairment of a child [19].
This chapter aims to present and discuss the results of three studies based on the Bowen family system theory. Thus, the next sections will present the summary of the studies aimed at examining the role of various family-of-origin variables on adults’ physical health and psychological well-being. Since some study measures and data analysis methods are shared among all three studies, the sections Measures and Data analysis, as well as General discussion, are integrated, while the sections Participants and Results are separate for each study.
In Study 1 and 2 hierarchical series of multiple regression analyses were conducted to explore the contribution of study variables to the prediction of psychological well-being (six subscales of PWBS) as the dependent variable. To estimate the effect size for a hierarchical multiple regression in each step Cohen’s
In Study 3 a mediation analysis was performed to test the impact of interparental relationship quality, triangulation, family emotional system, the DoS, and satisfaction with a couple relationship on adult’s physical and emotional health. A path analysis was carried out using the Maximum Likelihood method and the following goodness-of-fit indices [36]: model Chi-Square, the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), the Standardized Root-Mean-Square Residual (SRMR), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) and Comparative Fit Index (CFI). TLI, GFI, and CFI values greater than 0.90 are considered acceptable, whereas the ones higher than 0.95 are considered excellent. RMSEA and SRMR values lower than 0.08 are considered acceptable, whereas values close to 0.05 are considered as good [37]. Bootstrap re-sampling was applied to test the significance of the mediation paths, using 5000 bootstrap samples and 95% confidence intervals.
The data were analyzed using SPSS Version 23 and AMOS Version 23.
The objective of the study was to test the prognostic value of adults’ current family dynamics reflected by NFES on adults’ physical health.
The study was conducted online in 2017 in Lithuania. Respondents were recruited from various social networking websites intended for family issues. Before starting their participation, respondents were presented with an informed consent covering the primary goal of the study, voluntary participation, confidentiality, data protection, and contacts of the researcher.
Inclusion criteria were the following: intimate relationships at the moment of participation in the study and having a child from 3 to 18 years. The final sample consisted of 282 participants of whom 95% (
Two three-step hierarchical multiple regressions were performed for both subscales of PHS (Objective health indicators, Subjective health indicators) as the dependent variables. Each hierarchical multiple regression analysis consisted of three blocks of independent variables which were subscales of NFES (Personal distress, Constructive relationship with a partner, Destructive relationship with a partner, Child’s problems), presence of illness at the moment of the survey, and control variables (gender and age). The variance inflation factors (VIF) and tolerance factors for each of the single predictor variable were no larger than 4 (ranging between 1.1 and 2.6) and no smaller than 0.25 (ranging between 0.39 and 0.95), respectively, suggesting no collinearity between independent variables. The results of the final regression models are presented in Table 1.
Blocs of predictors | Objective health indicators | Subjective health indicators | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 ( | Model 2 ( | Model 3 ( | Model 1 ( | Model 2 ( | Model 3 ( | |
1st block: NFES | ||||||
PD | .22** | .09 | .09 | .31*** | .24*** | .24*** |
CRP | .00 | .01 | .01 | −.04 | −.04 | −.04 |
DRP | −.04 | .00 | .00 | .14 | .16* | .16* |
CP | .07 | .07 | .07 | .12* | .12* | .12* |
2nd block: HI | ||||||
Presence of illness | .57*** | .57*** | .32*** | .32*** | ||
3rd block: CV | ||||||
Gender | .05 | .01 | ||||
Age | .03 | −.03 | ||||
Adjusted | .048 | .364 | .362 | .157 | .251 | .246 |
.061** | .314*** | .003 | .169*** | .095*** | .001 | |
ES (Cohen’s | 0.06 | 0.46 | — | 0.21 | 0.11 | — |
4.51** | 33.10*** | 23.79*** | 14.04*** | 19.80*** | 14.11*** |
Three models of hierarchical multiple regression analyses with subscales of physical health (PHS) as the dependent variables (
p < .05.
p < .01.
p < .001.
Note: NFES = nuclear family emotional system; PD = personal distress; DRP = destructive relationship with a partner; CRP = constructive relationship with a partner; CP = child’s problems; HI = health issues; CV = control variables.
Analysis unraveled quite apparent differences between the results of regression analysis when predicting objective and subjective health indicators in terms of significant independent variables and effect size. Although in the first model personal distress, the only scale of NFES, significantly predicted objective health, its effect size was small and after adding the presence of illness into the regression the personal distress lost its predictive value. The final model explained 36% of the variance of adults’ objective health and the only significant predictor in the context of other independent variables was the presence of illness: those adults who have diagnosed illness reports more objective indicators of health’s problems. Differently, in the regression analysis of subjective health three scales of NFES sustained their significant predictive values after adding the presence of illness and the effect size of the latter was small when the effect size of NFES was medium. The final model explained 25% of the variance of the dependent variable and revealed that higher personal distress, more signs of a destructive relationship with a partner, more severe child’s problems, and presence of illness predict more indicators of subjectively evaluated physical health’s problems. The similarity between both models was associated to control variables (gender and age) – neither of them had predictive power and the effect size was equal to zero in both cases.
The hierarchical multiple regression analysis was repeated with the total score of NFFS instead of its scales aiming to examine the predictive value of the NFES as a whole (see Table 2).
Blocs of predictors | Objective health indicators | Subjective health indicators | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 ( | Model 2 ( | Model 3 ( | Model 1 ( | Model 2 ( | Model 3 ( | |
1st block: NFES | ||||||
Total score | .16** | .10* | .10* | .35*** | .32*** | .32*** |
2nd block: HI | ||||||
Presence of illness | .59*** | .59*** | .34*** | .35*** | ||
3rd block: CV | ||||||
Gender | .05 | .00 | ||||
Age | .03 | −.04 | ||||
Adjusted | .020 | .363 | .361 | .116 | .232 | .228 |
.024** | .344*** | .003 | .120*** | .117*** | .002 | |
ES (Cohen’s | 0.02 | 0.52 | — | 0.14 | 0.13 | — |
6.89** | 81.08*** | 40.74*** | 38.05*** | 43.33*** | 21.73*** |
Three models of hierarchical multiple regression analyses with subscales of physical health (PHS) as the dependent variables (
The results presented in Table 2 are very similar to those in Table 1, nevertheless, one difference was found. When predicting objective health, the NFES (total score) sustained significant predictive value after adding the presence of illness into the equation. Thus, the worse objective health of adults is predicted by the worse NFES and presence of illness, although the effect size of the first was small and of the second one was large.
The objective of the study was to examine the prognostic values of interparental relationship quality observed during childhood, DoS, and satisfaction with a current couple relationship on adults’ psychological well-being.
Lithuanian online survey software program (http://www.apklausk.lt) was used to design and host the survey in 2018. The first web page of the survey covered a short description and information about the purpose of the study, voluntary participation, opportunity to withdraw oneself from the study at any time, confidentiality, data protection as well as the contacts of the researcher.
There were three main inclusion criteria for participation in the study: being 18–55 years old, growing with both parents during childhood, and being in a romantic relationship at the moment of participation in the study for at least one year. The final sample consisted of 905 respondents who satisfied all inclusion criteria and who consented to their data being used in the study. Ninety two percent (
The research objective was implemented by running six four-step hierarchical multiple regressions for each subscale of PWBS (Autonomy, Environmental mastery, Personal growth, Positive relations, Purpose in life, Self-acceptance) and PWBS total score as the dependent variable. Each hierarchical multiple regression analysis consisted of four blocks of independent variables which were subscales of interparental relationship quality (Destructive relationship, Harmonious relationship, Avoidant relationship), DoS (Emotional reactivity, I-position, Emotional cutoff, Fusion with others), satisfaction with couple relationship quality (Satisfaction with an emotion-focused relationship, Satisfaction with a behavior-focused relationship) as well as control variables (gender, age, and education). The variance inflation factors (VIF) and tolerance factors for each of the single predictor variable were no larger than 4 (ranging between 1.0 and 3.5) and no smaller than 0.25 (ranging between 0.29 and 0.96), respectively suggesting no collinearity between independent variables. The results of the final regression models are presented in Table 3.
Blocs of predictors | Autonomy | Environ-mental mastery | Personal growth | Positive relations | Purpose in life | Self-acceptance | Well-being (total score) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st block: IPRQ | |||||||
DR | .01 | −.04 | .06 | .07 | −.02 | −.01 | .02 |
HR | .04 | .13** | −.01 | .08 | .11* | .12** | .10** |
AR | .02 | .02 | .04 | .05* | .06* | .03 | .06* |
2nd block: DoS | |||||||
ER | −.04 | −.22*** | −.01 | −.14*** | −09* | −.14*** | −.14*** |
IP | −.56*** | −.23*** | −.30*** | −.11*** | −.21*** | −.30*** | −.35*** |
EC | −.14*** | −.24*** | −.25*** | −.43*** | −.30*** | −.20*** | −.33*** |
FO | −.10** | .01 | −.05 | .10** | .06 | −.03 | .00 |
3rd block: CRS | |||||||
SEFR | −.01 | .06 | .03 | .10* | −.01 | .24*** | .09* |
SBFR | .02 | .14*** | .01 | .01 | .08 | .03 | .06 |
4th block: CV | |||||||
Gender | −.02 | .04 | −.04 | .06* | −.00 | .04 | .02 |
Age | −.06* | .07* | −.13*** | .02 | −.11** | −.01 | −.04 |
Education | −.01 | −.03 | .17*** | .05 | .11*** | .06* | .09*** |
Adjusted | .45 | .47 | .26 | .44 | .30 | .46 | .57 |
62.81*** | 67.17*** | 27.73*** | 59.03*** | 33.25*** | 66.32*** | 102.58*** |
Final models of hierarchical multiple regression analyses with subscales of psychological well-being (PWBS) as the dependent variables (
The results revealed that 44.8% of the variance of the participants’ autonomy can be attributed to the main three blocks of predictors tested in the analysis. Only 0.4% of the variance can be explained by control variables and the change in
The results of hierarchical multiple regression analysis predicting environmental mastery revealed that all four models were statistically significant (
All four models predicting personal growth were statistically significant (
The results of the prediction of positive relations were similar to those predicting previous dependent variables as all four models were significant (
The four models predicting purpose in life were statistically significant (
The results predicting self-acceptance did not distinguish from previous ones. The four models predicting the dependent variable were statistically significant (
Finally, the results of regression analysis with PWBS total score as the dependent variable were in line with those predicting separate scales of PWBS. The block of DoS scales had the strongest effect (explained 31.5% of the variance and presented a large effect size,
The objective of the study was to examine a complex mediation model that includes the triangulation and family-of-origin emotional system (FOES) perceived during childhood, DoS, and satisfaction of current couple relationship as the mediators between retrospectively assessed interparental communication and adult children’s physical and emotional health.
The online questionnaire was generated using SoSci Survey [38] and was made available to users via www.soscisurvey.de in 2020. Respondents were recruited using two methods: (1) posting an invitation to participate in the study using the web link for the survey on a social web network; (2) addressing schools with a request to disseminate the web link to the survey on schools’ electronic platforms designed for parents. The first web page of the survey covered detailed informed consent information. At the end of the informed consent, respondents were asked to accept or to decline the terms described in the document.
There were three main inclusion conditions for participation in the study: being 18 years or older and being in a romantic relationship lasting for at least one year at the moment of participation in the study. The sample consisted of 257 respondents most of whom were women (
Table 4 presents basic descriptive statistics and correlations among the study variables (total scores) that were included in the mediation path model analysis.
Variables | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | 5. | 6. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Interparental relationship quality | — | 72.86 | 17.91 | |||||
2. Triangulation | −.68*** | — | 53.20 | 16.53 | ||||
3. Family-of-origin emotional system | −.66*** | .44*** | — | 57.86 | 18.73 | |||
4. Differentiation of self | −.24** | .27*** | .26*** | — | 139.76 | 27.51 | ||
5. Couple relationship satisfaction | .31*** | −.15* | −.33*** | −.31*** | — | 95.58 | 26.63 | |
6. Physical health | .15* | −.26*** | −.11 | −.30*** | .08 | — | 81.84 | 13.91 |
7. Emotional health | .32*** | −.35*** | −.30*** | −.58*** | .37*** | .46*** | 67.05 | 20.46 |
Descriptive statistics and correlations among study variables included in mediation model analysis (
Correlation analysis demonstrated statistically significant correlations (
Next, the multiple mediation model was established to test the direct and indirect effects of independent variables on adults’ physical and emotional health. Figure 1 demonstrates the theoretical path mediation model based on the BFST. According to the theory it was expected that family-of-origin dynamics (interparental relationship quality, triangulation, and FOES) will have an indirect effect on adult children’s health through DoS and satisfaction of couple relationship. On the other hand, it was anticipated that FOES and triangulation will play as the mediators in the association between interparental relationship quality and adult children’s DoS.
The theoretical path mediation model of associations among the interparental relationship quality, triangulations, FOES, DoS, couple relationship satisfaction, and adults’ health.
The statistical analysis consisted of two steps: testing for model fit and for mediation with bootstrapping. According to the theory, the initial model was set to be recursive and to include paths from every independent variable to the supposed mediator and the dependent variables. However, after the correlation analysis revealed no significant correlations between FOES as well as couple relationship satisfaction and physical health, the paths were removed from couple relationship satisfaction and FOES to adults’ physical health. Figure 2 presents the results of the model for adults’ health demonstrating significant direct effects.
The path mediation model of associations among the interparental relationship quality, triangulation, FOES, DoS, couple relationship satisfaction, and adults’ physical as well as emotional health.
The mediation model provided an excellent fit to the data:
To explore multiple mediations in detail, the estimates of specific indirect effects and their confidence intervals were calculated separately (see Table 5). Based on the bootstrapping confidence intervals, significant indirect effects (full mediation) were shown from interparental relationship quality through triangulation and family emotional system on the DoS as well as through the FOES on couple relationship satisfaction. Although interparental relationship quality significantly predicted triangulation and FOES and explained a considerable part of their variance (46% and 37%, respectively), the independent variable as well as both mediators explained only 9% of the DoS variance.
Mediation hypothesis | Direct effect | Indirect effect | 95% CI | Results |
---|---|---|---|---|
IRPQ→T → DoS | .03 ( | −.20* | [−.36; −.05] | Full mediation |
IRPQ→ FOES→DoS | .03 ( | −.22** | [−.37; −.08] | Full mediation |
IRPQ→ FOES→CRS | .10 ( | .21* | [.07; .36] | Full mediation |
FOES→DoS → CRS | −.21* | −.07* | [−.13; −.02] | Partial mediation |
IRPQ→DoS → EH | .02 ( | −.02 ( | [−.13; .08] | No mediation |
IRPQ→CRS → EH | .02 ( | .02 ( | [−.01; .08] | No mediation |
T → DoS → EH | −.16* | −.12* | [−.21; −.03] | Partial mediation |
DoS → CRS → EH | −.48*** | −.03** | [−.06; −.01] | Partial mediation |
IRPQ→T → DoS → EH | .02 ( | .07* | [.02; .13] | Full mediation |
IRPQ→ FOES→DoS → EH | .02 ( | .08** | [.03; .14] | Full mediation |
IRPQ→ FOES→DoS → CRS → EH | .02 ( | .01* | [.00; .02] | Full mediation |
T → DoS → PH | −.22* | −.04* | [−.08; −.01] | Partial mediation |
IRPQ→DoS → PH | −.07 ( | −.01 ( | [−.05; .03] | No mediation |
IRPQ→T → DoS → PH | −.07 ( | .03* | [.01; .05] | Full mediation |
IRPQ→ FOES→DoS → PH | −.07 ( | .03** | [.01; .05] | Full mediation |
Direct and indirect effects in the mediation models.
Full mediation was found assessing multiple mediation models demonstrating that interparental communication impacts adult children’s physical and emotional health indirectly through the mediators: triangulation, FOES, DoS, and satisfaction with current couple relationships in the case of emotional health. Interestingly, retrospectively evaluated triangulation in childhood had both significant indirect (through the mediator DoS) and direct effect on adults’ physical and emotional health.
The primary aim of this chapter was to present and discuss the results of three studies based on systemic ideas proposed by the BFST [17, 18]. According to the theory [17], interparental as well as parent–child interactional dynamics profoundly affect family members’ psychological, social, and even physical functioning. DoS is a core phenomenon linking intrapsychic and interpersonal relationships as well as between-generational transmissions of some interactional patterns that are repeated in different generations again and again. Partners alongside some level of DoS unconsciously bring into the couple’s life interactional patterns perceived and experienced in a family-of-origin thus shaping specific nuclear family emotional system. Lower levels of partners’ DoS accounts for the development of destructive interactions and consequently adverse family emotional system. Children in such a family are at risk to be involved in interparental conflicts through the triangulation process and to develop accordingly lower level of DoS. Whereas Bowen suggested that any relational, mental, and physical health problem can be explained by interactions of the mentioned phenomena, three studies presented in this chapter were to explore the significance of retrospectively evaluated FOES as well as triangulation, DoS, NFES and satisfaction with couple relationship for adults’ health and psychological well-being.
The physical health in Study 1 was evaluated through subjective indicators such as satisfaction with own physical health as well as objective indicators such as using medications due to health problems. The results revealed a quite substantial difference in the role of the nuclear family emotional system on objective and subjective indicators of adults’ physical health. NFES explained only 10 percent of the variance of objective indicators and almost the third (32%) of subjective indicators. The more severe personal distress, the more significant problems of a child, and the more destructive relationship with a partner predicted worse subjective health indicators. In general, the high number of personal and interactional problems in the family had a negative effect on the subjective evaluation of personal health. The results confirm the assumption of BFST [18] that the family emotional system reflecting the generated level of anxiety and problems in the family system influences the physical functioning of adult family members. However, as mentioned before, although the higher personal distress and the higher total score of NFES were significantly associated with worse objective health indicators, the overall score of NFES explained only 10% of the dependent variable’s variance. The results are ambiguous for two reasons. First, the state of physical health did not relate to couple discord and less constructive couple communication, although many studies demonstrated that dyadic interaction has an impact on personal health outcomes [1, 2, 3, 39, 40]. One possible explanation for such results could be related to the health measures used in the studies. The respondents were asked to report their objective physical health indicators such as physician visit frequency, the use of medications due to health problems, and reduction of working capacity due to a disease or other health problems. The cited research used subjective evaluations of physical health. Our study demonstrated that despite a significant moderate correlation (
Study 3 helped to look more in-depth on the associations between different family interactional variables and adults’ physical as well as emotional health. The main goal was to examine a complex mediation model based on the BFST showing that family-of-origin dynamics (interparental relationship quality, triangulation, and FOES) in the past will have an indirect effect on adult children’s health through DoS and satisfaction of present couple relationship. The results confirmed the Bowen’s proposition, that family members’ health (physical and emotional) in the present can be explained by the significant interactions in family-of-origin in the past as well as in the present. Specifically, interparental communication through the mediators – triangulation, family emotional system, and DoS – had an indirect effect on adults’ physical health. In the case of emotional health, the mediation model was very similar except for additional mediator – satisfaction with couple relationship. More interestingly, the FOES did not have a significant correlation with adults’ physical health and the result was very similar to that obtained in Study 1, demonstrating a very low correlation between NFES and adults’ physical health. On the other hand, triangulation experienced in the family-of-origin not only had an indirect effect through the mediator DoS but also had a direct effect on adults’ health (both physical and emotional). Lastly, the mediation model demonstrated the significance of DoS predicting adults’ health as well as mediating between other family-of-origin variables and adults’ health. Such results corroborate postulates of The BFST that different interactional processes experienced in the family-of-origin have a critical role in adult children’s emotional well-being and physical functioning.
The scientific data on associations between different family-of-origin variables and adults’ psychological and physical functioning are rather extensive, however somewhat inconsistent. For example, Stuart-Parrigon and Kerns [41] found that more severe partners’ conflict does not predict later child anxiety that can be considered as a component of DoS and an essential criterion of psychological functioning. However, Cowan and Cowan [42] noted that the intervention aimed at the marital relationship’s improvement has the potential to shape parent–child communication as well as a child’s functioning. The similar results were found by other authors [43, 44, 45] showing that better parent–child relationships are found among the adults whose relationship with a partner is better. Those studies confirm the spill-over hypothesis proposing a positive association between interparental relationship quality and parent–child relationship quality [43, 46] that in part confirms Bowen’s statement regarding the interparental communication as a channel to children’s DoS.
Additionally, research data show that parents’ ability to discuss family and partners’ relationship issues openly and constructively reduce the feelings of triangulation in children that eventually impair their well-being [10, 47, 48] and is positively associated with young adult children’s higher self-esteem and less perceived stress [49, 50]. Several longitudinal studies [51, 52] confirm the data produced by cross-sectional studies providing empirical evidence about the significant correlations between family relationships during adolescence and functioning in adulthood. More specifically to the BFST, Peleg [6] demonstrated that individuals who have experienced more stressful life events in childhood and adolescence are of lower DoS and more prone to be involved in intergenerational triangulation, which, in turn, leads to inadequate coping with future stressful events. Such results alongside the results obtained in Study 3 tend to the conclusion that good interparental relationship quality creates a positive emotional environment for children and serves as a protective factor for children’s well-being in adulthood. On contrary, poor interparental relationship quality is a detrimental factor contributing to the development of the negative family emotional system as well as to the involvement of children in the interparental discord through the triangulation process and acting as a risk factor for children’s physical and emotional functioning in adulthood. However, as was mentioned before, both studies (Study 1 and 3) demonstrated quite a weak effect of family variables on adults’ physical health, as they explained only 10 to 12 percent of the dependent variable’s variance. This means that even a higher number of independent variables in Study 3 produced very similar results as in Study 1. Such results might question the posture of the BFST regarding the effect of family on its members’ physical health. More studies are needed to re-examine the associations and look for other potential mediators linking family interactions to its members’ physical health status.
Interestingly, separate elements of DoS had different prediction power for the particular components of well-being. However, two almost equally strongest predictors of every component of adults’ well-being were I-position and emotional cutoff, suggesting that a higher level of well-being can be found among those who have a clearer self-view, are somewhat autonomous, and maintain warm relationships with significant others [53]. In some other studies, the emotional cutoff is found to predict marital problems and dyadic adjustment [20, 53] leading to lower satisfaction with life which reflects worse psychological well-being [54]. The emotional cutoff is a process of emotional alienation from parents, siblings, and other family members with whom a person has unresolved emotional and attachment issues. The decision to reduce or cut off emotional and/or physical contact with significant others is a way to cope with the anxiety that is generated by these relationships. However, emotional cutoff does not lead to problem resolution. Rather, they become dormant and prompt greater emotional reactivity as well as fusion with current partner/spouse. Thus, adults who are capable of maintaining close and satisfactory relationships with the members of the family-of-origin have the potential to expand their emotional support system and to cope better in their current personal, social, and professional life.
Although DoS was the strongest predictor of adults’ well-being, higher interparental relationship quality (specifically harmonious relationship and less avoidant relationship), as well as satisfaction with an emotion-focused couple relationship played a significant role in predicting some of the components and the total score of the psychosocial well-being as well. This suggests that adults who growing up observed supportive, affectionate, committed, and constructive interactions between parent figures and are more satisfied with emotional communication with their partner in adulthood are more prone to a higher sense of well-being. Study 3 demonstrated that interparental relationship quality perceived in childhood indirectly through the family emotional system and DoS relates to satisfaction with couple relationships in adulthood. Thus, it can be assumed, as Bowen suggested [17], that patterns of interaction between partners through triangulation, family emotional system, and DoS are transferred through generations. In adulthood, an individual with low DoS has difficulties in creating and sustaining satisfactory relationships [16, 20, 53] because one could not develop appropriate skills in the family-of-origin. Thus, adults’ relationship problems, alongside with high vulnerability to stress, eventually can lead to broader psychosocial functioning difficulties and a low sense of well-being [55].
The findings propose that adults’ DoS has a significant effect on their well-being both directly and indirectly – higher DoS leads to a more satisfying relationship with a partner which, in turn, has a positive impact on adults’ well-being. On the other hand, higher DoS creates a positive context for a person’s functioning in daily life. Results conform to other research body, providing evidence for the role of DoS as well as couple relationship in adults’ psychosocial functioning [4, 5, 6, 16, 54]. Adults, who have reasonable control over their emotions in stressful situations as well as in relationships with others, and who can develop and maintain healthy and harmonious relationships while sustaining autonomous and clearly defined self, may tend to make better personal and relational decisions leading to a better adjustment during life shifts as well as a more satisfactory life in general. In line with this reasoning, the findings support the postulates of the BFST [17] regarding DoS as a central mechanism by which personal, as well as relational well-being, is generated. The DoS is a product of interactional processes in the family-of-origin and is transmitted over generations.
Summarizing the results of the three studies, some general conclusions can be drawn:
As Bowen postulated, the family emotional system that develops gradually in the family-of-origin depending on the interactional patterns between partners as well as between parents and children significantly relates to the psychological well-being of adult children. Adults who were growing up in the family system shaped by parents whose communication was marked by intense discord, conflicts, lack of mutual respect, and who were involving children into their conflicts, tend to develop lower DoS and have poorer emotional health as well as feebler psychological well-being.
Although there were found some associations between adults’ physical health and the communication patterns in the family-of-origin and nuclear family, the data do not allow to judge regarding the family’s role unambiguously, as the phenomena under investigation explained a very small part of the physical health’s variance. Nevertheless, the results revealed that experience of triangulation in the family-of-origin might have a long-lasting detrimental impact on personal health.
DoS is a phenomenon that significantly relates to adults’ satisfaction with couple relationships, emotional health, and psychological well-being. However, the notion of the BFST, that DoS is a product of the communication processes progressing in the family-of-origin might be reconsidered, as researched family variables, although significantly correlated with DoS, together explained a very small portion of the variance of adults’ DoS. Such results prompt considering and looking for other developmental variables that together with phenomena described in the BFST shape the DoS.
Acknowledgments to Simona Celiauskaite, who participated in the development of Physical Health Scale and recruitment of the participants in Study 1.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. We uphold a flexible Copyright Policy, guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
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\\n\\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\\n\\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
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\\n\\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\\n\\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\\n\\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\\n\\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
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\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\\n\\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
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\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\nTERMINATION
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\\n\\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\\n\\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nMISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\\n\\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\\n\\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\\n\\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
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\n\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\n\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\n\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\n\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\n\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\n\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\n\nThe Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\n\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\nAUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\n\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\nTERMINATION
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\n\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\n\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\n\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\nMISCELLANEOUS
\n\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\n\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\n\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\n\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. 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In recent years, the application of these fluids in electronic cooling systems seems prospective. In the present study, the laminar mixed convection heat transfer of different water–copper nanofluids through an inclined ribbed microchannel––as a common electronic cooling system in industry––was investigated numerically, using a finite volume method. The middle section of microchannel’s right wall was ribbed, and at a higher temperature compared to entrance fluid. The modeling was carried out for Reynolds number of 50, Richardson numbers from 0.1 to 10, inclination angles ranging from 0° to 90°, and nanoparticles’ volume fractions of 0.0–0.04. The influences of nanoparticle volume concentration, inclination angle, buoyancy and shear forces, and rib’s shape on the hydraulics and thermal behavior of nanofluid flow were studied. The results were portrayed in terms of pressure, temperature, coefficient of friction, and Nusselt number profiles as well as streamlines and isotherm contours. 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The first part gives a highlight about the dissertation design. The second part discusses about qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. The last part illustrates the general research framework. The purpose of this section is to indicate how the research was conducted throughout the study periods.",book:{id:"8511",slug:"cyberspace",title:"Cyberspace",fullTitle:"Cyberspace"},signatures:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew",authors:[{id:"292841",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassu",middleName:null,surname:"Jilcha Sileyew",slug:"kassu-jilcha-sileyew",fullName:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew"}]},{id:"70973",title:"Social Media, Ethics and the Privacy Paradox",slug:"social-media-ethics-and-the-privacy-paradox",totalDownloads:2517,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Today’s information/digital age offers widespread use of social media. The use of social media is ubiquitous and cuts across all age groups, social classes and cultures. However, the increased use of these media is accompanied by privacy issues and ethical concerns. These privacy issues can have far-reaching professional, personal and security implications. Ultimate privacy in the social media domain is very difficult because these media are designed for sharing information. Participating in social media requires persons to ignore some personal, privacy constraints resulting in some vulnerability. The weak individual privacy safeguards in this space have resulted in unethical and undesirable behaviors resulting in privacy and security breaches, especially for the most vulnerable group of users. An exploratory study was conducted to examine social media usage and the implications for personal privacy. We investigated how some of the requirements for participating in social media and how unethical use of social media can impact users’ privacy. Results indicate that if users of these networks pay attention to privacy settings and the type of information shared and adhere to universal, fundamental, moral values such as mutual respect and kindness, many privacy and unethical issues can be avoided.",book:{id:"8423",slug:"security-and-privacy-from-a-legal-ethical-and-technical-perspective",title:"Security and Privacy From a Legal, Ethical, and Technical Perspective",fullTitle:"Security and Privacy From a Legal, Ethical, and Technical Perspective"},signatures:"Nadine Barrett-Maitland and Jenice Lynch",authors:[{id:"311821",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Nadine",middleName:null,surname:"Barrett-Maitland",slug:"nadine-barrett-maitland",fullName:"Nadine Barrett-Maitland"},{id:"311822",title:"Ms.",name:"Jenice",middleName:null,surname:"Lynch",slug:"jenice-lynch",fullName:"Jenice Lynch"}]},{id:"76652",title:"Internet of Things and Machine Learning Applications for Smart Precision Agriculture",slug:"internet-of-things-and-machine-learning-applications-for-smart-precision-agriculture",totalDownloads:666,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Agriculture forms the major part of our Indian economy. In the current world, agriculture and irrigation are the essential and foremost sectors. It is a mandatory need to apply information and communication technology in our agricultural industries to aid agriculturalists and farmers to improve vice all stages of crop cultivation and post-harvest. It helps to enhance the country’s G.D.P. Agriculture needs to be assisted by modern automation to produce the maximum yield. The recent development in technology has a significant impact on agriculture. The evolutions of Machine Learning (ML) and the Internet of Things (IoT) have supported researchers to implement this automation in agriculture to support farmers. ML allows farmers to improve yield make use of effective land utilisation, the fruitfulness of the soil, level of water, mineral insufficiencies control pest, trim development and horticulture. Application of remote sensors like temperature, humidity, soil moisture, water level sensors and pH value will provide an idea to on active farming, which will show accuracy as well as practical agriculture to deal with challenges in the field. This advancement could empower agricultural management systems to handle farm data in an orchestrated manner and increase the agribusiness by formulating effective strategies. This paper highlights contribute to an overview of the modern technologies deployed to agriculture and suggests an outline of the current and potential applications, and discusses the challenges and possible solutions and implementations. Besides, it elucidates the problems, specific potential solutions, and future directions for the agriculture sector using Machine Learning and the Internet of things.",book:{id:"9977",slug:"iot-applications-computing",title:"IoT Applications Computing",fullTitle:"IoT Applications Computing"},signatures:"R. Sivakumar, B. Prabadevi, G. 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In the end a performance analysis of different routing protocols is made using a WLAN and a ZigBee based Wireless Sensor Network.",book:{id:"6038",slug:"wireless-sensor-networks-insights-and-innovations",title:"Wireless Sensor Networks",fullTitle:"Wireless Sensor Networks - Insights and Innovations"},signatures:"Noman Shabbir and Syed Rizwan Hassan",authors:[{id:"206600",title:"Mr.",name:"Noman",middleName:null,surname:"Shabbir",slug:"noman-shabbir",fullName:"Noman Shabbir"},{id:"206601",title:"Mr.",name:"Syed Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Hassan",slug:"syed-rizwan-hassan",fullName:"Syed Rizwan Hassan"}]},{id:"50065",title:"Heat Pipes for Computer Cooling Applications",slug:"heat-pipes-for-computer-cooling-applications",totalDownloads:5159,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"There is an increasing demand for efficient cooling techniques in computer industry to dissipate the associated heat from the newly designed and developed computer processors to accommodate for their enhanced processing power and faster operations. Such a demand necessitates researchers to explore efficient approaches for central processing unit (CPU) cooling. Consequently, heat pipes can be a viable and promising solution for this challenge. In this chapter, a CPU thermal design power (TDP), cooling methods of electronic equipments, heat pipe theory and operation, heat pipes components, such as the wall material, the wick structure, and the working fluid, are presented. Moreover, we review experimentally, analytically and numerically the types of heat pipes with their applications for electronic cooling in general and the computer cooling in particular. Summary tables that compare the content, methodology, and types of heat pipes are presented. Due to the numerous advantages of the heat pipe in electronic cooling, this chapter definitely leads to further research in computer cooling applications.",book:{id:"5150",slug:"electronics-cooling",title:"Electronics Cooling",fullTitle:"Electronics Cooling"},signatures:"Mohamed H.A. 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