\r\n\tOver the years, the concept of maintenance became more comprehensive, reducing fault occurrence and increasing industrial system availability. Besides, reliability, safety, and criticality requirements were associated with the system or equipment under analysis. Maintenance strategies or schemes can be classified as corrective (run-to-break), preventive (time-based), and predictive (condition-based maintenance). Corrective maintenance is only performed after an occurrence of a fault. Therefore, it involves unexpected breakdowns, high costs, changes in the production chain, and it could lead to catastrophic events. Preventive maintenance and interventions occur based on a scheduled maintenance plan or the equipment's mean time between failures. Although it is more effective than corrective maintenance, unexpected failure may still occur by preventing most failures. Additionally, the process cost is still high, especially the costs associated with labor, inventory, and unnecessary replacement of equipment or components.
\r\n\tOn the other hand, predictive maintenance analyses the equipment condition so that a possible fault can still be identified at an early stage. Predictive maintenance aims to identify a machine anomaly so that it does not result in a fault. Such maintenance involves advanced monitoring, processing, and signal analysis techniques, which are generally performed non-invasively and, in many cases, in real-time. In the case of machines or processes, these techniques can be developed based on vibration, temperature, acoustic emission, or electrical current signal monitoring. It should be noted that monitoring such signals or parameters to verify the operating condition is called condition monitoring. Condition monitoring aims to observe the machine's current operational condition and predict its future condition, keeping it under a systematic analysis during its remaining life. In this sense, a fault condition can be detected and identified from systematic machine condition monitoring. A diagnosis procedure can be established, whereby properly investigating the fault symptoms and prognosis.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThis book will aim to merge all these ideas in a single volume, aggregate new maintenance experiences, apply new techniques and approaches, and report field experiences to establish new maintenance processes and management paradigms.
\r\n\t
Several studies have compared visual perception, tactile (haptic) perception, and visual-haptic perception of stimuli. Often, performance in tasks involving unimodal visual perception exceeds performance in both unimodal haptic and cross-modal tasks. However unimodal haptic comparisons of natural three-dimensional shapes could be as good as visual-haptic and haptic-visual comparisons. Therefore vision and touch may have functionally overlapping, though not equivalent, representations of 3-D space.
\n\t\t\tThe present manuscript argues that vision and touch cannot be equated because the sensitivity and the processes involved in the attainment of information differ between the modalities. Further, vision is useful for haptics only so long as it provides relevant information. The hand is an important source of information in haptic touch. Evidence shows that though one may have a hand preference, the ability of the non preferred hand cannot be undermined as compared to that of the preferred hand. Research indicates that the hands do not differ in tactile ability, and the seemingly lower performance of the non preferred hand is a consequence of its spatial orientation during performance and not an absence of ability.
\n\t\tSeveral studies have compared visual perception, tactile (haptic) perception, and visual-haptic perception of stimuli (e.g. Easton, Greene, & Srinivas, 1997, Millar, 1981, Abravanel 1971, Lobb, 1965, Rudel & Teuber, 1964). Often, performance in tasks involving unimodal visual perception exceeds performance in both unimodal haptic and cross-modal tasks. But not always: Norman, Norman, Clayton, Lianekhammy, and Zielke (2004), for example, found that unimodal haptic comparisons of natural three-dimensional shapes could be as good as visual-haptic and haptic-visual comparisons. Norman et al inferred that vision and touch have functionally overlapping, though not equivalent, representations of 3-D space.
\n\t\t\tUnderlying much of the research comparing unimodal visual and tactile perception to cross-modal visual-tactile perception is a long-standing theoretical issue: Do perceivers ‘naturally’ recognize common features of objects perceived through vision and through touch? Or, alternatively, do accurate cross-modal comparisons develop largely or wholly through experience? Molyneux’s famous question about the relation between touch and vision – Can a person born blind distinguish between a cube and a sphere after recovering sight in adulthood? – continues to occupy philosophers (Gallagher, 2004).
\n\t\t\tIn this regard, research has shown that very young infants not only show cross-modal transfer of object properties such as texture and hardness (e.g., Meltzoff & Borton, 1979, Gibson and Walker 1984), but also can recognize by sight objects previously presented to touch (Streri, 1987, Streri & Gentaz 2003). These results challenge the empiricist philosophy and modern connectionist models (McClelland & Rumelhart, 1986, Elman, 1996) that assume independent sensory modalities at birth. Presumably, the capacity found in older children and adults to make cross-modal as well as intramodal comparisons evolve from intrinsic capabilities in infants.
\n\t\t\tOften, studies of cross-modal perception use a sequential design, which places demands on memory, and demands on memory may matter more to unimodal haptic tasks and cross-modal haptic-visual tasks than to visual tasks (Woods, O’Modhrain, & Newell, 2004). Whether simultaneous presentations of stimuli with lesser demands on memory affect processing differently from sequential presentations was a question of interest. Ittyerah and Marks (2008) therefore compared visual, haptic, and visual-haptic discrimination of curvature stimuli when the two stimuli within each pair were presented simultaneously. Figure 1 depicts each of the six stimuli, which differ only in curvature. Stimulus 1 has a difference of 3.81 mm between its midpoint and its height at the ends. Stimulus 2 has a difference of 5.08 mm between its midpoint and the height at its ends and, therefore, has greater curvature than stimulus 1. The remaining stimuli vary similarly, such that stimulus 6 has the greatest curvature and stimulus 1 the least curvature.
\n\t\t\tDimensions of the six stimuli used in Experiment 1. With permission from the Editors of Current Psychology Letters.
The findings of Ittyerah and Marks (2008) indicated that when two object surfaces, either the same or different in curvature, were presented simultaneously for comparison, unimodal visual performance exceeded cross-modal performance, which in turn exceeded unimodal haptic performance. Figure 2 shows that the accuracy of responses to same pairs of stimuli is much smaller with haptic comparison than with intramodal visual or with cross-modal comparison. And accuracy of responses to different pairs is also smallest, by and large, with intramodal haptic comparison. As Figure 3 shows, over the three smallest physical differences, where the measures of d’ are most reliable and least susceptible to variability associated with extreme proportions, unimodal visual performance exceeds cross-modal performance by about one d’ unit, essentially, one standard deviation unit, and cross-modal performance similarly exceeds unimodal haptic performance by about one d’ unit.
\n\t\t\tWith permission from the Editors of Current Psychology Letters.
With permission from the Editors of Current Psychology Letters.
Haptic perception of form takes place largely by inspection of shapes by the palm and fingers of the hand as they move over the surface of an object. The property of shape or form refers to the spatial layout of the object, which may be specified in terms of contours. An isolated contour may itself be described with respect to its extent and orientation, and interactions among contours, or patterns, may in turn be described in terms of component contours or as combinations of angles, straight or curved surfaces, and other distinctive features. The shapes of many objects may be adequately described in terms of angles and curvatures of various degrees and proportion. In haptic exploration of shapes, the fingers move over the various angles or bend over the curves. The main question of interest is: How do haptic touch and vision compare with regard to people’s ability to perceive and remember three-dimensional objects?
\n\t\t\tA large body of literature concerned with the haptic and visual memory systems has provided two broad accounts. The first is that object memory is multisensory and object representations are shared across modalities if the same object properties are encoded. The second is that objects are stored as modality specific representations that require a recoding from one memory system to another. Such recoding is costly, in time and errors, to cross-modal performance relative to intra-modal performance.
\n\t\t\tMany recent findings support the idea that visual and haptic memory for objects is shared. For example neuroimaging evidence suggests that the cortical area involved in visual object recognition is also involved in haptic object recognition (Grill-Spector, Kourtzi & Kanwisheri, 2001). Amedi, Malach, Hendler, Peled and Zohary (2001) reported that activation in the lateral occipital complex (LOC) is not specific to the visual modality. The LOC is also activated during haptic object recognition, though not by auditory information about objects (Amedi, Jacobson, Hendler, Malach & Zohary, 2002). These studies suggest that the LOC is involved in recovering the geometrical shapes of objects (James, Humphery, Gati, Servos, Menon & Goodale, 2002), and behavioural evidence suggests that object representations are shared across modalities (Easton, Greene & Srinivas, 1997, Newell, 2004).
\n\t\t\tOther studies indicate, however, that tactile memory is not equivalent to visual memory and that information is modality specific. For example, in tests of tactile memory, when a delay intervenes between the presentation of the test stimulus and the test of memory, tactile memory is adversely affected by verbal tasks (counting backwards) interpolated during a 15 sec delay (Gilson & Baddeley, 1969) and by arithmetic tasks after a 5 sec delay (Sullivan & Turvey, 1972). In a study on 3-dimensional object recognition in children, Millar (1974) found that haptic matching performance for nonsense objects was better with an inter stimulus interval (ISI) of 1 sec, than with intervals of 5 and 30 sec, suggesting that haptic memory starts to decay immediately after the exploration of an object.
\n\t\t\tOther studies report that tactile memory can be sustained for 15 sec (Kiphart, Hughes, Simmons & Cross, 1992) and is vulnerable to articulatory suppression (Mahrer & Miles, 2002). However, performance can also be affected by the task demands or stimulus complexity and the degree of familiarity with the objects being explored (Millar 1981). For example Norman, Norman, Clayton, Lianekhammy and Zielke (2004) observed that accuracy of tactile-visual matching differed across different stimuli, though tactile performance improved with exploration time. Norman et al concluded that observers can match objects known only through touch with other objects known only through vision. Recently, Wood, O’Modhrain and Newell (2004) suggested that tactile-visual object recognition may rely on modality specific representations. Although the effect of delay between cross-modal presentations was the same whether the initial object was coded visually or haptically, recall was better after a 0 sec than a 30 sec delay, indicating delay-induced decay in memory.
\n\t\t\tIn view of the different interpretations, Ittyerah and Marks (2007) tested for inter-modal and intra-modal processes involved in memory for concave curved surfaces that are first presented (perceived) haptically or visually and then later compared to surfaces presented either haptically/visually (unimodal comparison) or visually/haptically (cross-modal comparison). Furthermore, by varying the characteristics of the subjects’ activity during a 30-second retention interval (dual task design), we sought to illuminate the underlying mnemonic representation mediating the discrimination.
\n\t\t\tDual task paradigms have been used to test for the demands of attention on the primary task (Brown 1958, Peterson & Peterson 1959). The paradigm tests the nature of coding in short term memory by interpolating a secondary task during the delay interval between presentation and recall. Dual task paradigms that test visuo-spatial coding often require movement outputs. For example, tracing, pointing or other gestures are used as secondary tasks. Imagining the task during a delay interval instead of actually performing the task produces similar effects. Millar and Ittyerah (1991) for example, showed modality-specific motor memory in blind conditions not only in actual performance but also in imagined conditions, which excluded any influence of visual knowledge. Thus, it is possible to use movement imagery in the recall of guided movements, as imagined movements biased recall as much as actual movements did. Further, articulatory suppression had no effect on performance, implying little or no role for translation of extent of movement into a verbal format. However, the nature of this modality-specific motor memory is still not well understood. The question arises, for example, whether motor memory is represented spatially in terms of spatial extent or extent of movement. Studies of movement have shown that extent of movement is encoded differently from spatial location in short-term memory (Laabs, 1973, Laabs & Simmons, 1981). Short-term memory could rely, therefore, on kinesthesis even when inputs are not coded spatially, although memory for extent of movement is not very accurate.
\n\t\t\tAre differences between haptic and visual perception of curvature evident in memory? We (Ittyerah and Marks, 2007) expected that haptic, visual, and cross-modal memory will differ in their sensitivity to the activities in which subjects engage during the interference period. During a delay period of 30 seconds between the presentation of a test stimulus and its recall we introduced any one of the four following activities, such as counting aloud, rehearsing the test stimulus visually or haptically, spacing paper clips in equal distances or moving books from one hand to the other, as well as an unfilled delay that served as a control. We expected that tasks requiring spatial processing may have deleterious effects on performance in both modalities, whereas tasks requiring movement should exert greater effects on haptic memory.
\n\t\t\tThe findings indicated that performance was not only better in haptic than visual conditions, but also that the intervening activities exerted greater effects with haptic than visual presentations. Prior evidence has shown that vision improves shape matching and seems to dominate over touch and haptic inputs that involve touch and movement (Held, 1963, 1965, Rock and Victor 1964). It is also generally agreed that vision is most important in spatial tasks (Sendon 1932, Attneave and Benson 1969). Furthermore, two recent studies suggested that noninformative vision can improve perception by touch (Kennett, Taylor-Clarke and Haggard, 2001, Newport, Rabb and Jackson, 2002). These findings are not consistent, however, with the evidence that people who are totally blind from birth can be equally or more proficient than the sighted on spatial tasks (Hollins 1968, Millar 1994). This evidence implies that proficiency varies with the spatial information that is available from other sources. For example, in a spatial location task of six landmarks, Millar and Al-Attar (2005) found that vision affects haptic processing only if vision adds task relevant information. Touch with diffuse light perception that excluded spatial cues and touch without vision did not differ in accuracy of performance. Millar and Al-Attar concluded that the differences between performance with spatially relevant and spatially irrelevant visual information provide new evidence against the hypothesis that vision affects haptic processing even if it does not add task-relevant information. Therefore, the relatively better performance of tactile compared to visual judgments (Ittyerah and Marks 2007) may reflect differences in the relevance of the delay tasks used to probe the tactile and visual systems.
\n\t\t\tIt is conceivable that the differences in mnemonic representations for haptic and visual curvature are related to differences in haptic and visual perceptual processing. Haptic processing depends on movements of the hand or finger over the stimulus and therefore is subject to spatial constraints on motion, whereas visual processing is often global (Navon, 1977) and the sensory detection and discrimination are limited by the physical properties of the stimuli themselves, such as photon counting at low intensities (De Vries, 1943). In linear movement tasks the demands on memory involve the starting and ending locations of the movement (Laabs & Simmons 1981, Millar 1994). For haptically felt curvature the demands on memory seem to be confined to the slope differences over the far ends of the stimulus (Gordon & Morison 1982, Pont et al, 1998, Pont et al, 1997) for both static and dynamic touch of curved strips (Pont et al 1999). The findings of Ittyerah and Marks (2007) suggest, in turn, that memory for haptic and perhaps for visual representations of curvature, perhaps representations of slope, may be particularly disrupted by tasks that involve spatial processing and movement – as assessed with the dual task paradigm used to test for the demands of attention on the primary task (Brown 1958, Peterson & Peterson 1959). Filling the delay interval with a spatial or a movement task in the haptic and visual modalities produces modality-specific interference (e.g., Logie1986). These results, though specific to the present tasks, may be generalized as being important characteristics in the perception of the curvature of objects. Besides, memory for information from touch and movement has been demonstrated by showing effects of coding texture for unfamiliar shapes and kinesthetic coding for unfamiliar movements (Millar, 1999). This indicates distinct effects for tactile memory. Coding can also involve the mental rehearsal of movements (Millar & Ittyerah, 1991) showing modality specific aspects of the input information. However the informational conditions in which such coding depends differ from those in which visual cues are present. Nevertheless, haptic representations are not recoded into visual coordinates, since impaired memory for recognition in one modality is generally dissociated from performance in the other modality (Farah 1990, Reed, Caselli & Farah, 1996).
\n\t\tThe predominance of studies in reaching and grasping attribute successful performance to the ability of the visual modality for aligning the hand and arm to the size and orientation of the object (Halverson1931, 1932, 1937, Caster 1932, McGraw 1945, Bower 1972, von Hofsten 1982, Jeannerod, 1994, 1997a, b). The role of vision is undoubtedly facilitating, but speculations as to whether it is a necessary modality in the attainment of these specific behaviours can only be examined by comparing congenitally blind children with sighted cohorts. Fraiberg(Fraiberg 1968) in extensive work with eight blind infants found that these infants first reached for objects only at the age of ten months, whereas sighted infants on an average reach at the age of five months. Fraiberg (Fraiberg 1968) observed that developmental delays in other behaviours of locomotion such as crawling suggested that reaching is the critical skill to locomotion. According to Fraiberg, reaching in blind infants is a two stage process where the initial reaches are to sounding objects pulled from the children’s hands and this is followed by reaching to sounding objects held directly before them. Whereas sighted infants spontaneously reach for objects they see, blind infants need to be prompted by sound. If sounding objects are not present, the blind infant may not reach. Therefore reaching is dependent on the awareness of spatial information about the object. Subsequently, Adelson and Fraiberg (1974), Fraiberg (1977) observed that tasks requiring postural control are unaffected, whereas those requiring selfinitiation and mobility are delayed in blind children. Indeed Hatwell (1987) has cogently argued that in instances when blind infants do not use their hands as a perceptual information seeking device (e g. Fraigberg 1977), the reaching behaviour of these infants is mainly a motor executive one where for example the hand is usually used for putting objects in the mouth, and the deficit if any is non-modality specific (e.g. Friedman, 1971). When blind infants reach, this behaviour may be related to their conceptual development (Bigelow 1986). For example, the ear hand coordination for reaching objects in blind children is attained at eight months, whereas eye hand coordination in sighted children is attained by four months. Nevertheless sighted children are not able to reach a hidden object they hear until they are about eight or nine months of age and this is at par with the ages of the attainment of object permanence in blind children. Therefore blind and sighted children do not differ in their understanding of the object concept and vision is neither a necessary modality for the attainment of object permanence and subsequent cognitive development.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tBigelow (1986) found that in instances in which touch and sound are used in analogous tasks, the touch tasks are easier. The infant would rather reach for a toy placed on its chest than for a rattle held before her/him. Children respond to continuous touch before they respond to continuous sound and children reach to cues of previous touch before they reach to cues of previous sound. When touch and sound cues are in conflict, children initially respond to touch cues. Fraiberg (1968, 1977) observed that blind children reached at the body mid-line such as the chest for sounding objects taken from their hands before they reached at mid-line for objects on sound cues alone. Fraiberg concluded that the mid-line is the first space to have subjective reality for blind infants.
\n\t\t\tThere is some evidence that Fraiberg’s findings of reaching in blind infants may be operational in sighted infants as well. Wishart, Bower & Dunkheld (1978) studied reaching in sighted infants in dark conditions so that though infants heard the object, they were unable to see the object or know the direction of their reach. Wishart et al (1978) observed that as in the case of blind infants, directional reaches to objects as in off centre positions were more difficult than reaches to objects at the mid-line for sighted infants as well. Therefore there are no fundamental differences in reaching with or without vision. Blind children attain comparable performance with the sighted by relying on self referent cues (Millar, 1981) and self referent cues have been found to be reliable (Stelmach & Larish, 1980). Fraiberg (1968) has shown that this is evident in early infancy when infants reach to their body mid-line for objects they have not seen. Thus the difference between the blind and sighted children may be in the strategies for attaining information and is not a function of visuo-motor control (Jeannrod, 1984, 1994). The fact that blind children between the ages of 6 and 15 years are able to perform acts of reaching, grasping and assessing objects of various sizes using the precision grip (Ittyerah, 1993, 2000, 2009) both with the preferred and nonpreferred hands indicates that though vision may provide complementary information the visual modality is not necessary to perform tactile hand ability tasks because convergent information may be attained from other sources (Millar, 1994). Hatwell (1987) has argued that early in development infants rely on tactile information and perceive objects held in their hands without much assistance from vision. It is only after the age of five or six months that vision dominates and infants become dependent on eye hand coordination. For example when the hands of the infants were occluded by a screen (Streri & Pecheux, 1986 a & b) so that they could not see objects held in their hands, infants displayed a haptic habituation to the familiar stimulus and a novelty response to a new shape as early as four months of age. After five months, there seemed to be an increased synchronization between manual and visual inspection of objects (Rochat 1985). Hatwell (1987) reported that infants aged five to six months displayed suppression in their grasping response when a screen was placed on their shoulders to prevent them from seeing their hands. Although these children did not display any signs of distress nor try to remove the screen, they did not close their hands on the object the experimenter tried to put in it and their hands tended to avoid contact with the object. Over 60% of the infants failed to perform similar unimodal haptic tasks after five months of age or above whereas only 20 % failed to perform unimodal haptic tasks at ages less than four months. Therefore vision clearly dominates at older ages and infant’s haptic perceptual abilities begin to be underutilized. Thus early in development, the tactile- haptic system takes precedence over visuo-motor channels for object perception and action.
\n\t\tEarly reaching behaviours are an indication of hand preference. The difference between handedness and hand ability is that handedness refers to a consistent preference for one hand for executing fairly skilled actions such as writing or sewing. Hand ability refers to the potential capability of each hand in executing the same or different actions and the tacit understanding is that ability for a particular hand action does not differ between the hands. For example, one could write with either hand if encouraged early during development, and differences if any between the hands may be in hand orientation during performance and not in ability (Ittyerah 1996, Ittyerah et al. 2007). The right and left hands of children were able to point at proprioceptive memorized targets, but differed in orientation, in that the right preferred hand was more context oriented and therefore supple, whereas the left nonpreferred hand was more egocentrically oriented and consequently less supple. It may be useful to clarify the notions of hand skill and ability, in order to argue that there is equipotentiality between the hands.
\n\t\t\tThe literature on hand skills may be grouped into three domains of explanation. One view asserts that the preferred hand is the skilled hand (Annett 1972, Annet et al 1979, Honda 1984). Another opinion is that handedness is not a unidimensional variable and hand actions may be grouped according to the muscle groups involved in performing the tasks (Plato et al 1984, Healey et al 1986, Steinhuis and Bryden 1989, 1990). A third opinion holds that the hands may not differ in skill for any action. The performance of both hands may be as good as each other and may depend upon conditions of task demands (Millar 1984, 1987, Ittyerah 1993, 2000, 2009, Millar 2008). It is of interest in this manuscript to examine these differing explanations of hand skill in order to conclude that there is equipotentiality between the hands, although studies of equal ability in the hands may be out numbered by studies that relate hand preference with hand skill.
\n\t\t\tExplanations of handedness have indicated a relation between hand preference and hand ability (Annett et. al, 1979, Peters, 1980). They believed that if hand preferences can be coordinated with an independent measure of hand skill, then the understanding of what is handedness can be clarified. Annett (1970b) indicated that the difference between the hands for the peg moving times was highest for the right handers and decreases linearly for the mixed and left handers. Attempts to train the non preferred hand to equal the skill of the preferred hand have not been successful for peg moving (Annett, Hudson & Turner, 1974) nor for finger tapping (Peters, 1976). Annett and Kilshaw (1983) found that degrees of mixed hand preferences between consistent right and consistent left are systematically related to degrees of L-R skill in the peg moving task, and Peters and Durding (1978) found a linear relationship between L-R mean tapping rates and hand preference. These findings led Annett (1985) to conclude that although practice can improve the performance of the non preferred hand, it does not alter the underlying natural asymmetry between the hands. A related notion to the above conclusion is that hand preferences are an out come of eye hand coordination and that eye hand coordination is more efficient on the right than the left side of the body (Woodworth1889, Annett et al, 1979, Peters 1976, 1980, Honda 1984).
\n\t\t\tA second group of studies do not consider handedness to be a unidimensional variable, but claim that hand actions may be controlled by groups of muscles that perform various actions and that the more skilled actions such as writing are more lateralized than less skilled actions such as picking up objects(Steinhuis and Bryden 1989, 1990). Reviews of studies on the origin of handedness (Hopkins, 1993) indicate that the earliest signs of hand preference appear to be task specific, in that hand actions are dependent on whether the task involves control of the proximal muscles as for reaching or the control of the distal segments of the hand, as for grasping. Subsequently, Ittyerah (1996) indicated that during development hand preferences may group together into a single category of skill for each hand; the right hand being better at actions of accuracy as in writing or throwing (Healey et al, 1986), and the left hand being more able for acts of strength as in lifting objects (Healey et al, 1986, Peters, 1990).Therefore task demands may dictate hand actions, though the general ability of the hands may not differ.
\n\t\t\tThe question as to whether a particular hand is more skilled than another has not been satisfactorily answered. In nonprehensile tasks such as Braille reading, type writing or piano playing or for prehensile actions of juggling, the hands have a complementary role in task performance. This indicates that the skill is not lateralized, but rather, that task requirements dictate hand actions. For example, there was some initial confusion as to whether Braille is predominantly read by one hand. Superior Braille performance was reported for the left hand (Hermelin & O’Connor, 1971, Rudel, Denckla & Hirsch, 1977), at other times for the right hand (Fertsch, 1947), or for neither hand (Bradshaw, Nettleton & Spehr, 1982, Millar, 1977) and for two handed reading (Foulke, 1982). Millar (1984) has argued that in so far as reading levels are reported, the discrepant findings indicate a pattern that conforms to the notion that highly proficient reading depends mainly on verbal strategies and skill (right hand / left hemisphere advantage); less proficient reading demands attention to spatial coding of the physical characters (left hand / right hemisphere advantage), while early in learning subjects rely on dot density or texture features of Braille characters.
\n\t\t\t\tThe finding that the general lateralization does not affect ability (Ittyerah 1993, Ittyerah 2000, 2009) indicates, that although one may have a hand preference, there is equipotentiality between the hands. In nonprehensile tasks such as braille reading, Millar (1987) found that fluent braillists use both hands in intermittent alternation for processing text. As to whether this is also true for prehensile actions can be known by testing for hand ability.
\n\t\t\t\tStudies in which blind and sighted children were required to match tactile stimuli separately with the left and right hands have indicated that the hands do not differ in tactile ability. Sighted blindfolded and congenitally blind children between the ages of 6 and 15 years were able to match the length, breadth, height and volume of three dimensional bricks of varying sizes with the left and right hands. Results indicated that performance improved with age, though the hands did not differ (Ittyerah, 1993) while performing different manual dexterity tasks such as sorting, finger dexterity and the Minnesota rate of manipulation test. Although there were differences between the groups and ages, the left and right hands of the blind and sighted children did not differ in speed or accuracy (Ittyerah, 2000). However one might argue that the lack of performance differences between the hands for the sighted children may have been a consequence of their temporary blind fold condition that may have interfered with performance, or the lack of differences in the blind children may have been due to a lack of familiarity with the tasks. In a follow up study congenitally blind and sighted blind folded children (Ittyerah 2009) were tested using a sorting task, a stacking task, the finger dexterity test and the Minnesota rate of manipulation test. Performance was assessed for the left and right hands, both before and after a four months practice period. Results indicated an increasing post test gain for all the groups on the tasks with age, though the hands did not differ in performance neither before nor after practice. The consistent results indicate that even if there is a hand preference (Ittyerah, 1993, 1996, 2000, 2009), the general ability of the hands in most tactile tasks does not differ. Thus there is no effect of hand on ability in prehensile tasks as well. The systematic data indicate no significant performance differences between the hands, thus lending support to the present theoretical notion of equipotentiality between the hands. Furthermore, lack of sight does not affect hand ability, just as vision does not determine the direction or the degree of hand preference (Ittyerah, 1993, 2000, 2009).
\n\t\t\tEven if speculations about lack of differences between the hands in the sighted children may be attributed to their temporary blindfold conditions which can be expected to hamper the performance of the preferred hand, there is no reason to expect a similar decline among the blind children who are also mostly right handed. Therefore though vision may provide external references for the sighted, the blind are found to use self reference cues during performance and visuo-spatial proficiency is found to improve under blind conditions as well (Liben, 1988, Millar, 1994). Body centred coding is not confined to the position of the limbs relative to each other or to other body parts. Body centred frames can also be used to code object locations, for example, by coding the hand position which is touching an object by reference to the body midline. When subjects are stationary in blindfold conditions, information is restricted to personal space that is, to spatial locations within the arms reach without moving bodily to another place. Such conditions are of particular interest in studying both short and long term effects of modes of perception on coding.
\n\t\t\t\tAn absence of differences between the hands both with and without practice, indicates an equally good performance with both hands in the total absence of vision for prehensile movements that involve sorting and stacking of objects, the finer coordination of the thumb and forefinger as in finger dexterity tasks and the general ability of the fingers of both hands in the manipulation tasks. Therefore vision does not affect the general maturation of the child since the blind can gain in proficiency with practice of visuo spatial tasks in the total absence of vision. This proficiency is not only confined to the preferred hand but is also to the same extent in the nonpreferred hand. Findings indicate no effect of hand on ability and suggest equipotentiality between the hands for both prehensile and nonprehensile actions.
\n\t\t\tThe hands are most often used to perceive and discriminate objects by touch. The tactile perception of an object is more accurate with systematic than unsystematic exploration. Accurate haptic coding of information is dependent upon reference frames. The importance of reference frames for accurate coding of movements was emphasized by Jeannerod (1988), Paillard (1991) and Berthoz (1993). Systematic exploration of stimulus characteristics with the hand or fingers requires an anchor or reference point that can be recognized as the end and starting point of the exploratory movement. To know what is to count as spatial processes independent of hand effects, Millar and Al-Attar (2003b) tested two hypotheses. The first hypothesis that the left hand is better for spatial tasks, predicts a left hand advantage for performance in all conditions. The alternate reference hypothesis predicts significantly greater accuracy in haptic recall with explicit additional reference information than in conditions that do not provide additional reference information.
\n\t\t\tThe reference hypothesis assumes that distance and location judgments are spatial tasks. Haptic distance judgments are not solely kinesthetic inputs. Movement distances should be coded spatially if they can be related to reference information (Millar 2008). Millar and Al-Attar (2003a) found that haptic distance judgments do involve spatial coding. Recall of a repeated small distance was disturbed not only by a movement task, but also by a spatial task that required no movements. In a subsequent study (Millar and Al-Attar 2003b) required subjects to recall distance or locations of hapically felt extents. The control condition consisted of scanning the critical distances or locations in presentation and recall without touching any other part of the display or surround. In the experimental or reference conditions, subjects were instructed to use an actual external frame around the stimuli, and also their body midline for reference. The results showed that the added reference information reduced errors very significantly compared to the normal conditions, regardless of whether the left hand scanned the distance in control and frame conditions and right hand was used for the frame, or whether the right hand scanned the distance in control and frame conditions and the left hand was used for the frame. The left and right hands did not differ from each other in accuracy in either control conditions or in reference instruction conditions. The results supported the hypothesis that the use of external frame and body centred reference cues make haptic distance judgments more accurate. The fact that the accuracy of recall with the left hand did not interact differentially with the increase in accuracy with the instructions to use reference cues showed that scanning the distance would involve left hemisphere processing of the movements as well as the spatial aspects of relocating the end position from the new (guided) starting point, and therefore right hemisphere processes also. Cross lateral effects from both right and left hemisphere processes that inhibit or counterbalance each other would explain why the left hand did not perform better than the right and why it did not relate differentially to the advantage in accuracy from instructions to use spatial reference cues. The important finding was that instructions to use body centred and external frame cues for reference improved recall accuracy for both distance and locations, independently of hand performance, task differences and movement effects. Thus reference information can be used as a reliable test of spatial coding.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tMillar and Al-Attar (2004) further tested how egocentric and allocentric coding relate to each other. The hypothesis that haptic targets can only be coded spatially in relation to body centred cues would predict that providing haptic cues explicitly from an external surround would not improve recall accuracy beyond the level found with body centred reference cues alone. If on the other hand the difference in spatial coding is due solely to the lack of external reference information that is normally available in haptic task conditions, providing external haptic cues explicitly for reference in a spatial task should improve recall significantly.
\n\t\t\tMillar and Al-Attar tested subjects with a spatial task that people might actually encounter in daily living. The task was to remember the precise location of five shape symbols as landmarks that had been positioned randomly as raised symbols along an irregular, but easily felt raised line route. This map like layout had an actual tangible rectangular surrounding frame. Each subject was presented with the map like layout placed on the table and aligned to the subject’s body midline. The subjects placed the fingertip of their preferred right hand at the start of the route and scanned the route from left to right in all presentation conditions and briefly stopped on each landmark symbol they encountered on the route, in order that they be remembered for the recall tests.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tMillar and Al- Attar (2004) found that disrupting body centred cues by rotation increased errors significantly compared to intact body centred coding in the body aligned condition. The critical results were a significant decrease in positioning errors with added external reference information when body centred coding was disrupted by rotation, compared to the rotation condition that lacked external reference information. The condition with intact body centred cues and added external reference information was more accurate in comparison to the body aligned condition without external cues, and more accurate also than the condition with added external information, when body centred coding was disturbed by rotation. Further, accuracy with added external reference information but disrupted body centred coding did not differ from intact body centred coding without external reference information.
\n\t\t\tThe experimental manipulation of separating and combining external and body centred reference showed that external reference cues can also be used with purely haptic information and this seems to be as equally effective for spatial coding as is body centred reference information (Millar and Al-Attar 2004).
\n\t\t\tIn summary haptic touch and hand ability are related. The preferred hand is not necessarily the skilled hand and performance of the left and right hands indicate near equal hand ability. The hands differ in their orientation of performance though haptic perception and identification of objects rely on a frame of reference. Identification of differences in shapes and sizes of objects by touch rely on different reference information. Object identification is possible with either hand early in development in both blind and sighted blindfolded conditions and there is no effect of hand on ability.
\n\t\tPeptic ulcers are not a modern disease. Ulcers have plagued mankind since the age of Hippocrates (born 460 BCE), who had been known to use honey and mastic oil for symptomatic relief. Record of surgery for a gastric ulcer was found written in stone in the temple of Aesculapius at Epidaurus as described by Goldstein in 1943: “A man with an ulcer in his stomach…Asklepios opened his stomach, cut out the ulcer, sewed him up again, and loosed his bonds. He went away whole, but the chamber was covered with his blood.” [1], (Goldstein HI. Ulcer and cancer of the stomach in the middle ages. J Internal Coll Surgeons. 1943;
Exactly 100 years after Rydygier’s groundbreaking surgery, pathologist Dr. Robin Warren met Dr. Barry Marshall at the Royal Perth Hospital, Australia during internal medicine fellowship training. Sharing an interest in the physiology of gastritis, they spent 2 years studying the stomach and discovered the spiral bacteria
In the wake of Marshall and Warren’s achievement, new therapies evolved against peptic ulcer disease. Proposed treatments have been published since the 1990s and updated to reflect the advancements in diagnostics, resistance to antibiotics, and geographic prevalence patterns. General regimens include acid-reducing agents and various antimicrobials [1]. Medical therapy has proven to be largely successful in combating H. Pylori, with eradication rates of 70–95% across several trials [5, 6]. The patterns of peptic ulcer disease have therefore shifted from a once-common surgical problem to an entity treated effectively through oral medications.
Several studies have shown that hospitalizations for peptic ulcer disease have declined since the 1980s [7, 8, 9, 10]. However, despite improvement due much in part to the advancement of medical therapy, PUD persists in the population with a lifetime prevalence in of 5–10% and incidence of 0.1–0.3% yearly. Roughly 10–20% of these patients experience complications, including hemorrhage and less commonly, perforation [11]. The sequelae of PUD complications are often life-threatening and it is in these cases that surgical evaluation must be sought.
The current role for surgery in peptic ulcer disease is largely in the emergent setting, with bleeding, perforation, and obstruction as the major indications for intervention.
In patients with perforated peptic ulcer disease with significant pneumoperitoneum, extraluminal contrast extravasation on diagnostic study, or signs of peritonitis, operative treatment is recommended [11]. It is further suggested that the operation is performed promptly (within 24 hours) to decrease morbidity and mortality [12, 13]. Endoscopy currently has no role in the treatment of acutely perforated peptic ulcers. The laparoscopic and open approaches have both been described in the management of perforated peptic ulcers. Selection of surgical approach is based at least partially on surgeon experience and available equipment. In unstable patients, open surgery is favored. Several studies have pointed to comparable outcomes between open and laparoscopic surgery including overall postoperative complication rate, mortality, and reoperation rate. Laparoscopic surgery may have advantages in reducing hospital stay, lowering rate of surgical site infection, and less postoperative pain when compared to open surgery [14, 15, 16]. Robotic-assisted laparoscopic surgery has not been widely used for perforated or bleeding peptic ulcers and is not currently recommended in an emergent setting.
Several factors will tailor the ultimate surgical intervention to be performed. These include ulcer location, ulcer size, history of prior surgeries, prior ulcer treatment and patient stability. With gastric ulcers, excision of the ulcer with reconstruction of the resultant defect is the operative goal. For gastric ulcers located in the greater curvature, antrum, or body of the stomach, a wedge excision of the ulcer usually can be performed easily with linear staplers. Wedge resection results in both closure of the perforation and obtaining a tissue sample for biopsy—a critical consideration give the reported 4–14% rate of malignancy in perforated gastric ulcers [17]. Ulcers along the lesser curvature present a challenge given the proximity to the GE junction and the left gastric arterial flow. In distal lesser curvature ulcer cases, a distal gastrectomy may be considered. The proximal ulcer close to the gastroesophageal junction may require a subtotal gastrectomy with a subsequent Roux-en-Y esophagogastrojejunostomy.
It is important to note that perforations of the pyloric channel and the duodenum are functionally grouped together. Treatment of a small perforated duodenal ulcers (<2 cm) classically involves pedicled omentum placed into the defect as a repair. Primary repair, with or without an omental patch has also been described. Historically, an omental patch has been advocated to buttress a primary repair; however, recent studies point to no meaningful difference in leakage rate or mortality with addition of this step [18]. The operative approach to larger duodenal ulcers requires thorough calculation and a large range of interventions are available based on each patient’s individual scenario. An omental patch repair in duodenal ulcer perforations that are greater than 2 cm in size have an increased rate of postoperative leaks (up to 12%) [17]. Partial gastrectomy with subsequent reconstruction via a gastroduodenostomy (Billroth I) or gastrojejunostomy (Billroth II) may be performed to address the ulcer and restore gastrointestinal continuity. Additionally, the jejunum can be used in a pedicled graft or serosal patch approach. The involvement of the duodenum containing the ampulla of Vater is a particularly arduous challenge. When in doubt, the integrity of the ampulla should be investigated with intraoperative cholangiography. Damage-control procedures such as the Roux-en-Y duodenojejunostomy or pyloric exclusion may be warranted in patients with tenuous stability. The duodenostomy tube should be considered as last-resort procedure when the patient’s hemodynamic status on the operating table will not allow for a more complex operation. An emergent Whipple comes with a high rate of morbidity and mortality and should generally not be attempted.
The evolution of endoscopic skills and technology in the last several decades has brought this technique to the forefront of bleeding ulcers and often obviates the need for surgical intervention. Early endoscopy (within 24 hours) is first-line therapy with the employment of therapeutic endoscopic interventions as needed, along with the initiation of parenteral proton pump inhibitors [11]. Roughly 10–20% of patients will have recurrent bleeding despite endoscopic therapy, at which time repeat endoscopy should be considered [19]. Patients who remain hemodynamically stable thereafter without high-risk ulcer features may then be safely discharged with continued oral PPI management. Surgery becomes warranted in cases of bleeding peptic ulcers when endoscopy fails or when the patient is deemed high-risk of a rebleeding event. Large ulcers (>2 cm) and hypotension at rebleeding are reported independent factors of predicting failure in further endoscopic treatment. Other features reported to prompt surgical consultation for further management include pulsatile bleeding, visible blood vessels in posterior duodenal ulcers, and transfusion requirement greater than 6 units of blood in the first 24 hours [20].
The surgical procedures currently used in bleeding gastroduodenal ulcers are on a spectrum of minimal to definitive interventions. The principal objective in life-saving surgery is hemorrhage control, which may be achieved through simple intraluminal oversewing or ligature, plication, or excision of the ulcer and repair of the defect [20]. The initial procedure may also include control of the arteries of the stomach or duodenum through direct ligation.
The management of emergent PUD has largely left out procedures that were designed to address the underlying problem--a once common consideration in all patients with PUD up until the 20th century. Acid-reducing procedures historically included division of the vagus nerve at various points in order to decrease the acetylcholine-mediated secretion of acid from parietal cells [21].
The truncal vagotomy is the division of the anterior and posterior trunks of the vagus nerves roughly 4 cm proximal to the gastro-esophageal junction. Stimulation of parietal cells is interrupted through this procedure; however, the lack of sympathetic input to the stomach results in a lack of relaxation, thereby decreasing the propulsion of solids from the stomach into the small intestine. Therefore, a concomitant drainage procedure, consisting of a pyloroplasty or antral resection would be performed. A selective vagotomy is similar but involves division of the vagus nerves at the more distal anterior and posterior branches after the level of the celiac and hepatobiliary branching. The highly selective vagotomy (HSV) was tailored to avoid the need for a drainage procedure. The HSV involves division of the nerve fibers supplying the parietal cells of the fundus and body of stomach, sparing the “crows’s foot” fibers innervating the antrum and pylorus. Given the rise of medical management, the role of the vagotomy with or without drainage procedures in peptic ulcer disease is limited to very few cases [22].
The main indication for consideration of an acid-reducing procedure are patients whose disease is refractory to medical management or those who cannot reliably participate or tolerate proton-pump inhibitors. Specifically, it is cases of duodenal ulcers (Type II and III) in which a vagotomy may be considered--gastric ulcers (TYpe I, IV) are not related to acid hypersecretion and therefore resection alone is indicated. In emergent situations, including bleeding duodenal ulcers and perforated duodenal ulcers, the use of a vagotomy is debated and is often surgeon-dependent. In general, the presence of peritonitis, shock, abdominal abscess, delay in treatment over 24 hours, or severe concurrent medical illness are contraindications to lengthening the surgery by adding a vagotomy to the rest of the surgical management plan [22, 23].
In the era of rapidly advancing surgical instruments and techniques, innovations in peptic ulcer disease surgery are rising in efforts to improve patient outcomes. The robotic platform is emerging as a feasible alternative to surgical treatment in the elective settings for many diseases. There have a been case reports of gastric resections performed safely with the assistance of the surgical robot, and whether the robot has a wider role for peptic ulcer disease merits exploration [24, 25]. Most prior reports of robotic assisted laparoscopic surgery for the stomach are those done for malignancy.
The pedicled omental plug for a large duodenal ulcer is a described twist on the classic omental patch closure. In this procedure, a nasogastric tube is inserted through the oropharynx and down through the perforation. A tongue of omentum is then secured to the tube via sutures and withdrawn into the stomach, where it is sutured to the ulcer edges. This omental plug shows promise, as was associated with a lower recurrent leak and duodenal stenosis rate in a randomized trial comparison against the standard omental patch [26]. Falciform flaps may be a feasible option in patients who do not have a viable omentum [27].
With the introduction of SARS-CoV-2 to the world’s collective biome we have observed unprecedented patterns of illness, with both the aversion of presenting to an affected hospital and the virus itself affecting disease across multiple organ systems. We here present a look at the relationship, if any, between COVID-19 and peptic ulcer disease.
It is well-known that COVID-19 presents with respiratory symptoms; however, several other manifestations are being seen. In one study comprised of over 20,000 patients, up to 29% had enteric symptoms including abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea [28]. The pathophysiology of gastrointestinal tract manifestations of COVID-19 is thought to stem from several biochemical mechanisms including infection of the GI tract/liver leading to cellular inflammation and damage, dysbiosis enhancing the inflammatory response and cytokine storm, and affliction of the neuroenteric system [29].
GI bleeding is a reported, though less common manifestation associated with COVID-19. A rather high prevalence of PUD complicated by bleeding was noticed in one cohort of patients with moderate-to-severe ARDs caused by COVID-19 [29]. In another study performed on COVID-positive hospitalized patients undergoing endoscopy (n = 106), one-fourth of the studied population had peptic ulcers while an additional 16% had erosive/ulcerative gastro-duodenopathy [30]. The mainstay of treatment in peptic ulcer disease is proton-pump inhibitors; however, at least one study has demonstrated that PPI treatment is associated with worse outcomes in those infected by SARS-CoV-2 and development of COVID-19 when compared to individuals who are not taking a PPI [28]. The mechanism responsible for this finding remains unclear.
Another factor to consider in patients afflicted with peptic ulcer disease is the pattern of behavior in seeking medical evaluation during a pandemic. As the admissions for COVID-19 related respiratory illnesses increased dramatically, several hospitals reported decreased admissions and emergency medicine visits for non-COVID related diseases [31, 32, 33]. Theories concerning this trends in admissions during the pandemic include failure to present to a hospital secondary to fear of contracting COVID-19, which may have made some cases of illness more profound up to the point of death in the community [33]. The first United States Coronavirus epicenter in New York performed a multicenter study looking specifically at emergent general surgery admissions. Comparison to prior years indicated that there was an overall decrease in admissions with an overall increase in mortality. Peptic ulcer disease was one of the seven diagnoses that was observed [34]. A delay of 12 hours was found in 10 cases of complicated peptic ulcer disease in one institution during a two-month period [35]. The question arises if the increase in mortality is at least in part attributable to delayed presentation.
The full clinical spectrum of COVID-19 has not yet fully been elucidated. There is surprisingly limited data on the relationship between COVID-19 and peptic ulcer disease. The pathogenesis of ulcers in the setting of SARS-CoV-2 affliction may be related to direct gastric epithelial damage, stress resulting from the acute disease, or active mucosal inflammation sustained by cytokine storming [36]. Development of treatment guidelines in COVID-19 positive patients who sustain gastrointestinal manifestations of disease warrants further investigation.
Peptic ulcer disease remains a healthcare issue across the world and requires an interdisciplinary approach. In linking H. Pylori and NSAID use to peptic ulcers, pioneering efforts in controlling PUD have largely been seen in the primary care setting. However, complications from PUD persist in the population, and surgical intervention will continue to play a role in the very worst of the disease burden. It is therefore the responsibility of the surgical community to advance care through innovation of technique to provide optimal outcomes. This is especially true in the era of a pandemic where healthcare dynamics are adversely affected.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Küden"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"142",title:"Soil Science",slug:"environmental-sciences-soil-science",parent:{id:"12",title:"Environmental Sciences",slug:"environmental-sciences"},numberOfBooks:5,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:145,numberOfWosCitations:241,numberOfCrossrefCitations:184,numberOfDimensionsCitations:394,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"142",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10005",title:"Applications of Biochar for Environmental Safety",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b8356a04f22509c43c19b3be88fa79a0",slug:"applications-of-biochar-for-environmental-safety",bookSignature:"Ahmed A. Abdelhafez and Mohammed H. H. Abbas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10005.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196849",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Abdelhafez",slug:"ahmed-abdelhafez",fullName:"Ahmed Abdelhafez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6909",title:"Soil Contamination and Alternatives for Sustainable Development",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"416bc69bab575d19fd85277f6f020e0c",slug:"soil-contamination-and-alternatives-for-sustainable-development",bookSignature:"Dinora Vázquez-Luna and María del Carmen Cuevas-Díaz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6909.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"169742",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinora",middleName:null,surname:"Vázquez-Luna",slug:"dinora-vazquez-luna",fullName:"Dinora Vázquez-Luna"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6316",title:"Peat",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f47ea9e0e0a431c0bd28420154a4727",slug:"peat",bookSignature:"Bülent Topcuoğlu and Metin Turan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6316.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"194133",title:"Prof.",name:"Bülent",middleName:null,surname:"Topcuoğlu",slug:"bulent-topcuoglu",fullName:"Bülent Topcuoğlu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5358",title:"Soil Contamination",subtitle:"Current Consequences and Further Solutions",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e4d136df9f1658ae17f3ba7b3c992460",slug:"soil-contamination-current-consequences-and-further-solutions",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5358.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3547",title:"Applied Bioremediation",subtitle:"Active and Passive Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"adbc7f00ff076669e6453badde052d64",slug:"applied-bioremediation-active-and-passive-approaches",bookSignature:"Yogesh B. Patil and Prakash Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3547.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"164249",title:"Dr.",name:"Yogesh",middleName:"Bhagwan",surname:"Patil",slug:"yogesh-patil",fullName:"Yogesh Patil"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"45214",doi:"10.5772/56157",title:"Bioremediation of Waters Contaminated with Heavy Metals Using Moringa oleifera Seeds as Biosorbent",slug:"bioremediation-of-waters-contaminated-with-heavy-metals-using-moringa-oleifera-seeds-as-biosorbent",totalDownloads:7805,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:41,abstract:null,book:{id:"3547",slug:"applied-bioremediation-active-and-passive-approaches",title:"Applied Bioremediation",fullTitle:"Applied Bioremediation - Active and Passive Approaches"},signatures:"Cleide S. T. Araújo, Dayene C. Carvalho, Helen C. Rezende, Ione L. S.\nAlmeida, Luciana M. Coelho, Nívia M. M. Coelho, Thiago L. Marques\nand Vanessa N. Alves",authors:[{id:"163731",title:"Prof.",name:"Nivia",middleName:null,surname:"Coelho",slug:"nivia-coelho",fullName:"Nivia Coelho"}]},{id:"45279",doi:"10.5772/56418",title:"Persistence and Bioaccumulation of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)",slug:"persistence-and-bioaccumulation-of-persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-",totalDownloads:4527,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:null,book:{id:"3547",slug:"applied-bioremediation-active-and-passive-approaches",title:"Applied Bioremediation",fullTitle:"Applied Bioremediation - Active and Passive Approaches"},signatures:"Tomaz Langenbach",authors:[{id:"100969",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomaz",middleName:null,surname:"Langenbach",slug:"tomaz-langenbach",fullName:"Tomaz Langenbach"}]},{id:"45726",doi:"10.5772/56905",title:"Rhizoremediation: A Promising Rhizosphere Technology",slug:"rhizoremediation-a-promising-rhizosphere-technology",totalDownloads:3007,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:null,book:{id:"3547",slug:"applied-bioremediation-active-and-passive-approaches",title:"Applied Bioremediation",fullTitle:"Applied Bioremediation - Active and Passive Approaches"},signatures:"Keshav Prasad Shukla, Shivesh Sharma, Nand Kumar Singh,\nVasudha Singh, Sandeep Bisht and Vivek Kumar",authors:[{id:"164650",title:"Dr.",name:"Shivesh",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"shivesh-sharma",fullName:"Shivesh Sharma"}]},{id:"52211",doi:"10.5772/64940",title:"Cyanobacterial Toxins Emerging Contaminants in Soils: A Review of Sources, Fate and Impacts on Ecosystems, Plants and Animal and Human Health",slug:"cyanobacterial-toxins-emerging-contaminants-in-soils-a-review-of-sources-fate-and-impacts-on-ecosyst",totalDownloads:4326,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"In the last few decades, there has been a growing interest in the occurrence of cyanotoxins and their potential toxicity in the aquatic environment. However, the used of dried toxic cyanobacteria cells as fertilizer or the used of surface water contaminated with cyanotoxins for agricultural crops irrigation can be source of soil contamination. In addition, surface waters presenting dense toxic blooms of cyanobacteria and used for agricultural practices are not controlled and are often used without prior treatment. Once in soil, cyanotoxins may be transported again to water bodies by leaching, runoff and drainage processes or can be accumulated in soils and, therefore, may cause contamination of vegetation by absorption from soils or by surface pollution of plants. In addition to possible effects on human health, elevated levels of cyanotoxins in soils can negatively affect plant vigour, animal health, microbial processes and overall soil health. Consequently, the focus of this chapter of soil contamination is cyanotoxins as contaminants of emerging concern in the soil, identifying sources of contamination, determining their fate and effects in the soil, and understanding their bioaccumulation in agricultural plants used for feed and food and consequences on animal and human health.",book:{id:"5358",slug:"soil-contamination-current-consequences-and-further-solutions",title:"Soil Contamination",fullTitle:"Soil Contamination - Current Consequences and Further Solutions"},signatures:"Noureddine Bouaïcha and Sylvain Corbel",authors:[{id:"186021",title:"Dr.",name:"Noureddine",middleName:null,surname:"Bouaïcha",slug:"noureddine-bouaicha",fullName:"Noureddine Bouaïcha"},{id:"186034",title:"Dr.",name:"Sylvain",middleName:null,surname:"Corbel",slug:"sylvain-corbel",fullName:"Sylvain Corbel"}]},{id:"45263",doi:"10.5772/56372",title:"Biodegradation of the Organophosphate Pesticide Profenofos by Marine Fungi",slug:"biodegradation-of-the-organophosphate-pesticide-profenofos-by-marine-fungi",totalDownloads:3916,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:null,book:{id:"3547",slug:"applied-bioremediation-active-and-passive-approaches",title:"Applied Bioremediation",fullTitle:"Applied Bioremediation - Active and Passive Approaches"},signatures:"Natália Alvarenga da Silva, Willian Garcia Birolli, Mirna Helena Regali Seleghim and André Luiz Meleiro Porto",authors:[{id:"29131",title:"Prof.",name:"André",middleName:null,surname:"LM Porto",slug:"andre-lm-porto",fullName:"André LM Porto"},{id:"164743",title:"Ms.",name:"Natália Alvarenga",middleName:null,surname:"Da Silva",slug:"natalia-alvarenga-da-silva",fullName:"Natália Alvarenga Da Silva"},{id:"164744",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirna Helena R.",middleName:null,surname:"Seleghim",slug:"mirna-helena-r.-seleghim",fullName:"Mirna Helena R. Seleghim"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52054",title:"Radioactive Contamination of the Soil: Assessments of Pollutants Mobility with Implication to Remediation Strategies",slug:"radioactive-contamination-of-the-soil-assessments-of-pollutants-mobility-with-implication-to-remedia",totalDownloads:8601,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Accidental releases, nuclear weapons testing, and inadequate practices of radioactive waste disposal are the principal human activities responsible for radioactive contamination as a new and global form of soil degradation. Understanding the radionuclide distribution, mobility and bioavailability, as well as the changes caused by the variation of environmental conditions, is essential for soil rehabilitation. This chapter aims to highlight the importance of evaluating radionuclide distribution, for the selection of proper in situ or ex situ remediation strategy. Attention was focused onto remediation methods based on radioactive pollutants redistribution, for enhanced separation (chemical extraction) or containment (in situ immobilization). When the excavation and off-site leaching treatments are uneconomic, impractical, or unnecessary, in situ stabilization by the addition of appropriate reactive materials is an alternative approach. The optimization of factors in control of chemical leaching methods, selection of cost-effective immobilization agents, especially among suitable wastes and by-products, and verification of long-term effects of remediating actions are the major challenges for future investigation in this field. Furthermore, the improvement and standardization of the methods for radionuclide speciation are necessary to enable comparison between studies and monitoring of the effects achieved by the soil treatments.",book:{id:"5358",slug:"soil-contamination-current-consequences-and-further-solutions",title:"Soil Contamination",fullTitle:"Soil Contamination - Current Consequences and Further Solutions"},signatures:"Ivana Smičiklas and Marija Šljivić-Ivanović",authors:[{id:"186699",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Marija",middleName:null,surname:"Sljivic-Ivanovic",slug:"marija-sljivic-ivanovic",fullName:"Marija Sljivic-Ivanovic"},{id:"186801",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivana",middleName:null,surname:"Smičiklas",slug:"ivana-smiciklas",fullName:"Ivana Smičiklas"}]},{id:"62735",title:"Peat Use in Horticulture",slug:"peat-use-in-horticulture",totalDownloads:1570,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Peat is a spongy substance which is an effect of incomplete decomposition of plant residues in different stages of decomposition. Between the several organic matters which are used as substrate for horticultural plants cultivation in soilless conditions, peat is the unabandonable ingredient for mixtures for commercial production of plants. Peat is used in horticulture as a component of garden plant substrates, in agriculture for the production of garden soil and as an organic fertilizer, and in balneology as a material for baths and wraps. The use of peat for agriculture and horticulture is determined by the following quality parameters: the degree of decomposition, ash content, pH, the presence of carbonates, the density of the solid phase, bulk density, and porosity. As an organic material, the peat forms in the acidic, waterlogged, and sterile conditions of fens and bogs. The conditions seem like the development of mosses. The plants do not compose as they die. Instead of this, the organic matter is laid down and accumulates in a slow time as peat due to the oxygen deficiency in the bog. This makes peat a highly productive growing medium. In the present novel review, we discuss the peat use in horticulture.",book:{id:"6316",slug:"peat",title:"Peat",fullTitle:"Peat"},signatures:"Nurgul Kitir, Ertan Yildirim, Üstün Şahin, Metin Turan, Melek Ekinci,\nSelda Ors, Raziye Kul, Hüsnü Ünlü and Halime Ünlü",authors:[{id:"140612",title:"Prof.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Turan",slug:"metin-turan",fullName:"Metin Turan"},{id:"186637",title:"Dr.",name:"Nurgül",middleName:null,surname:"Kıtır",slug:"nurgul-kitir",fullName:"Nurgül Kıtır"},{id:"186639",title:"Prof.",name:"Ertan",middleName:null,surname:"Yildirim",slug:"ertan-yildirim",fullName:"Ertan Yildirim"},{id:"247120",title:"Prof.",name:"Melek",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"melek-ekinci",fullName:"Melek Ekinci"},{id:"247121",title:"Prof.",name:"Selda",middleName:null,surname:"Ors",slug:"selda-ors",fullName:"Selda Ors"},{id:"247122",title:"MSc.",name:"Raziye",middleName:null,surname:"Kul",slug:"raziye-kul",fullName:"Raziye Kul"},{id:"247123",title:"Prof.",name:"Ustun",middleName:null,surname:"Sahin",slug:"ustun-sahin",fullName:"Ustun Sahin"},{id:"260571",title:"Prof.",name:"Hüsnü",middleName:null,surname:"Ünlü",slug:"husnu-unlu",fullName:"Hüsnü Ünlü"},{id:"260572",title:"Dr.",name:"Halime",middleName:null,surname:"Ünlü",slug:"halime-unlu",fullName:"Halime Ünlü"}]},{id:"59383",title:"The Status of Pachiterric Histosol Properties as Influenced by Different Land Use",slug:"the-status-of-pachiterric-histosol-properties-as-influenced-by-different-land-use",totalDownloads:1335,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Soil drainage as well as soil cultivation and fertilization has considerable influence on the organic matter mineralization rate and changes in the profile structure. Our research suggested that quantitative and qualitative characteristics of peat soil are changing in response to the renaturalization processes and different management. The study set out to estimate chemical and physical properties of Pachiterric Histosol, qualitative and quantitative changes in carbon resulting from different management and renaturalization processes. Wetland and peatland soils are among the largest organic carbon stocks, and their use contributes to carbon emissions or accumulation processes. The focus of our work is research into the peculiarities of organic carbon accumulation and transformation as influenced by different land use of peat soil. Results on the chemical properties of Pachiterric Histosol showed the influence of management and renaturalization on mobile and by pyrophosphate solution extractable humic and fulvic acids and humification degree. We are also exploring the specificities of organic carbon variation in the context of peat renaturalization and are seeking to answer the question as how to optimize the use of peat soils and how to match up this with the renaturalization processes in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and contribute to organic carbon accumulation and conservation in the soil.",book:{id:"6316",slug:"peat",title:"Peat",fullTitle:"Peat"},signatures:"Alvyra Slepetiene, Kristina Amaleviciute-Volunge, Jonas Slepetys,\nInga Liaudanskiene and Jonas Volungevicius",authors:[{id:"211107",title:"Dr.",name:"Alvyra",middleName:null,surname:"Slepetiene",slug:"alvyra-slepetiene",fullName:"Alvyra Slepetiene"},{id:"211216",title:"Dr.",name:"Kristina",middleName:null,surname:"Amaleviciute",slug:"kristina-amaleviciute",fullName:"Kristina Amaleviciute"},{id:"211217",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonas",middleName:null,surname:"Slepetys",slug:"jonas-slepetys",fullName:"Jonas Slepetys"},{id:"211219",title:"Dr.",name:"Inga",middleName:null,surname:"Liaudanskiene",slug:"inga-liaudanskiene",fullName:"Inga Liaudanskiene"},{id:"211221",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonas",middleName:null,surname:"Volungevicius",slug:"jonas-volungevicius",fullName:"Jonas Volungevicius"}]},{id:"71992",title:"Biochar-Assisted Wastewater Treatment and Waste Valorization",slug:"biochar-assisted-wastewater-treatment-and-waste-valorization",totalDownloads:1225,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Biochar is the solid byproduct of pyrolysis, and its cascading use can offset the cost of the production and its use in application such as soil remediation. A wide variety of research on biochar has highlighted its ability to absorb nutrients, metal and complex compounds, filter suspended solids, enhance microorganisms’ growth, retain water and nutrients as well as increasing the carbon content of the soil. Besides, sustainable biochar systems are an attractive approach for carbon sequestration and total waste management cycle. The chapter looks into such cascading use of biochar in wastewater treatment for recovering nutrients and improving the efficiency of activated sludge treatment and anaerobic digestion for producing biosolid with enhanced soil amendment properties.",book:{id:"10005",slug:"applications-of-biochar-for-environmental-safety",title:"Applications of Biochar for Environmental Safety",fullTitle:"Applications of Biochar for Environmental Safety"},signatures:"Abhishek Pokharel, Bishnu Acharya and Aitazaz Farooque",authors:[{id:"317504",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Bishnu",middleName:null,surname:"Acharya",slug:"bishnu-acharya",fullName:"Bishnu Acharya"},{id:"317505",title:"Mr.",name:"Abhishek",middleName:null,surname:"Pokharel",slug:"abhishek-pokharel",fullName:"Abhishek Pokharel"},{id:"317506",title:"Dr.",name:"Aitazaz",middleName:null,surname:"Farooque",slug:"aitazaz-farooque",fullName:"Aitazaz Farooque"}]},{id:"62866",title:"Introductory Chapter: Introduction to Peat",slug:"introductory-chapter-introduction-to-peat",totalDownloads:1029,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"6316",slug:"peat",title:"Peat",fullTitle:"Peat"},signatures:"Bülent Topcuoğlu and Metin Turan",authors:[{id:"194133",title:"Prof.",name:"Bülent",middleName:null,surname:"Topcuoğlu",slug:"bulent-topcuoglu",fullName:"Bülent Topcuoğlu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"142",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:320,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:17,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:301,paginationItems:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. 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