\r\n\tThe main idea for any data or information processing system for those aspects of aggregating the data or computing the hierarchy of various process elements is that they should not only be machine-readable but also machine-understandable. Moreover, an adequate knowledge-based system is perceived to be, on the one hand, understandable by people, and on the other hand understandable by the machines. \r\n\tAs devices become smarter and produce data about themselves, it will become increasingly important for scientists to take advantage of more powerful tools and/or data integration techniques to help provide a common standard for information dissemination across the different platforms. To this end, the content of this book shows that technologies such as the semantic web, machine learning, deep learning, natural language processing, and learning analytics which encompasses the wider spectrum of the Linked Open Data (LOD) are of paramount. Therefore, the work presents two main drivers for the Linked Open Data technologies: (i) encoding knowledge about specific data and process domains, and (ii) advanced reasoning and analysis of the big data at a more conceptual level. \r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art within the Linked Open Data and the benefits of the methods – ranging from the semantics-aware techniques that exploit knowledge kept in (big) data to improve data reasoning (big analysis) beyond the possibilities offered by most traditional data mining techniques.
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He also completed a Master\\'s degree in Technology Management in 2011 and a Bachelors degree in Computer Science in 2007. He is a MIET member at the Institution of Engineering and Technology, UK. and a Graduate Member in the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, IEEE. He is a devoted researcher to Industry and Academia in operational, hardware and software fields of computing in areas such as Data Science, Machine Learning, Artificial Intelligence, Big Data and Advanced Analytics, Software Development and Programming, and Business Process Management. Therefore, Kingsley has had the opportunity to do case studies and work in interdisciplinary and cross-cultural teams of various business and academic units that serve multiple industries. This includes serving as a software programming lab tutor for undergraduate students. He also serves as editorial board member and reviewer in reputable journals and conferences and has contributed to research and project outcomes by assessing and evaluating their impacts upon the scientific and industrial communities. It is Kingsley\\'s personal mission to foster sustainable technical research and provide solutions through critical thinking, creative problem solving and cross-functional collaboration. He has also served as principal organizer and participated in organizing special session workshops, presentations, research methods, and statistical analysis topics in several conferences and workshops. The outcomes of his research have been published as Journal Articles, Book, Book Chapters, Conference Proceedings in high index and reputable Journals, Publishers, and Conferences in the areas of Computing and Educational Innovation. His Research interests include Process Mining, Business Process Modelling and Automation, Learning Analytics and Systems, Semantic Web Technologies, Knowledge Management, Big Data Analysis and Process Querying, Internet Applications and Ontology. Kingsley is a Data Architect in the Writing Lab of Tecnologico de Monterrey. He is also a Member of the Machine Intelligence Research Lab (MIRLabs), USA, and a Member of the IEEE SMCS Technical Committee on Soft Computing.",institutionString:"Tecnologico de Monterrey, Mexico",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"305835",firstName:"Ketrin",lastName:"Polesak",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/305835/images/9351_n.png",email:"ketrin@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"63149",title:"The Use of Platelet-Rich Fibrin in Bone Grafting",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79825",slug:"the-use-of-platelet-rich-fibrin-in-bone-grafting",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Platelet concentrates (PCs) for surgical use are innovative tools of regenerative medicine and dentistry and were widely studied in oral and maxillofacial surgery. PCs are blood extracts, applied to surgical sites, injuries, or wounds, a safe and effective way to promote soft tissue healing and bone growth. The most frequently used substrate, platelet-rich fibrin (PRF) is a member of platelet concentrates developed by Choukroun and colleagues [1]. PRF is an autologous matrix, in which cytokines and cells are released after a short period [2].
\n
The aim of this chapter is to describe the potential functions of PRF for bone grafting in oral and maxillofacial surgery.
\n
There are different types of PRF in local use.
\n
\n
\n
2. Pure platelet-rich fibrin (P-PRF)
\n
Pure platelet-rich fibrin (P-PRF) in other terms leukocyte-poor platelet-rich fibrin is a preparation without leukocytes having a high-density fibrin network. This platelet concentrate exists in a strongly activated gel form. It cannot be injected and used like traditional fibrin glues. On the other hand, with its strong fibrin matrix facility, P-PRF can be handled like a real solid material for several applications [3].
\n
During preparation, only very low amounts of leucocytes are collected because of the specific separator gel, which is used to obtain P-PRF. However, the platelet collection level is high, and the preservation of the platelets during the procedure seems to be acceptable [4]. The main disadvantage of this platelet concentrate protocol is its cost and complex procedure if it is compared to the other forms of PRF, which are available nowadays [3].
\n
\n
\n
3. Leukocyte and platelet-rich fibrin (L-PRF)
\n
The second platelet concentrate type is leukocyte and platelet-rich fibrin (L-PRF), which is known as leukocyte and platelet-rich fibrin concentrate, called Choukroun’s PRF. This product was invented by Choukroun in 2000 [1, 2]. The main concept of this technique differs from the other protocols. Patient’s blood is taken and immediately softly centrifuged. This provides the formation of a fibrin clot in the middle of the tube, between the red blood cell base at the bottom and the acellular plasma at the top. This clot includes nearly all the platelets and more than 50% of the leukocytes from the initial blood harvest [5, 6]. The high quantity of leukocytes provides immune and antibacterial properties, wound healing and growth factor regulation. But, it depends on which leukocytes, in which quantity and in which state the centrifugation process can softly activate the white blood cells [7]. This product therefore only exists in an activated form and cannot be injected like a suspension. Therefore, L-PRF is a practical solid material with strong fibrin scaffold and used in oral and maxillofacial surgery, periodontology, implant dentistry and ear nose throat surgery [6].
\n
\n
\n
4. Advanced platelet-rich fibrin (A-PRF)
\n
The amount of WBCs effect vascularization and bone remodeling. As a result, researchers made new modifications in the centrifugation speeds and times to prevent cell loss within the PRF matrix [8]. These recent modifications of the PRF protocol have led to the improvement of advanced platelet-rich fibrin (A-PRF), which uses lower G-forces to gain higher growth factors compared to PRF [9]. It maintains higher amount of WBCs in the fibrin matrix and has special glass tubes, which are designed to make clotting faster. After the centrifugation, the tubes are removed and placed in their holders and left for 5 min to start clot formation. The fibrin clot which is rich with WBCs provides higher growth factors and recent research emphasizes that A-PRF enhances collagen matrix synthesis and supplement of progenitor cells [8].
\n
\n
\n
5. Injectable platelet-rich fibrin (i-PRF)
\n
One of the recent developments in the PRF technology is injectable PRF (i-PRF). Standard PRF is prepared as a gel which is inconvenient to inject [10]. i-PRF protocol necessitates short centrifugation period in order to produce a liquid platelet concentrate, which includes primarily liquid fibrinogen and thrombin prior to fibrin formation [11]. The plastic tubes with hydrophobic surface are used, and therefore coagulation process does not effectively start. Hence, all the blood components reach the top of the tube under the centrifugation force with short centrifugation time (i.e., 2–4 min). The light yellow-colored layer, which is the combination of plasma and platelets, is aspirated from the top of the tube to obtain i-PRF. Nowadays, it is used with bone grafts to keep graft particles tightly encapsulated in the fibrin matrix. With the coagulation process, i-PRF forms a gel consistency holding bone graft together. Also, the release of growth factor is beneficial for the graft. This has the potential to convert any osteoconductive graft to osteopromotive, which would provide faster and better bone formation. Another type of graft prepared with i-PRF is the PRF block. For its preparation, i-PRF is mixed with a combination of bone graft and shredded PRF clot [10].
\n
\n
\n
6. Titanium prepared platelet-rich fibrin (T-PRF)
\n
Some physicians worry about damage for the patient with glass-evacuated blood collection tubes with silica activators. O’Connell emphasized that silica contact cannot be avoided with glass tubes. These silica particles are dense enough to settle in the sediment and might reach the patient when the product is used during procedures [12]. Recently, Tunali et al. used medical grade titanium tubes to produce titanium prepared platelet-rich fibrin (T-PRF) [10]. This biocompatible material was tried to eliminate the potential negative effects of silica from dry glass or glass-coated plastic tubes [12]. The research showed that T-PRF supply is a more organized network than L-PRF. Furthermore, its fibrin network covers larger area and has thicker fibrin clot. In a human study, wound healing in the palatal mucosa is found better with the T-PRF application [10].
\n
\n
\n
7. Prepared platelet-rich lysate (PRF-L)
\n
A newer application of PRF is the prepared platelet-rich lysate (PRF-L). In this technique, after PRF preparation, it is incubated at 37°C in a humidified atmosphere of 5% CO2 and 95% air. The exudate, which is collected, is referred to as PRF lysate. It is said to be a good source of several growth factors. In a study, it is found that PRF-L can significantly improve the proliferation index, collagen deposition and migration rates in chronically UVA-irradiated human dermal fibroblasts [13]. This is a new technique that requires further studies.
\n
\n
\n
8. Preparation
\n
Venous blood of patient is drawn into 10 mL, anticoagulant-free tubes and then immediately spun in a tabletop centrifuge at 3000 rpm for 10 min. Due to the lack of anticoagulant, platelet activation occurs once the blood contacts the glass tube walls and subsequently initiates the coagulation cascade. By centrifugation, fibrinogen is concentrated in the top and middle of the tube and then circulating thrombin transforms it into fibrin. This action leads to the development of a fibrin clot in the middle of the tube, between the RBCs at the bottom and serum at the top. The upper straw-colored layer is removed from the centrifuge tube and blotted to remove serum and RBC to result in a dense matrix. Timing is also critical to the success of the PRF technique. PRF must be prepared immediately before application to the surgical site (Figure 1) [1].
\n
Figure 1.
Preparation of PRF membrane. A: Collection of venous blood into the tube; B: centrifuge device; C: platelet-rich fibrin clots; D: PRF clots were pressed to obtain more dense membranes; E: PRF membranes.
\n
\n
8.1. Clinical applications of PRF in oral surgery
\n
In the past, PRF could be useful for both hemostasis and wound healing. Nowadays, sinus lift technique is considered to be one of the most common and valid procedures for the use of PRF in oral surgery. PRF is also used for augmenting the alveolar ridge, improve soft tissue healing and periodontal regeneration and preserving the alveolar ridge height after extraction. It has been studied that PRF improves wound healing in multiple extractions by reducing healing time [14].
\n
\n
8.1.1. PRF in soft tissue regeneration
\n
The use of platelet concentrates may reduce and control the risks associated with delayed bone and soft tissue healing. The success for the healing of a bone graft is certainly related with intact soft tissue coverage.
\n
Patients using antiresorptive therapies exhibit a reduced healing potential in bone and soft tissue that can lead to medication related osteonecrosis. In order to stimulate healing and obtain soft tissue coverage, PRF can be placed to the surgical or exposed area without tension. Even if there is a need for researches in this field, PRF presented valuable solutions till today [15].
\n
The other indication of PRF usage is the method of socket preservation. When implant restoration is considered after extraction of a tooth, this must be kept in mind that the resorption process starts immediately. Thus, the volume of the socket, soft tissue closure and thickness of gingiva must be protected as possible as early, for a complete and quick bone regeneration. If the wound closure and remodeling are achieved properly, implant can be placed in the desired position [15].
\n
\n
\n
8.1.2. Guided bone regeneration (GBR) (as a barrier membrane)
\n
Several oral and maxillofacial surgical procedures have used membranes for guided bone regeneration (GBR). The potential applications of PRF in this field have been shown to be effective in different clinical situations. However, this method may not be superior as a barrier membrane for regeneration when compared to conventional membranes, and therefore appropriate cases should be selected in order to benefit from the properties of PRF in GBR (Figure 2) [16, 17].
\n
Figure 2.
Enucleation of radicular cyst resulted from left central incisor tooth and apical resection were performed at the same time. A: After eliminating the whole lesions, PRF placed into the intrabony defect to accelerate healing and prevent soft tissue collapse. B and C: PRF membrane was used to cover the buccal wall of the cavity as a barrier.
\n
\n
\n
8.1.3. Sinus lift procedure
\n
Sinus lift is one of the most frequent grafting procedures in implantology and has proven to be a successful and predictable technique for providing bone height for implant placement. In the literature, no application using PRF was more studied than the sinus lift procedure. This model generating to obtain bone height, provides a closed, protected and stable environment for healing. Thus, bone healing in sinus cavity can be evaluated more accurate than the other procedures that are in contact with the oral environment [18].
\n
Subsinus cavity floored by the Schneiderian membrane following sinus lift has a capacity of bone regeneration due to the high osteogenic properties, though several bone materials can yield good results in terms of bone healing [19].
\n
Most researches have focused on bone biomaterials to improve bone quality and to accelerate healing for early operations. The main mechanism of subsinus cavity healing is to be filled with blood clot that is promoting neoangiogenesis and proliferation. Similarly, the aim of using PRF into the cavity is to provide space and optimize healing as a biologic agent [20]. The first study reported on PRF by Choukroun et al. represented that the use of PRF in addition to the bone grafts accelerated healing period for sinus floor augmentation [21]. It is important to reduce healing time before implantation.
\n
The incidence of perforation of the membrane that is a common intraoperative finding was reported ranging from 10 to 60% [22]. The rupture of the membrane can lead to postoperative complications, so has to be repaired before grafting. Otherwise, a biomaterial can migrate into the sinus cavity leading to sinus infection and impairment of healing. Some biomaterials such as collagen membrane and platelet concentrates have been commonly used to prevent these complications. In addition to the use of PRF for grafting, it is also used as an adhesion material and frequently preferred for repair of possible perforations of the schneiderian membrane during sinus lift.
\n
\n
\n
8.1.4. Grafting material for bone regeneration
\n
The acceleration of healing in bone defect is of particular interest when dental implants would be inserted in this area. Due to reduction of time, early functional loading and better primary stability of the implant will be obtained after the regeneration [19]. Thus, some biologic agents may be needed to shorten this period. For this purpose, PRF-like substances can be used. The potential of these substances as a biologic agent in oral and maxillofacial surgery relies on the growth factors stored within platelet alpha granules containing platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), insulin-like growth factor (IGF), platelet-derived angiogenic factor and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β). Moreover, PRF acts as a biological connector between different graft elements and serves as a matrix that eases forming new bone tissue into the defect. In fact, due to the lack of standardization and absence of characterization of the studied PRF materials, it is difficult to explain the exact function of platelet concentrates on bone regeneration [23].
\n
\n
\n
8.1.5. PRF for peri-implant bone defects
\n
Peri-implant bone defects are encountered as a result of peri-implantitis and secondly inadequate bone volume for implantation and thirdly immediate implantation. Although the mechanisms of peri-implantitis are considered to be bacterial accumulation or prosthetic overload of the implant, it is believed that the main mechanism of peri-implantitis is related to bone/implant interface breakdown [24].
\n
In case of small amount of bone, it is inevitable to make lateral perforation while placing implant or bone resorption around particularly the collar of the implant. In order to reinforce the bone amount around the implant to prevent resorption and gain more esthetic appearance, autogenous and/or synthetic materials can be used to cover the open surface of these implants.
\n
Peri-implant bone defects can be developed after immediate implantation (Figure 3). After the insertion of the implant in a fresh avulsion socket, a large peri-implant defect must be filled with a material to prevent soft tissue invagination [25].
\n
Figure 3.
Peri-implant bone defect after immediate implant placement. A: Buccal and palatinal bone defects around the implant; B, C: A mix of PRF and xenogeneic bone graft constituted a sticky mass; D, E: PRF with bone graft placed into the cavity; F: PRF membranes were used to cover the whole defect.
\n
For those three clinical situations, bone regeneration between the cavity/defect and implant surface can be achieved by using PRF in addition to bone grafts. With its strong fibrin architecture and specific 3D cell distribution, especially L-PRF may offer positive results when used in combination with bone biomaterials for the filling of peri-implant bone defects. On the whole, there are still only few studies published in the literature about the use of L-PRF in peri-implant bone defects [26].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
9. In brief: advantages
\n
\n
Eliminating transmission of diseases (the patient’s own blood)
Promoting soft tissue healing
Protection extraction socket against resorption and infection
Minimal invasive and inexpensive method
Role as a carrier matrix for bone grafts
Supporting neoangiogenesis
Minimal immunological reaction
As a sticky material, holding different substances together
Growth factors
\n
\n
\n
10. Conclusion
\n
PRF seems to be an accepted minimally invasive approach with good clinical results. With the ease of preparation, low cost and biologic properties, PRF could be considered as a beneficial treatment option. On the other hand, due to the lack of standardization and long-term follow up clinical studies, the major effect of PRF on bone grafting has not been explained yet.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"platelet-rich fibrin, bone healing, oral surgery, regeneration",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/63149.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/63149.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63149",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63149",totalDownloads:376,totalViews:446,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 1st 2018",dateReviewed:"June 28th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"December 19th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In this century, there are two mostly practiced techniques for bone regeneration. These are autogenous bone grafting (ABG) and guided bone regeneration (GBR). It was reported in the late 1970s that platelets have a good regenerative effects. Platelets include growth factors that increase vascularization and collagen production by cell mitosis. Recently, most of the studies have indicated that platelet-rich fibrin (PRF) is a great healing potential for bony and soft tissue that derived from patients own blood. Most beneficial effects of PRF are easily derived directly from patient’s venous blood without any ingredients, and it has a great potential for hard and soft tissue regeneration. PRF has no inflammatory effects and can be used with all kind of graft materials. When used as a membrane, it helps protecting the surgical area to stimulate the healing of soft and bone tissues.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/63149",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/63149",book:{slug:"bone-grafting-recent-advances-with-special-references-to-cranio-maxillofacial-surgery"},signatures:"Belir Atalay and Ozge Doganay",authors:[{id:"248517",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Belir",middleName:null,surname:"Atalay",fullName:"Belir Atalay",slug:"belir-atalay",email:"batalay@istanbul.edu.tr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"263197",title:"Dr.",name:"Ozge",middleName:null,surname:"Doganay",fullName:"Ozge Doganay",slug:"ozge-doganay",email:"ozgedoganay87@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Pure platelet-rich fibrin (P-PRF)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Leukocyte and platelet-rich fibrin (L-PRF)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Advanced platelet-rich fibrin (A-PRF)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Injectable platelet-rich fibrin (i-PRF)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Titanium prepared platelet-rich fibrin (T-PRF)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Prepared platelet-rich lysate (PRF-L)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Preparation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"8.1. Clinical applications of PRF in oral surgery",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"8.1.1. PRF in soft tissue regeneration",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"8.1.2. Guided bone regeneration (GBR) (as a barrier membrane)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"8.1.3. Sinus lift procedure",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"8.1.4. Grafting material for bone regeneration",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"8.1.5. PRF for peri-implant bone defects",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15",title:"9. In brief: advantages",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"10. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Dohan DM, Choukroun J, Diss A, et al. Platelet-rich fibrin (PRF): A second-generation platelet concentrate. Part I: Technological concepts and evolution. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radiology, and Endodontics. 2006;101:e37-e44\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Dohan DM, Choukroun J, Diss A, et al. Platelet-rich fibrin (PRF): A second-generation platelet concentrate. Part II: Platelet-related biologic features. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radiology, and Endodontics. 2006;101:e45-e50\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Ehrenfest DMD, Andia I, Zumstein MA, et al. Classification of platelet concentrates (platelet-rich plasma-PRP, platelet-rich fibrin-PRF) for topical and infiltrative use in orthopedic and sports medicine: Current consensus, clinical implications and perspectives. Muscles, Ligaments and Tendons Journal. 2014;4(1):3-9\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Ehrenfest DMD, Rasmusson L, Albrektsson T. Classification of platelet concentrates: From pure platelet-rich plasma (P-PRP) to leucocyte- and platelet-rich fibrin (L-PRF). Trends in Biotechnology. 2009;27(3):31\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Cano-Durán JA, Peña-Cardelles JF, Ortega-Concepción D, et al. The role of leucocyte-rich and platelet-rich fibrin (L-PRF) in the treatment of the medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaws (MRONJ). Journal of Clinical and Experimental Dentistry. 2017;9(8):e1051-e1059\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Ehrenfest DMD, Bielecki T, Jimbo R, et al. Do the fibrin architecture and leukocyte content influence the growth factor release of platelet concentrates? An evidence-based answer comparing a pure platelet-rich plasma (P-PRP) gel and a leukocyte- and platelet-rich fibrin (L-PRF). Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology. 2012;13:1145-1152\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Fioravanti C, Frustaci I, Armellin E, et al. Autologous blood preparations rich in platelets, fibrin and growth factors. Oral Implantology. 2016 Jul 23;8(4):96-113\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Miron RJ, Bishara M, Choukroun J. Basics of platelet-rich fibrin therapy. Dentistry Today. 2017 Apr;36(4):74-76\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Clark D, Rajendran Y, Paydar S, et al. Advanced platelet-rich fibrin and freeze-dried bone allograft for ridge preservation: A randomized controlled clinical trial. Journal of Periodontology. 2018;89:379-387\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Shah R, Triveni MG, Thomas R, et al. An update on the protocols and biologic actions of platelet rich fibrin in dentistry. The European Journal of Prosthodontics and Restorative Dentistry. 2017;25:64-72\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Wend S, Kubesch A, Orlowska A, et al. Reduction of the relative centrifugal force influences cell number and growth factor release within injectable PRF-based matrices. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine. 2017;28:188\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Tunalı M, Özdemir H, Küçükodacı Z, et al. A novel platelet concentrate: Titanium-prepared platelet-rich fibrin. BioMed Research International. 2014;2014:209548\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Wirohadidjojo YW, Budiyanto A, Soebono H. Platelet-rich fibrin lysate can ameliorate dysfunction of chronically UVA-irradiated human dermal fibroblasts. Yonsei Medical Journal. 2016;57(5):1282-1285\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Sclafani AP. Platelet-rich fibrin matrix for improvement of deep nasolabial folds. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology. 2010;9:66-71\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Corso M, Vervelle A, Simonpieri A. Current knowledge and perspectives for the use of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) and platelet-rich fibrin (PRF) in oral and maxillofacial surgery. Part 1: Periodontal and dentoalveolar surgery. Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology. 2012;13:1207-1230\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Khairy NM, Shendy EE, Askar NA, et al. Effect of platelet rich plasma on bone regeneration in maxillary sinus augmentation (randomized clinical trial). International Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. 2013;42(2):249-255\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Döri F, Kovács V, Arweiler NB, et al. Effect of platelet-rich plasma on the healing of intrabony defects treated with an anorganic bovine bone mineral: A pilot study. Journal of Periodontology. 2009;80(10):1599-1605\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Simonpieri A, Corso M, Vervelle A. Current knowledge and perspectives for the use of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) and platelet-rich fibrin (PRF) in oral and maxillofacial surgery. Part 2: Bone graft, implant and reconstructive surgery. Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology. 2012;13:1231-1256\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Wallace SS, Froum SJ. Effect of maxillary sinus augmentation on the survival of endosseous dental implants. A systematic review. Annals of Periodontology. 2003;8(1):328-343\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Browaeys H, Bouvry P, De Bruyn H. A literature review on biomaterials in sinus augmentation procedures. Clinical Implant Dentistry and Related Research. 2007;9(3):166-177\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Choukroun J, Diss A, Simonpieri A, et al. Platelet-rich fibrin (PRF): A second-generation platelet concentrate. Part V: Histologic evaluations of PRF effects on bone allograft maturation in sinus lift. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radiology, and Endodontics. 2006;101:299-303\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Pikos MA. Maxillary sinus membrane repair: Update on technique for large and complete perforations. Implant Dentistry. 2008;17:24-31\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Dohan Ehrenfest DM, Rasmusson L, Albrektsson T. Classification of platelet concentrates: From pure platelet-rich plasma (P-PRP) to leucocyte- and platelet-rich fibrin (L-PRF). Trends in Biotechnology. 2009;27(3):158-167\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Mouhyi J, Dohan Ehrenfest DM, Albrektsson T. The peri-implantitis: Implant surfaces, microstructure, and physicochemical aspects. Clinical Implant Dentistry and Related Research. 2012 Apr;14(2):170-183\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Dohan Ehrenfest DM, Vazquez L. Pulling out, extraction or avulsion? Implant Dentistry. 2008;17(1):4\n'},{id:"B26",body:'Jang ES, Park JW, Kweon H. Restoration of peri-implant defects in immediate implant installations by Choukroun platelet-rich fibrin and silk fibroin powder combination graft. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radiology, and Endodontics. 2010;109(6):831-836\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Belir Atalay",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Faculty of Dentistry, İstanbul University, Turkey
Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Faculty of Dentistry, Bezmialem Vak?f University, Turkey
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Hakan Coskun",authors:[{id:"96122",title:"Prof.",name:"H Hakan",middleName:null,surname:"Coskun",fullName:"H Hakan Coskun",slug:"h-hakan-coskun"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"65383",title:"Introductory Chapter: Biofuels - Challenges and Opportunities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84267",slug:"introductory-chapter-biofuels-challenges-and-opportunities",body:'
1. Background
The climate is undoubtedly experiencing several changes with a global warming, mainly attributed to the carbon dioxide (CO2) emission. According to NASA [1] and NOAA [2], CO2 is at its highest in 650,000 years, leading to the warmest decade on record. During recent decades, concerns have arisen regarding climate change, energy security decline, and depletion of hydrocarbon reserves, resulting in a wide interest in renewable alternative fuel resources. Many studies (e.g., [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]) have shown that biofuels are generally the most appropriate replacement to the depleting crude oil. They can expand green landscapes, create new economic opportunities, be directly used in standard engines, and they are sustainable and environmentally friendly. There has been a politically motivated claim; however, that biofuel can be harmful with plenty of disadvantages, attributed to some abuse of biomass production and misuse. For example, moving palm oil with fossil fuel-powered trucks and burning peat bogs to prepare biomass can result in significant greenhouse emissions. Also, economic risks are interpreted with financial loss to certain fossil fuel-productive beneficiaries (e.g., the OPEC). Other claims (e.g., [8]) impose that biofuel production competes with food stock although biofuel is not necessarily addible product, or vigorously agricultural-land planted. Such misleading assumptions and debates guided the European Parliament in January 2018 to propose an end to the import and use of palm oil by 2030 [9]. In fact, the EU move to cut imports on palm oil is a suspect of cynical move to protect the EU vegetable oil producers and fossil fuel-reliant industry [10]. There are enough statistics and empirical data to dispute such claims and evaluate the importance of biofuels for future on the expense of the insignificant disadvantages [3, 7]. This book proposes approaches to overcome challenges and achieves some tough targets for alternative fuel production and utilization.
Over the past four decades, the data show three distinct periods of food price inflation, and the lowest of which was during 1991–2015 at 2.6%, encompassing the biofuel boom. Comparatively, the inflation rate during 1981–1991 was 3.8%, and the rate during 1973–1981 was 8.3%. There was no noticeable change in the world’s average grain and oil price inflation before and after 2000, in reference to the beginning of the biofuel boom. Crude oil prices, however, have had the highest correlation with food price indices. Currently, the main barriers to the spread of biofuel are its relevant cost of production and competition between some types of biofuels and food stock. Therefore, wastes play an important role in reducing these costs and recycling dump materials. Production of biofuels from nonfood biomass has emerged as a sustainable option to tackle the problems associated with growing demand of energy.
2. Contribution of this book
In this work, as well as providing the descriptions on emerging biofuel technologies to mimic the above-mentioned risks, the chemical and thermal properties of biofuels are described. For example, methanol and ethanol are studied as possible alternative liquid fuel candidates to resemble several physical and combustion properties of gasoline. The study shows that such a fuel blend decreases the engine brake power, increases the BSFC, and decreases the CO and HC emissions, compared to those produced using gasoline (fossil) fuel. The pretreated samples are analyzed for mass and energy yields, calorific values, proximate and elemental compositions, and thermal decompositions. This book also provides basic analyses of diesel, gasoline, and various types of biofuels (including biodiesel fuels) and assessment on limited and unlimited emissions (e.g., greenhouse gases, dangerous exhaust gases, and strong carcinogens and their contents) during and after combustion pathways. The results are evaluated in comparison to trusted measurements and numerical standards. The research equipment is adapted with sensitivity measurements to the environmental contamination.
A one-dimensional model of gasoline engine is developed for predicting the effect of various fuel types on engine performance, specific fuel consumption, and emissions. The role of microbial consortium-based biocatalyst strategies that are being developed to address these issues are reviewed and discussed. Microbial co-culture biocatalysts are engineered to specialize the conversion of a general class of substrates present in the biomass hydrolysates into biofuel intermediates, with the capability of adapting them to the variable composition of the feedstock. The techniques being developed to understand the interaction between the members of the bioconversion consortia and the corresponding population dynamics of the engineered co-cultures are also presented. The simulation of transesterification requires in-depth understanding of the chemical reactions that take place inside the reactor. The development of reaction mechanism of the multiple step triglyceride, triglycerides, and monoglycerides and their reversal reaction is beyond the interest of chemical or mechanical engineers, whose main interests focus on the assessment of the overall conversion and the established performance process metrics. The work undertakes all relevant activities by establishing and formulating the overall process kinetics, as far as the rate constant and activation energy. The obtained values are used to carry out high fidelity reactive flow of the multiple species, copresent inside the reactor, and otherwise complex to be captured experimentally. Experimental results, high-fidelity numerical results, and parametric sensitivity studies will be introduced and discussed. Through a reaction of alkaline transesterification of biodiesel, several mixtures of diesel-biodiesel and their characteristics are assessed and prepared for tests. For example, kinematic viscosity and high heating value of pure biodiesel (B100), pure diesel, and four biodiesel-diesel fuel blends, B2, B5, B10, and B20, have been determined. B100, diesel, and their blends are used in full-cycle tests of four cylinder engines. A virtual instrumentation technology has been developed and implemented into the test approaches. Such advancement has allowed monitoring (in real time) the parameters of internal combustion engines and presented the versatility, flexibility, scalability, and capacity to function in equipment that operates with different liquid fuels at a lower cost than that of conventional systems. These characteristics represent significant benefit, in comparison to the classical measurement and monitoring approaches, in present market.
3. Concluding remark
To conclude, the use of biofuels is expected to contribute to the energy sustainability and reduction of global warming. For instance, many efforts have been made to replace gasoline and diesel fuels with ethanol/gasoline and biodiesel/diesel fuel blends, respectively [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. These efforts have been driven mainly by the importance of reducing greenhouse emissions and fossil fuel costs [17, 18, 19]. According to the US environment protection agency [20], all gasoline engine vehicles can use a blend of gasoline fuel with up to 10% volume fraction of ethanol without the need for engine modification. The reduction in CO2 emissions without the loss of engine performance is nontrivial for this mixture [21]. For example, mixtures with up to 15% volume fraction of ethanol and 85% volume fraction of gasoline fuel have been approved for use in 2001 and newer vehicles, under the US federal standards for renewable fuel [22]; while mixtures with up to 85% volume fraction of ethanol and 15% volume fraction of gasoline fuel (i.e., flex fuels) have been defined as qualifying alternative fuels for flex-fuel vehicles [20]. Therefore, it was important to investigate the difference between ethanol and gasoline fuel characteristics and their blends.
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Background",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Contribution of this book",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Concluding remark",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'NASA. Carbon Dioxide, Climate Change – Vital Signs of the Planet [Internet]. Available from: https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/carbon-dioxide/ [Accessed 2018-12-24]'},{id:"B2",body:'NOAA. November 2018 was fifth hottest on record for the globe 2018 [Internet]. Available from: https://www.noaa.gov/news/november-2018-was-fifth-hottest-on-record-for-globe [Accessed: 2018-12-25]'},{id:"B3",body:'Popp J, Lakner Z, Harangi-Rákos M, Fári M. The effect of bioenergy expansion: Food, energy, and environment. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2014;32:559-578. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2014.01.056'},{id:"B4",body:'Bullis K. A Biofuel Process to Replace All Fossil Fuels. MIT Technology Review 2009 [Internet]. Available from: https://www.technologyreview.com/s/414492/a-biofuel-process-to-replace-all-fossil-fuels/ [Accessed: 2018-12-28]'},{id:"B5",body:'Sazhin SS, Al Qubeissi M, Kolodnytska R, Elwardany AE, Nasiri R, Heikal MR. Modelling of biodiesel fuel droplet heating and evaporation. Fuel. 2014;115:559-572. DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2013.07.031'},{id:"B6",body:'Walker GM. Bioethanol: Science and Technology of Fuel Alcohol. UK: Bookboon; 2010. 114 p. ISBN 9788776816810. Available from: https://bookboon.com/en/bioethanol-science-and-technology-of-fuel-alcohol-ebook [Accessed: 2018-12-12]'},{id:"B7",body:'Kirkland G. Why We Need Biofuels For A Green Future. Automotive IQ 2018 [Internet]. Available from: https://www.automotive-iq.com/powertrain/articles/why-we-need-biofuels-green-future [Accessed: 2018-12-21]'},{id:"B8",body:'Tenenbaum DJ. Food vs. fuel: Diversion of crops could cause more hunger. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2008;116(6):A254-A257. DOI: 10.1289/ehp.116-a254'},{id:"B9",body:'Transport & Environment. Why is palm oil biodiesel bad? In: Food-based biofuels: cure worse than the disease [Internet]. June 2017. Available from: https://www.transportenvironment.org/what-we-do/biofuels/why-palm-oil-biodiesel-bad [Accessed: 2018-12-30]'},{id:"B10",body:'Klepper G. Winners and losers from the EU’s proposed ban on palm oil [Internet]. Eco-Business. 2018. Available from: https://www.eco-business.com/opinion/winners-and-losers-from-the-eus-proposed-ban-on-palm-oil/ [Accessed: 2018-11-30]'},{id:"B11",body:'Al Qubeissi M, Al-Esawi N, Sazhin SS, Ghaleeh M. Ethanol/gasoline droplet heating and evaporation: Effects of fuel blends and ambient conditions. Energy & Fuels. 2018;32:6498-6506. DOI: 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.8b00366'},{id:"B12",body:'Al Qubeissi M. Predictions of droplet heating and evaporation: An application to biodiesel, diesel, gasoline and blended fuels. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2018;136:260-267. DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.03.010'},{id:"B13",body:'Al Qubeissi M. Heating and Evaporation of Multi-Component Fuel Droplets. Stuttgart, Germany: WiSa; 2015'},{id:"B14",body:'Al Qubeissi M, Sazhin SS, Elwardany AE. Modelling of blended diesel and biodiesel fuel droplet heating and evaporation. Fuel. 2017;187:349-355. DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2016.09.060'},{id:"B15",body:'Al Qubeissi M, Al-Esawi N, Kolodnytska R. Atomization of bio-fossil fuel blends. In: Nageswara-Rao M, editor. Advances in Biofuels and Bioenergy, Chapter 4. InTech; 2018. pp. 59-81. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.73180'},{id:"B16",body:'Al Qubeissi M, Sazhin SS, Crua C, Turner J, Heikal MR. Modelling of biodiesel fuel droplet heating and evaporation: Effects of fuel composition. Fuel. 2015;154:308-318. DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2015.03.051'},{id:"B17",body:'Járvás G, Kontos J, Hancsók J, Dallos A. Modeling ethanol-blended gasoline droplet evaporation using COSMO-RS theory and computation fluid dynamics. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 2015;84:1019-1029. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2014.12.046'},{id:"B18",body:'Bader A, Keller P, Hasse C. The influence of non-ideal vapor-liquid equilibrium on the evaporation of ethanol/iso-octane droplets. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 2013;64:547-558. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2013.04.056'},{id:"B19",body:'Corsetti S, Miles REH, McDonald C, Belotti Y, Reid JP, Kiefer J, et al. Probing the evaporation dynamics of ethanol/gasoline biofuel blends using single droplet manipulation techniques. The Journal of Physical Chemistry A. 2015;119:12797-12804. DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.5b10098'},{id:"B20",body:'EPA U. US Environmental Protection Agency 2014. http://www.epa.gov/ [Accessed: June 23, 2017]'},{id:"B21",body:'Masum BM, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Rizwanul Fattah IM, Palash SM, Abedin MJ. Effect of ethanol-gasoline blend on NOx emission in SI engine. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2013;24:209-222. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2013.03.046'},{id:"B22",body:'US Department of Energy: Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. Alternative Fuels Data Centre n.d. Available from: http://www.afdc.energy.gov [Accessed: June 23, 2017]'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:'Hereafter, the word "biofuels" refers to biomass fuels, including biodiesel fuels.'},{id:"fn2",explanation:"BX refers to X% volume fraction of biodiesel mixed with (100-X)% volume fraction of diesel fuel."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Mansour Al Qubeissi",address:"ac1028@coventry.ac.uk",affiliation:'
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I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. 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