Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
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Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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They may also be used for safety, security, permission, banking, crime prevention, forensics, medical applications, and communication. This book explores the latest developments, theories, methods, approaches, algorithms, analysis, systems, hardware, and software in biometrics and related systems.",isbn:"978-1-80355-457-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-456-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-458-7",doi:null,price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"recent-advances-in-biometrics",numberOfPages:236,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"2d32e33e0f499cb5241734bb75dd2a83",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarfraz",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11195.jpg",numberOfDownloads:556,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:null,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 10th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 8th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 7th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 25th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 26th 2022",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Kuwait"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"557",title:"Intelligent System",slug:"computer-science-and-engineering-intelligent-system"}],chapters:[{id:"82268",title:"Introductory Chapter: On Biometrics with Iris",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105134",slug:"introductory-chapter-on-biometrics-with-iris",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Muhammad Sarfraz and Nourah Alfialy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82268",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82268",authors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz"},{id:"473361",title:"Dr.",name:"Nourah",surname:"Alfialy",slug:"nourah-alfialy",fullName:"Nourah Alfialy"}],corrections:null},{id:"80031",title:"Biometric-Based Human Recognition Systems: An Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101686",slug:"biometric-based-human-recognition-systems-an-overview",totalDownloads:171,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"With the proliferation of automated systems for reliable and highly secure human authentication and identification, the importance of technological solutions in biometrics is growing along with security awareness. Indeed, conventional authentication methodologies, consisting of knowledge-based systems that make use of something you know (e.g., username and password) and token-based systems that make use of something you have (e.g., identification card), are not able to meet the strict requirements of reliable security applications. Conversely, biometric systems make use of behavioral (extrinsic) and/or physiological (intrinsic) human characteristics, overcoming the security issues affecting the conventional methods for personal authentication. This book chapter provides an overview of the most commonly used biometric traits along with their properties, the various biometric system operating modalities as well as various security aspects related to these systems. In particular, it will be discussed the different stages involved in a biometric recognition process and further discuss various threats that can be exploited to compromise the security of a biometric system. Finally, in order to evaluate the systems’ performance, metrics must be adopted. The most widely used metrics are, therefore, discussed in relation to the provided system accuracy and security, and applicability in real-world deployments.",signatures:"David Palma and Pier Luca Montessoro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80031",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80031",authors:[{id:"121529",title:"Prof.",name:"Pier Luca",surname:"Montessoro",slug:"pier-luca-montessoro",fullName:"Pier Luca Montessoro"},{id:"439402",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Palma",slug:"david-palma",fullName:"David Palma"}],corrections:null},{id:"80525",title:"Assessment of How Users Perceive the Usage of Biometric Technology Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101969",slug:"assessment-of-how-users-perceive-the-usage-of-biometric-technology-applications",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biometrics applications are progressively widespread as a means of authenticating end-users owing to the extensive range of benefits over traditional authentication (token-base-authentication). However, the transaction involves taking into account the perceptions and responses of end-users. If end-users are fearful, hesitant about these biometric technology-applications, misuse and implementation-complications can surely overshadow. The goal of this study is to sightsee the user’s-motivation, understanding, consciousness and acceptance towards utilization of biometric technology-applications. A 300-person survey was conducted to evaluate public-opinion on the use and adoption of biometrics. Stratified sample technique was used to administer the surveys. The results presented that perceived ease-of-use, user-motivation and attitude are more important-factors when deciding whether to accept new technology-applications. Although many end-users have become more familiar with biometric technology-applications (e.g., Fingerprints or facial-recognition), many individuals still have a negative-perception of the technology. Concerns regarding confidentiality and security i.e., storing and protecting personal-identification data, the fear of intruding into a person’s daily-life and disclosing personal-information remain a major problem. Some end-users claim that despite the potential resilience to biometrics, designers must mentally and psychologically prepare the general public for the new use of biometric technology. This will make it possible to transform negative user-perceptions into a positive-experience. Thus, this study can help end-users and companies understand and make the right decisions to promote the use of biometric-applications and services. The study is expected to be an important research-discovery that will greatly contribute to Uganda’s digital-economy.",signatures:"Taban Habibu, Edith Talina Luhanga and Anael Elikana Sam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80525",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80525",authors:[{id:"438683",title:"Dr.",name:"Taban",surname:"Habibu",slug:"taban-habibu",fullName:"Taban Habibu"},{id:"438684",title:"Dr.",name:"Anael",surname:"Elikana Sam",slug:"anael-elikana-sam",fullName:"Anael Elikana Sam"},{id:"438685",title:"Dr.",name:"Edith",surname:"Talina Luhanga",slug:"edith-talina-luhanga",fullName:"Edith Talina Luhanga"}],corrections:null},{id:"80748",title:"Behavioral Biometrics: Past, Present and Future",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102841",slug:"behavioral-biometrics-past-present-and-future",totalDownloads:78,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Behavioral biometrics are changing the way users are authenticated to access resources by adding an extra layer of security seamlessly. Behavioral biometric authentication identifies users based on a set of unique behaviors that can be observed when users perform daily activities or interact with smart devices. There are different types of behavioral biometrics that can be used to create unique profiles of users. For example, skill-based behavioral biometrics are common biometrics that is based on the instinctive, unique and stable muscle actions taken by the user. Other types include style-based behavioral biometrics, knowledge-based behavioral biometrics, strategy-based behavioral biometrics, etc. Behavioral biometrics can also be classified based on their use model. Behavioral biometrics can be used for one-time authentication or continuous authentication. One-time authentication occurs only once when a user requests access to a resource. Continuous authentication is a method of confirming the user’s identity in real-time while they are using the service. This chapter discusses the different types of behavioral biometrics and explores the various classifications of behavioral biometrics-based on their use models. The chapter highlights the most trending research directions in behavioral biometrics authentication and presents examples of current commercial solutions that are based on behavioral biometrics.",signatures:"Mridula Sharma and Haytham Elmiligi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80748",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80748",authors:[{id:"437855",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Mridula",surname:"Sharma",slug:"mridula-sharma",fullName:"Mridula Sharma"},{id:"448931",title:"Dr.",name:"Haytham",surname:"Elmiligi",slug:"haytham-elmiligi",fullName:"Haytham Elmiligi"}],corrections:null},{id:"81260",title:"Biometrics of Aquatic Animals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102957",slug:"biometrics-of-aquatic-animals",totalDownloads:48,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter is a part of the book “Recent advances in biometrics” introduces the importance of biometrics in the aquatic studies in brief view. Biometric measurements (Morphometric, meristics and description) are widely used in various fields’ “taxonomy, species identifications, monitoring of pollution, species abnormalities, comparison, environmental changes, growth variation, feeding behavior, ecological strategies, stock management, and water quality of aquaculture. These data were collected from several articles and books of aquatic animals and presented both applications and required considerations for biometric implementations. It is important also to detect sexual dimorphism, adaptations during evolutionary time and diminishing intraspecific competition by increasing niche portioning. The biometrics could be applied for various aquatic organisms as dolphins, sharks, rays, mollusca, crustaceans, protozoa, … etc. and for specific organs like teeth, otolith and appendages by different techniques and preservations. Scientists are still applying these measurements even with the presence of advanced techniques like PCR as they are low in cost, faster and more applicable. This chapter also presented some recent trends including animal’s biometric recognition systems, followed by challenges and considerations for the biometrics implementations. It is recommended to apply biometrics in wide range together with modern techniques considering the specificity of its quality and preservation status.",signatures:"Mahmoud M.S. Farrag",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81260",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81260",authors:[{id:"225312",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mahmoud M.S.",surname:"Farrag",slug:"mahmoud-m.s.-farrag",fullName:"Mahmoud M.S. Farrag"}],corrections:null},{id:"81969",title:"MedMetrics: Biometrics Passports in Medical and Clinical Healthcare That Enable AI and Blockchain",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104419",slug:"medmetrics-biometrics-passports-in-medical-and-clinical-healthcare-that-enable-ai-and-blockchain",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The term biometrics was defined to suggest any measurable biological and biomedical metrics that can be used to identify and confirm the uniqueness of individuals. In this chapter, we would like to introduce an emerging area of biometrics, MedMetrics, that combines patient and drug information managed in coded passports to keep medical information accessible, safe and fraud-resistance. Medmetics includes medical and biological biometrics of patients based on their electronic health records, International Classification of Disease codes, Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical codes, Defined Daily Doses, time-series test results, and personalizsed biological data. By combining the blockchain technology, Medimetrics enables sensitive data sharing in between different clinical settings, allowing monitoring patients’ health and care, as well as avoiding identification-related medical mistakes or frauds. MedMetrics Blockchain Passport can be used to identify patients and confirm their previous health conditions without the right of modifying or removing previous records. Medmetrics can revolutionary change the user demographic, shift safety restrictions, define new user applications, and encourage ethical AI regulations in medical science and health care. This chapter will discuss these directions and provide insights into the next generation of biometrics in medical science and health care.",signatures:"Huiqi Yvonne Lu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81969",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81969",authors:[{id:"24163",title:"Dr.",name:"Huiqi",surname:"Yvonne Lu",slug:"huiqi-yvonne-lu",fullName:"Huiqi Yvonne Lu"}],corrections:null},{id:"81521",title:"Quantum Biometrics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103752",slug:"quantum-biometrics",totalDownloads:27,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It was recently proposed to use the human visual system’s ability to perform efficient photon counting in order to devise a new biometric authentication methodology. The relevant “fingerprint” is represented by the optical losses light suffers along different paths from the cornea to the retina. The “fingerprint” is accessed by interrogating a subject on perceiving or not weak light flashes, containing few tens of photons, thus probing the subject’s visual system at the threshold of perception, at which regime optical losses play a significant role. The name “quantum biometrics” derives from the fact that the photon statistics of the illuminating light, as well as the quantum efficiency at the light detection level of rod cells, are central to the method. Here we elaborate further on this methodology, addressing several aspects like aging effects of the method’s “fingerprint,” as well as its inter-subject variability. We then review recent progress towards the experimental realization of the method. Finally, we summarize a recent proposal to use quantum light sources, in particular a single photon source, in order to enhance the performance of the authentication process. This further corroborates the “quantum” character of the methodology and alludes to the emerging field of quantum vision.",signatures:"Iannis Kominis, Michail Loulakis and Özgur E. Müstecaplıoğlu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81521",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81521",authors:[{id:"438303",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Iannis",surname:"Kominis",slug:"iannis-kominis",fullName:"Iannis Kominis"},{id:"453629",title:"Dr.",name:"Michail",surname:"Loulakis",slug:"michail-loulakis",fullName:"Michail Loulakis"},{id:"453630",title:"Prof.",name:"Özgur E.",surname:"Müstecaplıoğlu",slug:"ozgur-e.-mustecaplioglu",fullName:"Özgur E. Müstecaplıoğlu"}],corrections:null},{id:"80351",title:"Feature Extraction Using Observer Gaze Distributions for Gender Recognition",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101990",slug:"feature-extraction-using-observer-gaze-distributions-for-gender-recognition",totalDownloads:64,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We determine and use the gaze distribution of observers viewing images of subjects for gender recognition. In general, people look at informative regions when determining the gender of subjects in images. Based on this observation, we hypothesize that the regions corresponding to the concentration of the observer gaze distributions contain discriminative features for gender recognition. We generate the gaze distribution from observers while they perform the task of manually recognizing gender from subject images. Next, our gaze-guided feature extraction assigns high weights to the regions corresponding to clusters in the gaze distribution, thereby selecting discriminative features. Experimental results show that the observers mainly focused on the head region, not the entire body. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the gaze-guided feature extraction significantly improves the accuracy of gender recognition.",signatures:"Masashi Nishiyama",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80351",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80351",authors:[{id:"437370",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Masashi",surname:"Nishiyama",slug:"masashi-nishiyama",fullName:"Masashi Nishiyama"}],corrections:null},{id:"80726",title:"Image Acquisition for Biometric: Face Recognition",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102767",slug:"image-acquisition-for-biometric-face-recognition",totalDownloads:52,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biometrics is mostly used for authentication purposes in security. Due to the covid-19 pandemic situation, nowadays distance-based authentication systems are more focused. Face recognition is one of the best approaches which can use for authentication at distance. Face recognition is a challenging task in various environments. For that taking input from the camera is very important for real-time applications. In this chapter, we are more focusing on how to acquire the face image using MATLAB. The complete chapter is divided into five sections introduction, definition of biometrics, image acquisition devices, image acquisition process in MATLAB.",signatures:"Siddharth B. Dabhade, Nagsen S. Bansod, Yogesh S. Rode, Narayan P. Bhosale, Prapti D. Deshmukh and Karbhari V. Kale",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80726",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80726",authors:[{id:"291867",title:"Prof.",name:"Karvhari V.",surname:"Kale",slug:"karvhari-v.-kale",fullName:"Karvhari V. Kale"},{id:"438415",title:"Dr.",name:"Siddharth B.",surname:"Dabhade",slug:"siddharth-b.-dabhade",fullName:"Siddharth B. Dabhade"},{id:"458252",title:"Dr.",name:"Nagsen S.",surname:"Bansod",slug:"nagsen-s.-bansod",fullName:"Nagsen S. Bansod"},{id:"458253",title:"Dr.",name:"Yogesh S.",surname:"Rode",slug:"yogesh-s.-rode",fullName:"Yogesh S. Rode"},{id:"458254",title:"Dr.",name:"Narayan P.",surname:"Bhosale",slug:"narayan-p.-bhosale",fullName:"Narayan P. Bhosale"},{id:"458256",title:"Dr.",name:"Prapti D.",surname:"Deshmukh",slug:"prapti-d.-deshmukh",fullName:"Prapti D. Deshmukh"}],corrections:null},{id:"81690",title:"Your Vital Signs as Your Password?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104783",slug:"your-vital-signs-as-your-password-",totalDownloads:16,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cognitive biometrics (vital signs) indicate the individual’s authentication using his/her mental and emotional status specifically, electrocardiogram (ECG) and electroencephalogram (EEG). The motivation behind cognitive biometrics is their uniqueness, their absolute universality in each living individual, and their resistance toward spoofing and replaying attacks in addition to their indication of life. This chapter investigates the ability to use the vital sign as unimodal authentication in its status by surveying the recent techniques, their requirements and limitation, and whether it is ready to be used in the real market or not. Our observations state—that the vital signs can be considered as a PASSWORD due to their uniqueness, but it needs more improvements to be deployed to the market.",signatures:"Hind Alrubaish and Nazar Saqib",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81690",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81690",authors:[{id:"453084",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Hind",surname:"Alrubaish",slug:"hind-alrubaish",fullName:"Hind Alrubaish"},{id:"463575",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazar",surname:"Saqib",slug:"nazar-saqib",fullName:"Nazar Saqib"}],corrections:null},{id:"80323",title:"A Voice Signal Filtering Methods for Speaker Biometric Identification",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101975",slug:"a-voice-signal-filtering-methods-for-speaker-biometric-identification",totalDownloads:75,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The preliminary stage of the personality biometric identification on a voice is voice signal filtering. For biometric identification are considered and in number investigated the following methods of noise suppression in a voice signal. The smoothing adaptive linear time filtering (algorithm of the minimum root mean square error, an algorithm of recursive least squares, an algorithm of Kalman filtering, a Lee algorithm), the smoothing adaptive linear frequency filtering (the generalized method, the MLEE (maximum likelihood envelope estimation) method, a wavelet analysis with threshold processing (universal threshold, SURE (Stein’s Unbiased Risk Estimator)-threshold, minimax threshold, FDR (False Discovery Rate)-threshold, Bayesian threshold were used), the smoothing non-adaptive linear time filtering (the arithmetic mean filter, the normalized Gauss’s filter, the normalized binomial filter), the smoothing nonlinear filtering (geometric mean filter, the harmonic mean filter, the contraharmonic filter, the α-trimmed mean filter, the median filter, the rank filter, the midpoint filter, the conservative filter, the morphological filter). Results of a numerical research of denoising methods for voice signals people from the TIMIT (Texas Instruments and Massachusetts Institute of Technology) database which were noise an additive Gaussian noise and multiplicative Gaussian noise were received.",signatures:"Eugene Fedorov, Tetyana Utkina and Tetyana Neskorodeva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80323",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80323",authors:[{id:"438652",title:"Prof.",name:"Eugene",surname:"Fedorov",slug:"eugene-fedorov",fullName:"Eugene Fedorov"},{id:"438653",title:"Dr.",name:"Tetyana",surname:"Utkina",slug:"tetyana-utkina",fullName:"Tetyana Utkina"},{id:"438713",title:"Dr.",name:"Tetyana",surname:"Neskorodieva",slug:"tetyana-neskorodieva",fullName:"Tetyana Neskorodieva"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9965",title:"Computational Optimization Techniques and 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\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
The automation and integration of processes in the textile industry is dictated by the increasing need to offer specialized products at optimum quality and low cost, satisfying at the same time the fast cycles of fashion trends or in the case of technical applications the delivery of products of high qualiy and of exact properties. Under these premises, computer engineering tools, such as computer-aided engineering (CAE) and computer-aided design (CAD), have recently gained attention. The revolutionary role of CAE and CAD tools in the textile industry is the guaranty that the final product meets the set specifications, optimizing thus the quality control procedure. Moreover, the prediction of the properties and the aesthetic features of the product before the actual fabrication can essentially benefit the textile research community [Hu and Teng, 1996]. Especially nowadays that textile materials can be used for the production of a wide range of technical products, such as reinforcements in composites for aerospace or marine applications or textiles for medical applications, the prediction of the end-product’s mechanical properties is of major importance. Furthermore, the textile raw materials are processed under low-stress conditions and it is thus reasonable to assume that the knowledge of the possible modifications introduced via the manufacturing process is necessary for the final product realization (Hu, 2004).
\n\t\t\t
Textiles are flexible, anisotropic, inhomogeneous, porous materials with distinct visco-elastic properties. These unique characteristics makes textile structures to behave essentially different compared with other engineering materials. Moreover, textiles are characterized by an increased structural complexity. Their properties mainly depend on a complicated combination of their structural units and their interactions. The complicated nature of the textiles’ mechanics makes them ideal candidates for a mechanical analysis using computer-based methods.
\n\t\t\t
This paper focuses on the investigation of the modeling attempts of woven fabrics. The woven fabrics’ weave patterns as well as the deformation mechanisms of their consistent yarns make these structures modelling extremely challenging (Parsons et al., 2010). An extended literature review of the computational models for the deformation of woven fabrics is presented. Based on these models, the difficulties towards a comprehensive model for textile structures are highlighted. Taking into account the existent literature, the perspective of developing a widely accepted integrated CAE environment for textiles (Hearle, 2006), is also extensively discussed.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. Textile structures and their mechanical behavior
\n\t\t\t
Since this study focuses on the investigation of the existent woven fabrics’ simulation techniques, some introductory remarks concerning the basic structural units of these unique substrates, are thought to be extremely useful. Textile fabrics are made of interlaced yarns which consist of the basic element of every textile product, the fibres. Fabrics are classified according to their manufacture process as knitted, woven and non-woven.
\n\t\t\t
The computational representation of textiles is hindered by the geometrical complexity of the textiles’ basic structural units (fibres and yarns) as well as of the fabrics’ weaving and knitting patents. The aforementioned characteristics of the textiles woven fabrics result in complicated deformations even in cases of simple loading. For example, the tensile deformation of a spun yarn corresponds to the superposition of bending, tensile and compression of the constituent helically arranged fibres. Furthermore, contact phenomena, as sticking and sliding interaction, should be also taken into account in the mechanical deformation analysis increasing thus further the complexity of the mechanical study.
\n\t\t\t
Fabric mechanics study often leads to the introduction of models with simplifying assumptions. The yarn, which is usually assumed as a homogeneous material, is considered as the basic structural unit of the fabrics. The elastic properties of the homogeneous yarn result from the elastic properties of the fibres and include the non-linear structural synergy of them within the yarn body. Even if the yarns are assumed as homogeneous materials, the contact phenomena dominate the deformation procedure of the fabrics. Actually, the friction effects support the stability of the textile structures. The contact phenomena have also a great significance for the stress and strain distribution in a fabric subjected to deformation. The friction energy losses appear during the load transferring along threads. Thus, very often, uneven load distribution appears within the textile structures.
\n\t\t\t
Due to the large deflection effects and the nonlinearity of the textile structures’ deformation phenomena, the fabrics mechanics study requires special attention. The relative large deformation of the fabrics arises from the flexibility of the textile fibres and yarns as well as from the structural details and the way of the load application. The yarns present high deformability which results from the low values of packing factor (the ratio of the fibres volume to the total volume of the yarn). The air trapped between the fibres is easily removed during the axial loading imposing the reduction of the apparent yarn cross sections and thus the high deformation of the yarns which is obviously transferred to the fabrics. Moreover the pattern of the fabrics itself and especially the structure of the fabrics, supports the development of high deformations. From the structural point of view the fabric pattern can be considered as a multi-body system of yarns. The tensile deformation of the fabric corresponds to the synthesis of two processes, the bent yarns’ straightening and their subsequent elongation. The first process dominates in the lower loading stage and the second process appears upon the increase of the load. Thus the load-deflection curves of a textile structure subjected to tensile deformation is strongly nonlinear. The nonlinearity is also supported from the change of the contact status between the yarns, the large deflection effects observed even within the unit cell of the fabric and finally the material nonlinearities
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.1. Technical applications of textiles
\n\t\t\t\t
Although conventional textiles are primarily used for clothing, the use of a variety of raw materials as well as the development of new manufacturing processes led to a considerable expansion of their possible applications. The importance of aesthetic and decorative characteristics of textiles has been decreased by the new materials’ performance and functionality. The growing recognition of the textiles potentials led to revolutionary new technical applications which according to Techtextiles (the international Trade exhibition for technical textiles) are (Horrocks, 2000):
\n\t\t\t\t
Agrotech: agricultural (nonwoven for wind protection)
Buildtech: building and construction (awning, concrete reinforcements)
Sportech: sports and leisure (carbon-fibre composites for racquet frames)
Geotech: geotextiles (nonwovens for drainage, reinforcement)
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Over the last decades there is also an intensive need for high-tech materials with “life functions”. Consequently, research interest has been moved towards the development of textile-based structures which change their properties in response to an external stimulus, offering products with increased functionalities. The so called \'\'intelligent\'\', \'\'smart\'\' textiles in conjunction with the wearable electronics usually consisting of electronic modules incorporated into textiles, support activities in military, telemedicine or rehabilitation (Rossi et al. 2006; Tang, 2007; Cho et al., 2009). Textiles\' flexibility, indicative of the wearer\'s comfort, makes them ideal candidates for interfaces in contact with the human skin. Based on these assumptions, a large number of wearable electronic systems have been developed (Dunne et al., 2005; Xu et al., 2008; Tognetti et al., 2006). Smart textiles development requires the synergistic action of different disciplines such as textile science and engineering, natural sciences, material science, mechanical engineering, electrical and computer engineering and informatics, making this promising research area extremely challenging. Furthermore, the attention attracted by this dynamic sector of textile research is thought to make a contribution towards a cost effective commercialization of innovative textile-based products aiming in the improvement of people’s quality of life.
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Figure 1.
Technical applications of textiles (a) Fabric for solar protection used in the Paul Klee museum, (soltis-textiles, 2011), (b) DuPont’s Kevlar® XP™ developed for hard armor applications, (DuPont, 2011), (c) Space suit developed by ILD Dover (ilddover, 2011)
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Figure 2.
Smart textiles (a) Interactive Led dance shoe by Moritz Waldemeyer (waldemeyer, 2011) (b) Luminate textiles by Phillips (smarteconomy, 2006), (c) Led Dress by Cute Circuit (crunchwear, 2010)
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3. Mechanical modelling of the textile structures
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3.1. Classification of the modelling approaches
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During the last decades, several methods were adopted for the mechanical modelling and analysis of the textile structures. A basic classification, according to the modelling method used, divides them into the analytical and numerical or computational approaches. The dominant engineering design culture played important role for the development and the succession of these approaches. Classical modelling methods find in textiles an attractive application field. Another essential classification of the modelling of the textile structures is made according to the scale of the model. There is micromechanical, mesomechanical and the macromechanical modelling. The micromechanical modelling stage focuses on the study of the yarns, tows even fabrics taking into account the structure, orientation and mechanical properties of the constituent fibres. The mesomechanical modelling, on the other side, studies the mechanical characteristics of the fabric unit cell considering the yarns as homogenous structures. Finally the macromechanical modelling stage is reffered to the prediction of mechanical performance of the fabric in complex deformations, as drape, studing the fabric as a continuum material.
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Although the mentioned modelling stages were developed as distinct analysis approaches, their integration in a compound modelling approach was directly rised. Thus the textile society implemented a modelling hierarchy (Takano et al., 1999; Lomov et al. 2004; Bogdanovich, 2006) based on three modelling scales: the micromechanical modelling of yarns, the mesomechanical modelling of the fabric unit cell and the macromechanical modelling of the fabric sheet (Figure 3).
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According to the integrated textile modelling concept, the only inputs in the total design procedure are the fibre properties, the yarn structure and the fabric structure. In the first modelling stage, the fibre properties and the yarn structure (yarn type, number of fibres, orientation) are introduced as input parameters for the mechanical analysis of the yarn and the calculation of the yarn properties. Then the yarn properties are transferred in the second modelling stage. The selection of the required yarn properties and their attribution in the modelled yarns corresponds to a homogenization procedure that connects the two individual stages. Moreover the woven fabric structure is introduced in the mesomechanical modelling stage. At the current stage the yarns are represented as continuum structures and the analysis is limited on the study of the fabric unit cell. Then a second homogenization stage is required for the connection of the second and the third modelling stage, defining the required properties of the unit cell and their attribution in the continuum fabric models. Finally the macromechanical modelling stage based on the generation of simplified structure (usually continuum material) predicts the mechanical performance of of extended fabric pieces in complex deformations. Each individual modelling procedure such as their interface presents significant obstacles.
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Figure 3.
Integrated textile modelling.
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3.2. Classification of the deformations
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The substantial difficulty arising in textile mechanics consists in the calculation of the superposed deformations in the microscopic scale. Even a simple deformation of the woven fabric, for example a tensile deformation, incures a complex deformation mechanism of straightening, tensile, compression and sliding of yarns in the mesoscopic scale and respective deformations of fibres in the microscopic scale. Moreover the percentage of the deformation increases when it is referred to the microscopic scale since the subjected structures are smaller. For example, a 5 % shear deformation of a fabric could impose a huge displacement of the constituent fibres. Thus a simple deformation in the macroscopic scale corresponds to complex deformations in the microscopic scale. However the classification of the deformations is based on the macroscopic level. Thus the tensile, shear, bending and compression of the fabric sheet are considered simple deformations. The complex deformation of fabrics is mainly referred to the drape test. The performance of a fabric in drape is very interesting for the aesthetic effects and the dynamic functionality. The fabrics have the ability to undergo large, recoverable draping deformations by bending in single and double curvature providing a sense of fullness and a graceful appearance. Especially when the fabrics are used as reinforcement materials for the construction of composites, drape is very important since it determines the formability of the fabric in the matrix. The drapeability of the fabric reinforcement offers the advantage of bending around double-curvature mould producing complex shaped composite parts.
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4. Analytical modeling
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The first mechanical modelling and analysis attempts of the textile structures started about a hundred years ago. The earliest publication probably is from R. Haas in the report of the National Advisor Committee for Aeronautics in 1918 (Haas, 1918). It is worth to mention that NACA is the early form of the today’s NASA of the US. This publication is the translation from the German of the original article dated back on 1913 appeared in a German Journal. The work of Haas is of great importance. Although it is the first known, it is characterized by its integrated character. It brings together the theoretical and practical aspects up to the testing and application topics. However the work of Haas remained unknown for a long perod while the work of Peirce (Peirce, 1937) was considered as the starting reference for the analytical mechanical modelling of the textile structures. The researchers focused on the application of the existent analytical methods already used in other sectors of engineering. The main characteristic is the balance between the simplifications introduced and the precision of the modelling. The energy methods and the elastica theory are dominating in these attempts.
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4.1. Micromechanical modelling of simple deformations
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In the field of the analytical modelling of the textile yarns, several investigations focused on multi-filament twisted yarns. Purpose of these investigations was the prediction of the response of a twisted yarn when subjected to a certain deformation. It was supposed that the mechanical parameters such as the load-elongation curve of the constituent fibres, the twist density, the initial specific volume etc are given. The analysis focused on the correlation of the macroscopic distortion of the yarn with the microscopic response of the constituent fibres. A basic challenge in the modelling of the yarns is the balance between the realistic formulation and the idealization required for a theoretically treatable model. In the most cases the yarn was considered as being made of continuous filaments of circular cross-sections and constant linear density along their length. All the fibres were assumed to have identical properties and to be perfectly elastic. The cylindrical-helix model of Hearle et al. (Hearle et al., 1959), the conical-helix model of Önder and Başer (Önder & Bacer, 1996) and the statistical model of Komori (Komori, 2001) approached the yarn mechanical modelling from different points of view, depending on the considered alignment of the fibres. The tensile, bending and torsional behaviour of the yarns were approached using the force, the stress-analysis and the energy methods (Backer, 1952; Platt et al., 1959; Freeston & Schoppee, 1975; Choi & Tandon, 2006; Park & Oh, 2006).
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4.2. Mesomechanical modelling of simple deformations
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Starting point for the analytical modelling of woven fabrics was the uniaxial/biaxial deformation of the plain woven structure. The proposed approaches were based on three principal underlying geometrical models of plain weave (Dastoor et al., 1994). The “flexible thread” model of Peirce (Peirce, 1937) assumed the yarns infinitely flexible, incompressible and inextensible, without bending rigidity and having circular cross-sections (Figure 4, Figure 5). The analytical transcendental equations proposed by Peirce for the systematic description of his model cannot easily give a solution. Thus graphical and nomographic tools were presented in order to support the users. Peirce’s model has been modified later towards a better representation of the real fabric structure. Thus the assumptions of the race-track (Figure 6) or elliptical (Figure 7) yarn cross-sections (Kemp, 1958; Olofsson, 1964b) were adopted for the fabric modelling. The concept of the elastica model (Peirce, 1937), in continue, introduced the yarn bending rigidity in the analysis. According to this model the shape of yarn axis can be obtained by treating the yarns as elastic slender rods subjected to transverse point forces, equidistant but alternating in direction. In general, the mentioned models and their later modifications used the equilibrium, energy or elastica method for the mechanical analysis.
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Figure 4.
Plain woven geometry proposed by Peirce.
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Figure 5.
representation of woven model proposed by Peirce.
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Figure 6.
representation of woven model proposed by Kemp.
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Figure 7.
representation of elliptic model proposed by Olofsson.
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An approach including the effect of crimp and yarn extension, based on a flexible thread model was proposed by Freeston et al. (Freeston et al., 1967). The yarns were assumed as homogenous, linear elastic materials with linear work-hardening. An elastica model declining from the assumption of the standard shape yarn cross-section was published by Olofsson (Olofsson, 1964a). The shape of the cross-section of the yarns was considered as a function of the forces acting on them and the degree of set. The mathematical analysis was given on equilibrium conditions, on stress-strain relationships in extension and compression and on energy in bending. The effect of fabric set was included, also, in the work of Grosberg and Kedia (Grosberg & Kedia, 1966; Grosberg, 1966). They adopted an energy method on small deformation for the investigation of the initial load extension modulus of completely relaxed woven fabrics, while the yarns were assumed inextensible and incompressible. Another approach based on the elastica theory including linear extensibility of the yarns was given by Dastoor et al. (Dastoor et al., 1994). They assumed the yarns to be homogeneous, weightless slender rods, frictionless and undeformed by shear forces. In addition the yarns were considered as having circular section which does not deform under external forces. A computational implementation was adopted for the solution of the equilibrium equations. The large biaxial deformation of partially and completely set plain woven fabrics was presented by Huang (Huang, 1979b; Huang, 1979a). His approach was based on the elastica model of yarns in the undeformed fabric and the combined action of extension and bending was considered for the fabric deformation. The introduction of bilinear moment-curvature relation (due to the sliding of the fibres within the yarn) in combination to the contact deformation of the yarns increases the reliability of the study. The “sawtooth” geometrical model was proposed by Kawabata et al. (Kawabata et al., 1973). The mechanical analysis was based on the force equilibrium and the displacement of the warp and weft yarns in the thickness direction of the fabrics at the contact point of the crossing threads. Although the geometrical representation of the unit cell was approximant, the deformation effect at the cross-over points was taken into account. Most of the models described assume an unrealistic invariable cross-sectional yarn shape along the yarn path, where Gong et al. (Gong et al. 2010), in a recent study moves towards a more realistic representation of woven yarns, suggesting an ellipse model with a variable yarn cross-sectional shape based on the various parameters, including fibre type, yarn count, yarn twist factor and cover factor. An alternative geometric model of woven fabric, based on the yarns’ packing density as well as general fabric data, has been suggested by Dolatabadi and Kovař (Dolatabadi & Kovař, 2009).
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4.3. Mesomechanical modelling of complex deformations
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The concept of the complex deformations on a mesomechanical scale is extremely marginal. It is almost impossible to simulate on the scale of the unit cell the effects occurring during the drape of a fabric. The so called mesomechanical models for the complex deformation of the fabrics mainly refer to the bending behaviour of the fabrics. The first study in complex deformations of fabrics was conducted by Peirce (Peirce, 1937). He proposed an energy method for the analysis of 2D fabric bending. The analysis was based on the calculation of the change of the strain energy of the unit cell after the bending deformation. For the analysis the yarns were assumed to be of circular cross-section and incompressible and distributed forces were considered at the cross-sections of the yarns. Many researchers (Behre, 1961; Dahlberg, 1961; Lindberg et al., 1961; Abbott et al., 1971; Abbott et al., 1973) studied and reported the nonlinear nature of bending and shear properties. The approach adopted by \n\t\t\t\t\t\tGrosberg (Grosberg, 1966\n\t\t\t\t\t) incorporated the effects of friction into the strip 2D bending analysis. Many relative research actions were carried out in continue contributing to the understanding of drape to some extent. But the 2D drape assessment cannot fully reflect the more complex 3D double curvature deformations of drape (Lo et al., 2002).
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\n\t\t\t\t\tShanahan et al. (Shanahan et al., 1978) accented the necessity of the complete drape treatment based on the structural mechanics shell theory. They also defended the consideration of anisotropic constitutive laws for the fabric sheet. Amirbayat and Hearle (Amirbayat & Hearle, 1989) used aspects of the shell theory in their theoretical investigation of the complex buckling. They correlated the drape shape with the bending, membrane and potential energies. From their investigation they concluded that drape is also influenced by other parameters such us the full set of anisotropic in-plane membrane, out-of-plane bending, cross term elastic constants, and the nonlinearity of the materials behaviour.
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4.4. Macromechanical modelling of complex deformations
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Many publications appeared in the past dealing with the macromechanical modelling of the complex deformations of the fabrics. For many years this specific area has concentrated the interest of many very important researchers. The most representative of them are referenced below.
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An approach of the elastica theory for the analysis of complex deformations of fibres and fibre assemblies has been proposed by Konopasek (Konopasek, 1980a, 1980b, 1980c). It was based on the concept of planar and spatial elastica as developed respectively by Euler and Kirchhoff. Phenomena corresponding to the nonlinear behaviour of material, friction-elasticity, elastic-plasticity, and visco-elasticity were introduced in the analysis. The planar elastica theory was applied for the analysis of the large deflections of a yarn in a plane and the cylindrical bending of a fabric treated as sheet material. The spatial elastica was applied in the analysis of fibre buckling and crimp. The solution of the system of the resulted nonlinear differential equations was supported by computational tools.
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An alternative approach to the theoretical mechanics of static drape of fabrics based on the differential geometry of surfaces was published by Lloyd et al. (Lloyd et al., 1996). They developed a computationally convenient implementation of the theoretical mechanics of fabrics. The fabrics themselves were treated as 2D continua represented by a surface without considerable thickness embedded in the 3D Euclidean space. The mechanical properties of the fabric were assigned to the model. The shape of the surface was described for both the deformed and the undeformed state by the means of the differential geometry of the surface. The strain values were deduced from the differences in the differential geometry expressions for the two extreme states. The strain values were correlated to the applied forces by the constitutive equations that express the mechanical properties of the material.
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The differential geometry of surfaces for the dynamical modelling of fabric deformations was used for the approach of the problem by J. and R. Postle (Postle & Postle, 1996). The surface was considered as a series of twisted curves generated into the 3D Euclidean space. The differential geometry parameters incorporated the mechanical properties of the material (fabric) relating these mechanical properties to the changes in curvature as the surface was transformed into another surface. The deformation of the surface from the initial state to the final was mathematically modelled using the concept of homotopy. Bäcklund transformations were chosen for the solution of the nonlinear partial differential equations of the dynamic system.
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Trying to combine the theoretical study to the experimental knowledge, Stump and Fraser (Stump & Fraser, 1996) analyzed the drape of a circular fabric sample over the circular disk of the drapemeter. They proposed an elastic ring-theory model of the draped fabric and used an energy analysis associated with the various large post-buckled deformations of the ring. Aim of their investigation was the study of the ability of the fabrics to present different configurations when they are draped under exactly the same conditions. The explanation of this ability was based on the calculation of the energy that corresponds to the various symmetric configurations.
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4.5. Evaluation of the analytical approaches
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The review of the literature of the analytical methods for the mechanical analysis of textile structures demonstrates the absence of a successful globally accepted technique suitable for the textile design. The basic drawbacks of the analytical methods result from the simplifying assumptions implemented in order to generate a low-complexity geometry and mechanical problem. Thus the two-dimensional approach for the mesomechanical modelling, the attribution of isotropic elastic properties in the yarn models, the assumption of linear and isotropic properties in the macromechanical model introduces significant inaccuracies in the textile modelling. However the basic disadvantage of analytical approaches is the difficulty in handling in respect to the time consumption, the application field in terms of structures and materials, and the integration of the individual stages (micro, meso, macro). On the other side the analytical approaches accented the modelling difficulties of textile mechanics, the basic considerations and roadmap for an integrated design procedure.
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5. Numerical modeling
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The enormous computational power arose from the development of the computer systems and the expansion of advanced commercial software codes for the analysis of mechanical problems was guiding the textile design towards the numerical approaches. Mainly the Finite Element (FEM) and Boundary Element Method (BEM) were used for the mechanical modelling of the textile structures (Hu & Teng, 1996).
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5.1. Micro- and mesomechanical modelling of simple deformations
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The first attempts in the computer based mesomechanics of textiles dealt with the 2D and 3D representation of the plain woven structure. The geometry proposed by Haas and then by Peirce was the starting point for the solid geometrical modelling since the numerical techniques succeed the solution of the complex system of equations. Keefe et al. (Keefe et al., 1992) based on Peirce’s geometry presented the solid model of the plain woven fabric. They also extended the model for various compactions and fabric angles. Later comparative studies examined the accuracy of the geometrical models for use in the numerical modelling of fabrics (Provatidis & Vassiliadis, 2002, 2004, Provatidis et al., 2005).
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The first studies in mechanical analysis of textiles focused on the tensile deformation of the plain woven unit cells. The initial use of computational methods in textile mechanics was oriented towards the numerical solution of the complex analytical expressions. The use of numerical methods, as FEM, BEM etc, for the achievement of a rigorous approach for the textile micro- and mesomechanical analysis appeared in a later stage. Obstacles for the successful use of numerical methods were mainly the large displacement effects and the nonlinearity related with the deformations of textiles and the convergence problems arose. Munro et al. (Munro et al., 1997a) proposed a new approach for the application of FEM to the aligned fibre assembly problem. Three dimensional 8-node elements with cuboid shape in the neutral configuration and 6 degrees of freedom (DOF) per node employed for the investigation. The approach attempted to separate the various energy contributions to the element stiffness, allowing the user to specify their properties individually. This technique was successful in the easy introduction of nonlinear material properties in the solid model. The approach of Munro et al. (Munro et al., 1997b) was verified qualitatively by modelling realistic yarn situations. The yarn models were meshed by dividing them into layers where the layer interfaces were surfaces perpendicular to the yarn axis. Each layer was split into a number of finite elements ranging from 1 to 22. Initial configurations were arranged so that the fibres within the elements followed idealized helical-yarn geometry. A multi-layer yarn model consisting of 9 elements per layer was subjected to axial extension and axial compression. The model presented the expected, in terms of quality, deformation behaviour. Thus the necking of the yarn piece was caused by the helical winding of the fibres appeared during extension. Moreover the elements of the model were opened significantly during the axial compressing test since the fibres were buckled to avoid compression of the fibre material.
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The advance and easy manipulation of CAD tools, in the last few years, allowed the construction of 3D solid models of textile structures. By the use of the attributes of these tools, such as numerical interpolations, mirroring abilities etc. the representation of the structures became feasible. A yarn modelling approach based on the assumprion of helicoid filaments of a constant helix radius and a circular filament cross-section for the loose and a dense structure are presented in the Figure 8 and Figure 9 respectively.
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Figure 8.
Beam model of filaments in random locations for loose yarn structure.
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Figure 9.
Beam FE model of 50-filament twisted yarn (Vassiliadis et al., 2010).
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Parametric solid modelling software packages are currently available allowing the construction of complex woven structures (Figure 11). The complete design flexibility provides the selection of weave pattern, yarn size or spacing. The yarn representation is still based on the assumption of the homogenous material for the simplification of modelling and the computational time saving (Toney, 2000). The advance moreover of the FEA codes allowed the mechanical simulation of the unit cells of the modelled textile structures. The mesomechanical modelling of textile structures was improved by the employment of advanced finite elements types and libraries of material properties including linear, nonlinear, elastic, plastic, viscoelastic, isotropic, orthotropic, anisotropic options etc. Additionally the introduction of contact algorithms and large strain effects was essential for the realistic results of the simulated tests. Lin et al. (Lin et al. 2008) studied the mechanical behavior of woven fabrics under compression implementing the finite element analysis using solid elements and nonlinear material properties. Furthermore, Durville (Durville, 2010) approached the textile simulation of woven structures’ problem at the fibres scale by means of 3D beam model, providing interesting data useful in the incorporation of fibres in composites structures.
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Significant progress noticed in the modelling of complex structures of fabrics. Tarfaoui and Akesbi (Tarfaoui & Akesbi, 2001) presented the model of the twill woven fabric and the mechanical simulation using the FEM. The unit cell is composed by three warp yarns that intersect with three weft yarns, presenting a different type of crimp. Furthermore, B-spline curve methods have been successfully used to model woven yarns (Turan & Baser, 2010 Jiang & Chen, 2010).
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Figure 10.
Solid FE model of unit cell of plain woven structure.
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Figure 11.
Solid FE model of unit cell of twill (left) and satin (right) woven structure (Vassiliadis et al., 2008).
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Intensive researches were conducted in the field of woven fabrics composites due to their progressive spread in industrial applications. Actually the exceptional characteristics of woven fabrics composites, as high stiffness and strength, light-weight and efficient manufacturability are determinant for their expansion in automotive, marine and aerospace industry. Zhang and Harding presented one of the first numerical studies for the evaluation of the elastic properties of the plain woven composite structures (Zhang & Harding, 1990). Their approach was based on a strain energy method applied to a one-direction undulation model using the FEM. The drawback of this approach, reported also by the authors, was the consideration of the tow undulation in one-direction that is a non-realistic assumption for woven fabrics. Naik expanded the above approach taking into account the strand cross-section geometry, possible gap between two adjacent strands and the two-direction undulation geometry (Naik & Ganesh, 1992). Actually his detailed model demands a large number of geometrical parameters to describe the undulation and varying thickness of the tow structure. The evolution of numerical methods in the next years produced the first 3D finite element models of the plain woven composites. Whitcomb studied the effect of quadrature order, mesh density and material degradation on the predicted failure resulting from the in-plain loading (Whitcomb & Srirengan, 1996).
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The 3D solid modelling of the composite structure consists in the generation of the volumes representing the woven unit cell and an external volume (with the apparent dimensions of the composite unit cell). Then subtracting volumes of the woven structure from the external volume, the volume of the matrix material is resulted (see figure 12).
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Figure 12.
Geometrical model of composite woven structure (woven reinforcement, matrix, composite)
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Figure 13.
Geometrical model of a woven structure of tows and a composite structure.
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Several approaches were based on the prediction of the homogenized elastic properties of fabric composites using the unit cell of the composite structure. The geometrical representation of the tows was based on certain assumptions such as circular, elliptic, compressed hexagonal and lenticular cross-section areas were considered (Figure 13). The used tows (usually made of glass or carbon fibres) were assumed as transverse isotropic material and the matrix (usually resin) as isotropic material. The homogenized elastic properties of the unit cell results from the mesomechanical analysis using FEM. A relative approach proposed by Ng et al. (Ng et al., 1998) has ben applied for the prediction of the in-plane elastic properties of a single layer 2/2 twill weave fabric composite. The compressed hexagonal shape was considered for the tow cross-section. The modelling and mechanical analysis was programmed using the ANSYS Parametric Design Language (APDL). The 8-node solid elements with 3 degrees of freedom (translational) per node were used. Indicatively a model of approximately 52000 finite elements and 12000 nodes was generated. The contact areas generated during the subtracting operation (for the generation of matrix material) were assigned to be shared entities for both the yarn and the matrix volumes, to ensure the transmission of loading. Choi and Tamma (Choi & Tamma, 2001) dealt with the prediction of the in-plane elastic properties of a composite structure reinforced with plain woven fabric. The predicted elastic properties were used in continue for the damage analysis of the laminated composite structures. The superposition principle was applied for the evaluation of homogenised properties of the woven fabric composite. The generated model of composite unit cells consists of 520 wedge elements for the yarns and 256 brick elements for the matrix. The progressive damage was evaluated simulating the in-plane tensile and shear deformation introducing a respective incrementing load. The degradation of elastic moduli and Poisson ratios was considered for the mechanical damage analysis.
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A main framework for the multi-scale modelling of woven composite structures for the damage prediction was proposed by Kwon (Kwon, 1993, 2001; Kwon & Hamilton, 1995; Kwon & Roach, 2004) and implemented in several following investigations. It is worth to mention that the damage of a laminated textile composite is presented as a matrix damage, fibre brakeage, fibre – matrix debonding or laminated debonding (delamination). The proposed multi-scale approach is based on the integration of three individual modules: the fibre-strand module, the strand-fabric module and the lamination module. The fibre-strand module aims at the evaluation of the effective elastic properties of a unidirectional composite strand exploiting the material properties and structure of the constituent fibres and matrix. Moreover the current stage relates the stresses and strains of the strand with the stresses and strains of the fibre and matrix materials thus the damage criteria can be applied. The strand-fabric module focuses on the evaluation of the effective properties of the woven fabric composite (unit cell) exploiting the material properties of the unidirectional composite strand. In addition the current stage relates the stresses and strains of the composite structure with the stresses and strains of the strand. Finally the lamination module evaluates the effective properties of the laminated composite structure (multiple layer) using the material properties of the composite lamina. A classical lamination theory or a higher order theory is implemented in this stage. Thus the stresses and strains developed on the laminated composite structure are correlated with the stresses and strains of the lamina.
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An innovative research in the field of fabric composites is conducted in the K.U. Leuven, initially focusing on the generalized description of the internal structure of the textile reinforcement. Lomov and his colleagues developed a model for the internal geometry of 2D- and 3D-weaves based on a minimum number of topological data and yarn mechanical properties. The mechanical model applies a yarn deformation energy minimization algorithm to predict the internal geometry of any 2D- and 3D-weave. This approach was systematically extended to 2D- and 3D-woven, two- and three-axial braided, weft knitted and non-crimp warp-knit stitched fabrics and laminates and incorporated in the Wise-Tex software package (Verpoest & Lomov, 2005; Lomov et al., 2000; Lomov et al., 2001). Regarding the damage analysis of the composite structures a three-level hierarchy was proposed: the micro-, meso- and macro-level. The micro-level defines the arrangement of fibres in the representative volume of the impregnated yarn. The meso-level describes the internal structure of the reinforcement and variations of the fibre direction and volume fraction within the yarn. Finally the macro-level defines the 3D geometry of the composite part and the distribution of the reinforcement properties.
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5.2. Macromechanical modelling of complex deformations
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The macromechanical modelling of fabrics or cloth modelling, as usually referred, attracted the interest of the textile community in the last decades. Many investigators attempted to approach computationally the macromechanical performance of fabrics for several purposes from the prediction of the drape behaviour of the fabric up to the virtual mode show (Gray, 1998). Depending on the purpose served and the application field different techniques were developed. The basic classification of the developed techniques is divided into computer animation models (graphic models) and the engineering design models. Many numerical techniques including the particle-based model, the deformable node-bar model and the FEM were developed for the engineering design of fabrics. Most of the efforts were focused on the prediction of the drapeability of fabrics.
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The used FEM for the drape simulation were based on a variety of element types from simple rods to complex shell elements. Collier (Collier et al., 1991) studied the drape behaviour of fabrics using a nonlinear FEM based on the classical nonlinear plate theory. The fabric was assumed to be two dimensional. It was considered as a linear elastic material with orthotropic anisotropy, where the symmetry lines are aligned in the warp and weft directions. Many corrective actions were assigned the following years by the researchers in the classical finite element techniques in order the realistic performance of fabrics to be approached.
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The FEM and flexible thin shell theory was employed by Chen and Govindaraj (Chen & Govindaraj, 1995) to simulate the fabric drape. Their approach provides nonlinear solution since large displacements appear during drape test. Thus the loads are applied incrementally to the system, and at each step, the equilibrium equation system is solved by a Newton-Raphson method. The nonlinearity was handled by calculating the stiffness matrix in each step as a function of the displacement vector. The fabric was considered continuous orthotropic material. A 9-node, doubly curved shell element with 5 DOF per node was used for the simulation.
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The simulation of the 3D drape test based on the FEM was also approached by Kang and Yu (Kang & Yu, 1995). The woven fabric was assumed to be an elastic material with orthotropic anisotropy. The fabric was considered as a thin flexible plate under the plane stress condition, and the transverse shear strain was included in the formulation. Since large displacements and large rotations are developed during draping, the drape phenomenon was considered as geometrically nonlinear and respectively the nonlinear analysis was adopted for the simulation. The Green-Lagrangian strains and the second Piolar-Kirchhoff stresses were used for the analysis. The formulation of the FEM was based on a total Lagrangian approach. 4-node quadrilateral elements were used with 5 DOF in each node. In order to avoid the shear locking phenomenon which is commonly observed in the thin plane analysis, a transverse shear strain interpolation method was applied. Almost the same approach was proposed by Gan et al. (Gan et al., 1995). In their analysis 8-node shell elements were used with 5 DOF per node. The adopted technique in this approach for the elimination of locking was a reduced integration with zero energy mode control.
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For the minimization of the computational power required for the simulation of fabric drape, a FEM using simple beam elements with 6 DOF per node was proposed by Ascough et al. (Ascough et al., 1996). The used beam elements include mass and stiffness properties and can represent iso- or orthotropic cloth properties. The large displacement effects were achieved with the addition of a geometric or initial stress matrix to the elastic stiffness matrix to form the element characteristic matrix. Newmark’s method was used to allow a time-stepping approach to the solution, with the advantage that the mesh geometry can be updated at each step. The proposed analysis includes also interaction of the cloth with the body form. Checks for a collision detection of material elements with the body model are made following each time step of the drape simulation. An iterative calculation process is executed until contact rather than penetration of cloth element with the body model occurs.
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An approach for the drape simulation of woven fabrics quite different from the traditional macromechanical methods was proposed by Breen et al. (Breen et al., 1994). The cloth was modelled as a collection of particles that conceptually represent the crossing points of warp and wefts threads in a plain weave. Important mechanical interactions that determine the behaviour of woven fabric are discretized and lumped at these crossing points. The various yarn-level structural constraints are represented with energy functions that capture simple geometric relationships between the particles. These energy functions account for the four basic mechanical interactions of yarn collision, yarn stretching, out of plane bending, and trellising. The simulation was implemented as a three-phase process operating over a series of discrete time steps. The first phase for a single time step calculates the dynamics of each particle and accounts the collisions between particles and surrounding geometry. The second phase performs an energy minimization to enforce inter-particle constraints. The third phase corrects the velocity of each particle to account for particle motion during the second phase.
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Figure 14.
Deformed FE model of square fabric in drape test (Provatidis et al., 2009).
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\n\t\t\t\t\tStylios et al. (Stylios et al., 1995; Stylios et al., 1996) proposed a node-bar model for the drape modelling of fabrics. The deformable elements were defined as consisting of one deformable node with a number of rigid bars. Thus the patch of cloth is divided into a grid (the patch is divided as a series of elements, which can be of equal or unequal sizes). The material properties of the continuum in all elements are lumped together at these deformable nodes by integrating all the energies within those elements. The total energy density was considered as the sum of strain, kinetic energy density, and the energy density introduced by external and boundary forces. Viscoelastic terms were added in the energy equation. The cloth motion in continue was determined using the Euler-Lagrange equations.
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The finite volume method employed by Hu et al. (Hu et al., 2000) for the drape modelling of fabrics. The mesh lines were aligned along the warp and weft direction producing rectangular internal volumes and triangular or quadrilateral boundary volumes in a circular fabric sheet. The equilibrium equations of the fabric sheet derived using the principle of stationary total potential energy. Geometric nonlinearity and linear elastic orthotropic material properties of the fabric were considered in the formulation. The full Newton-Raphson iteration method with line searches was adopted for the solution of the resulting nonlinear algebraic equation.
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5.3. Evaluation of the numerical methods
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The adoption of computational techniques in textile mechanics is essential to face and overcome the objective difficulties, as the geometrical representation, the complex deformations, the particular material properties, the contact phenomena and the large deflection effects. Moreover, the advanced computer based tools are suitable for the virtual representation of a product performance under loading. That is a significant facility for the textile designers since a realistic sense from the mechanical up to the aesthetic attributes can be provided.
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Most of the mesomechanical modeling approaches implemented the finite element method using solid FE. The yarns were assumed as homogenous material with transverse isotropic elastic properties. The attribution of the yarn properties constitutes basic factor for the accuracy of the mesomechanical modelling stage. Thus the equivalent performance of the homogenous yarn, considering the discrete structure, in the tensile and bending deformation is required at least for the reliable attribution of yarn models. It is remarkable that most of the proposed models omitted the calculation of the real value of the yarn bending rigidity and its attribution at the modelled yarn.
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The macromechanical modelling approaches are grouped in two basic categories. The first corresponds to the investigations based on the experimental measurement of the mechanical properties of fabrics and the generation of equivalent models describing their bending performance and drapeability (Collier et al., 1991; Ascough et al., 1996; Stylios et al., 1995; Hu et al., 2000; Araujo et al., 2004). The second category focused on the computational analysis of fabrics in the mesoscopic level and the generation of models presenting equivalent in-plane elastic properties (Ng et al., 1998; Choi & Tamma, 2001; Lomov et al., 2007).
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The basic drawback encountered in the existing modelling approaches concerns the collaboration of the different modelling stages (micro, meso, macro) for the development of an integrated design procedure of the textile structures. Thus the modelling of the structure in the mesoscopic level should incorporate the micromechanical performance of the yarns. Whereas the modelling of the structure in the macroscopic level should incorporate the mesoscopic performance of the unit cells and therefore the microscopic performance of the yarns. Consequently the collaboration of the discrete modelling stages is attainable generating realistic models and attributing the equivalent properties.
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6. Conclusions
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An extended review was conducted over the textile mechanical modelling area. It is obvious that despite the about 70 years of actual research it’s not possible to conclude in an Integrated Computer Aided Engineering Environment. The absence of a global tool was remarked, that aggravates the textile design procedure in terms of time and cost.
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The structural hierarchy of the textile structures (fibre – yarn – fabric) is correlated with the high level of complexity presented in the modelling procedure and the mechanical analysis of them. The difficulties are increased due to the high divergence of the dimensions corresponding to the fabric sheet (10-1 to 100 m) and the structural elements (fibre diameter, 10-5 m). The modelling complexity resulted from the structural hierarchy of textiles is faced adopting a relative modelling hierarchy. Thus three basic modelling scales were developed: the micromechanical modelling of yarns, the mesomechanical modelling of the fabric unit cell and the macromechanical modelling of the fabric sheet. The modular modelling of the textile woven fabrics is a systematic method to overcome the complexity of the mechanical structure and the nature of the materials involved. The global evolution of the modelling approaches seem to converge in this stepwise method and thus indicate a likely way towards the desired Textile Computer Aided Engineering environment.
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\n\t\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/16627.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/16627.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/16627",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/16627",totalDownloads:8403,totalViews:822,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:17,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:6,impactScorePercentile:94,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"January 10th 2011",dateReviewed:"April 14th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"July 27th 2011",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/16627",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/16627",book:{id:"153",slug:"advances-in-modern-woven-fabrics-technology"},signatures:"Savvas Vassiliadis, Argyro Kallivretaki, Dimitra Domvoglou and Christofer Provatidis",authors:[{id:"11871",title:"Dr.",name:"Savvas G.",middleName:null,surname:"Vassiliadis",fullName:"Savvas G. Vassiliadis",slug:"savvas-g.-vassiliadis",email:"svas@puas.gr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/11871/images/system/11871.jpeg",institution:{name:"University of West Attica",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Textile structures and their mechanical behavior",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Technical applications of textiles",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Mechanical modelling of the textile structures ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.1. Classification of the modelling approaches",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.2. Classification of the deformations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Analytical modeling",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.1. Micromechanical modelling of simple deformations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.2. Mesomechanical modelling of simple deformations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.3. Mesomechanical modelling of complex deformations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.4. Macromechanical modelling of complex deformations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.5. Evaluation of the analytical approaches",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Numerical modeling",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.1. Micro- and mesomechanical modelling of simple deformations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.2. Macromechanical modelling of complex deformations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.3. Evaluation of the numerical methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbbott\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGrossberg\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLeaf\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG. A. 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Textile Research Journal, 48\n\t\t\t\t\t495\n\t\t\t\t\t505 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B76",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStump\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFraser\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1996 A simpified model of fabric drape based on ring theory. Textile Research Journal, 66\n\t\t\t\t\t8\n\t\t\t\t\t506\n\t\t\t\t\t514 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B77",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStylios\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT. R.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPowell\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1995 Modeling the dynamic drape of fabrics on synthetic humans, a physical, lumped-parameter model. Int. J. Clothing Sci. Technol., 7\n\t\t\t\t\t5\n\t\t\t\t\t10\n\t\t\t\t\t25 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B78",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStylios\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT. R.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPowell\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1996 Modelling the dynamic drape of garments on synthetic humans in a virtual fashion show. International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, 8\n\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t95\n\t\t\t\t\t112 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B79",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTakano\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tUetsuji\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKashiwagi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZako\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1999 Hierarchical modelling of textile composite materials and structures by the homogenization method. 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M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGiannakis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tProvatidis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008 Computational modelling of twill and satin woven structure, Proc. of the World Conference AUTEX 2008, June 2008, Biella, Italy.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B85",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVassiliadis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKallivretaki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tProvatidis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2010 Mechanical modelling of multifilament twisted yarns. Fibers and Polymers, 11\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t89\n\t\t\t\t\t96 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B86",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVerpoest\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLomov\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. V.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005 Virtual textile composites software WiseTex: Integration with micro-mechanical, permeability and structural analysis. Composites Science and Technology, 65 15-16 SPEC. ISS.), 2563\n\t\t\t\t\t2574 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B87",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhitcomb\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSrirengan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1996 Effect of various approximations on predicted progressive failure in plain weave composites. Composite Structures, 34\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t13\n\t\t\t\t\t20 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B88",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tXu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTao\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008 Textile-structured electrodes for electrocardiogram. Textile Progress, 40\n\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t183\n\t\t\t\t\t213 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B89",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHarding\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1990 A numerical micromechanics analysis of the mechanical properties of a plain weave composite. Computers & Structures, 36\n\t\t\t\t\t5\n\t\t\t\t\t839\n\t\t\t\t\t844 .\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Savvas Vassiliadis",address:"",affiliation:'
Department of Electronics, Technological Education Institute of Piraeus,, Greece
School of Mechanical Engineerin, National Technical University of Athens, Greece
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1. Introduction
Over the last decade, the use of games for purposes outside of entertainment has grown in both research and industry, leading to discrepancies in conceptual definitions, use cases, and evidence-based benefits [1, 2, 3, 4]. An increase in recent research literature reviews and meta-analyses on the topic of game-based interventions emphasizes the wealth of research being conducted in this area [5, 6]. However, game-developers have quickly capitalized on the widespread interest and often market game-based interventions in ways that are not always empirically tested with evidence for their publicized use [7]. In this chapter we aim to provide clarity on this topic by first reviewing important terminology, second discussing applications of games for instruction, and third exploring applications of games for assessment. Then we focus on the rise of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) games for both instructional and assessment purposes. We close by highlighting the authors’ research from four studies focused on comparing COTS games to traditional assessments.
1.1 Important terminology
In this chapter, we use the term game-based intervention to speak broadly of game-like experiences and the ways they are applied for non-entertainment purposes such as education or evaluation. Within this broad conceptualization, there are several important terms: game-based learning (GBL), game-based assessment (GBA), gameful design, gamification, and COTS games. GBL, also referred to as serious games [8] occurs when a game is used for the primary purpose of learning [2]. Similarly, GBAs are evaluations that take place within the context of a game expressly designed to identify specific skills, traits, or behaviors [9]. In contrast, gameful design and gamification are design strategies which incorporate game elements into new or existing assessments respectively; typically for the purpose of engaging and motivating individuals [2, 9]. Thus, a thorough understanding of game design is requisite to the development of effective GBLs and GBAs as these interventions use the full suite of game attributes. For example, see [1] for a taxonomy of game attributes. As a result, developing GBL and GBAs entails considerably more expertise and resources compared to incorporating game elements through gamification or gameful design. A potential solution to the resource-heavy nature of game development is the utilization of COTS games. Designed by game developers, COTS are most commonly designed for entertainment purposes and are available for purchase by a vendor and can be used almost immediately after purchase [10, 11]. COTS games offer a reasonable alternative to the time and resource intensive commitment to develop one’s own games [12, 13]. GBL, GBA, and COTS games are explored in more detail in the following sections.
1.2 Game-based learning (GBL)
Games have been used to stimulate student learning by attracting students’ attention through increased motivation [14]. Additionally, researchers and practitioners have shown increasing interest in alternative instructional methods, which emphasize a more active learner role [8]. Combined with the increasing growth of interactive technologies, this provides a unique opportunity to explore learning environments which involve students in their own learning process, such as the gamification of learning content and using a GBL solution [15]. In contrast with traditional learning methods, educational games have shown a positive relationship with the thinking skills of learners and can improve learner motivation [16, 17]. Considering the ways that GBL solutions can present learning experiences in a motivating way to students, using games for learning could feasibly increase student engagement and in turn have the potential to improve the academic performance of students [18, 19, 20].
1.3 Game-based assessment (GBA)
GBAs are designed to measure knowledge, skills, or abilities (KSAs) within the context of the game [21, 22, 23]. They are defined as evaluations that use game elements to immerse the individual in a specific game environment, allowing them to interact with it, and demonstrate the desired KSA [2]. Importantly, GBAs typically use game activities as tasks to generate evidence of complex skills [24]. Using a GBA with strong psychometric evidence (e.g., reliability and validity evidence for the intended use) has the potential to provide a number of benefits. Some researchers have proposed that GBAs might be designed to generate positive outcomes in test-takers such as reduced test anxiety, challenges faking, and measuring more behavior-based measures [3, 7, 8, 9, 16, 25, 26]. In the context of work, some researchers have referred to GBA as “an assessment method in which job candidates are players participating in a core gameplay loop while trait information is inferred” [9].
While traditional assessments use participants’ responses to textual or graphic prompts to collect data about their knowledge, skills, and abilities, GBAs gather this data based on the test-taker’s in-game behaviors [27]. These behaviors can be a range of information such as overt information like a choice a player makes when faced with a discrete decision in a game. A theory-driven assessment often focuses on a theoretical research model to build the design and intention of the evaluative components into the assessment. These components may lead to a narrative or series of decisions around targeted behaviors related to the variable being assessed. An alternative to a theory-driven approach are games built using a data-driven approach where minor behaviors during the gameplay are used to predict the outcomes of interest. A data-driven GBA is not built with a targeted construct and measurement in mind [28, 29, 30] but can empirically measure a construct using trace data such as mouse clicks, movements, interactions with objects in games, or time spent on a task [28]. This trace data can be collected automatically by a game and has been shown to demonstrate meaningful information with regards to assessing player information [28]. Either type of GBA changes how assessments are traditionally measured, but holds onto the psychometric properties within the game to evaluate a variety of KSAs [9, 31].
There are several benefits regarding GBAs that make them particularly appealing to organizations who might use them for personnel selection. One of these is the suggestion that GBAs might be able to predict job performance beyond traditional selection methods [16, 32]. Given the longstanding concern of applicant faking, the potential to reduce socially desirable responses are another benefit that GBAs may provide to organizational assessments [16, 32]. Since GBAs can be designed to measure traits and behaviors indirectly, this has the potential to obscure the purpose of the assessment which could in turn make it more challenging for candidates to identify the variable being assessed and what a good answer would look like [32]. A last benefit that may be of particular interest to organizations is that GBAs have been shown to reduce adverse impact compared with traditional paper-and-pencil tests [27, 33, 34]. Because of these benefits, organizations may want to consider investing in GBAs to evaluate different characteristics in the workplace, such as cognitive ability, individual characteristics, or job skills [27, 35].
1.4 Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) games
Given the time, money, and expertise needed to develop game-based interventions, there are contexts in which it is more reasonable for researchers or practitioners to use an existing COTS game for their purpose rather than investing the time or resources into developing their own game [3, 27, 36]. However, a critical consideration when choosing to use a COTS game is that these games are rarely designed for the purpose they will be used for. Although a growing number of vendors are developing COTS games for learning or assessment purposes and having a growing body of evidence to support those games for those uses, in most contexts a researcher and practitioner will not have the option of a COTS game designed for the purpose they intend. This makes the consideration and selection of the COTS game to be used a critical step.
If a COTS game is being used for assessment or evaluation, the behaviors being displayed by the player must be measurable, either by a metric captured in the game or by an observable behavior that can be recorded by an observer. Additionally, the content needs to present a scenario in which the player has the opportunity to demonstrate relevant behavior to the variable being measured. For example, see the series of studies by [27] where VR COTS games were used for measuring spatial recognition variables.
If a COTS game were being used for a learning application, the game would need to present the relevant content that the player needs to learn. This includes presenting the information and ideally presenting a context in which the relevant information could be used or the intended skill could be practiced. It would be further valuable for the selection of the COTS game to avoid games with excessive information or components that aren’t relevant to the learning experience, also called seductive details [37].
Research on traditional assessments focuses heavily on the psychometric reliability and validity of the instrument [9], but empirical support for the psychometric properties of COTS games is still in its infancy. This lack of research of the efficacy and utility of COTS games for instructional and assessment purposes has led to the current series of studies which are intended to provide preliminary evidence on the use of COTS game scores. In these studies, we ask the following research question.
Research question:Will scores on COTS games significantly converge with traditional multiple-choice assessment scores?
Below we detail four correlational studies focused on the application of COTS games. We seek to better understand potential applications of COTS games as learning or assessments interventions by better understanding the similarity between scores produced in a COTS game to traditional multiple-choice assessment. Each of the COTS games in the studies below was carefully considered and chosen as it represents content that could be relevant to learners in a GBL context. Since the scores produced by COTS games are not intended for learning or assessment purposes, our question is general to understanding if these scores are meaningfully related to a relevant measure in these particular cases; scores on a traditional multiple-choice assessment in the same content area. We caveat that this evidence does not generalize to all COTS games and individual data would need to be collected and analyzed if a COTS game is being considered for a similar application. However, this series of studies does provide a general proof-of-concept that may aid future applications of COTS games.
2. Research series
Data from the first three studies were collected as part of other projects and analyzed for this research question. All four studies collected samples from undergraduate and graduate students from Universities in the Western United States, with approval from the associated Institutional Review Board. Each study reports demographic information, scores from the COTS game used, and scores from the multiple-choice assessment. An image of the COTS game used in each study is shown in Figure 1. Each multiple-choice assessment included four response options, one correct answer, and good metrics based on a pilot sample (i.e., reasonable difficulty between 0.30 and 0.90 and knowledge discrimination of r > 0.25). Each assessment was developed using research-based principles [37, 38]. Lastly, each study collected the participant’s tendency to play videogames using the Video Game Pursuit scale (VGPu) [39]. The scores on this 19-item measure are reported on a 5-point scale from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. This measure is used since researchers have proposed that a propensity towards playing video games may impact the results of videogame interventions [40].
Figure 1.
Images from the commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) games used in Study 1 (Quintet, top left), Study 2 (Arm Surgery 2, top right), Study 3 (PC Building Simulator, bottom left), and Study 4 (Car Mechanic Simulator, bottom right).
2.1 Study 1
Participants were 385 students; primarily female (51%) and Caucasian 73% with an average age of almost 19 years (SD = 1.72). In the study, participants completed a consent form, then an initial survey measuring demographic information and video game pursuit. Participants then played the assigned game for 20 minutes followed by a second questionnaire which included a multiple-choice assessment. The study concluded with a four-minute debriefing video.
2.1.1 COTS game
In the videogame Quintet, participants play as crew members of a spaceship (i.e., captain, helm, tactical, engineer, or scientist) who must work with a team to complete various science missions. Participants must learn their role and how to manage their responsibilities on the ship to earn points and meet the mission objectives.
2.1.2 Multiple-choice assessment
A 26-item multiple choice assessment was written for this study with questions linked to the specific missions, roles, and responsibilities in the game.
2.2 Study 2
Participants were 140 students; primarily female (69%), and mostly Caucasian (39%) or Hispanic (29%) with an average age of almost 24 years (SD = 4.85). In the study, participants completed a consent form, then played the assigned game for 15 minutes followed by a questionnaire with the multiple-choice assessment, demographic questions, and the measure of videogame pursuit. The study concluded with a short debriefing statement.
2.2.1 COTS game
The videogame Arm Surgery 2, takes place in a virtual operating room where players take on the role of a surgical doctor. The game begins with a tutorial, where a nurse guides the player through surgical techniques and medical instruments. Players then have to complete a surgery to repair a broken arm as quickly as possible with as few mistakes as possible.
2.2.2 Multiple-choice assessment
A 17-item multiple choice assessment was written for this study. All questions pertained to the surgical terms, tools, and procedures presented during the game.
2.3 Study 3
Participants were 100 students; mostly females (67%) of Caucasian (40%) or Hispanic (32%) descent with an average age of about 23 years (SD = 6.28). In the study, participants signed a consent form then reviewed an 8-page tutorial on how to play the game. Participants then played the assigned game for 30 minutes before completing a survey of demographic questions, videogame pursuit, and a multiple-choice assessment. Participants were then given a debriefing handout and dismissed.
2.3.1 COTS game
In the game PC Building Simulator, players take on the role of a PC repair shop owner. They must manage their shop by diagnosing and repairing computers to make money for their store.
2.3.2 Multiple-choice assessment
An 18-item multiple choice assessment was written for this study. All questions were related to the tasks and terminology used in the game for repairing PCs.
2.4 Study 4
Participants were 78 students; mostly females (70%) of Hispanic (27%) or Asian (28%) descent with an average age of about 23 years (SD = 6.28). In the study, participants completed a consent form then played the assigned game for 15 minutes. The study ended with a survey of demographic measures, videogame pursuit, and a multiple-choice assessment.
2.4.1 COTS game
In the game Car Mechanic Simulator 2, players take on the role of a mechanic to repair, paint, and tune cars in a garage. Their goal is to make money by repairing as many cars as possible.
2.4.2 Multiple-choice assessment
A 10-item multiple choice assessment was written for this study. All questions asked about the tools and types of repairs done in the game.
3. Research results
Results of the correlation coefficient analyses are shown in Table 1. These demonstrate that there are positive, significant correlation between the COTS game and multiple-choice assessments in three of the four studies; Study 1 r = 0.23, p < 0.01; Study 2 r = 0.27, p < 0.01; and Study 3 r = 0.36, p < 0.01; but not Study 4 r = 0.02, p < 0.05. This shows that in three of the four studies presented here, the score generated by playing the COTS game was significantly related to the score earned by the participant on the traditional multiple-choice assessment. These results are valuable for the area of COTS games because they show that when selected carefully, the scores produced in a COTS game might provide meaningful information for individuals wanting to use COTS games for learning or assessment purposes.
M
SD
1
2
3
4
5
Study 1
Sex at birth
0.48
0.50
—
Age
18.97
1.72
0.18**
—
Video game pursuit
2.64
0.99
0.62**
0.10*
0.94
COTS game
0.55
0.15
0.16**
0.04
0.14**
—
Multiple-choice assessment
0.56
0.15
0.29**
0.07
0.45**
0.23**
—
Study 2
Sex at birth
0.28
0.44
—
Age
23.75
4.85
0.14
—
Video game pursuit
2.16
1.01
0.60**
−0.12
0.91
COTS game
0.60
0.24
0.05
−0.26**
0.21*
—
Multiple-choice assessment
0.11
0.03
0.05
0.16
−0.01
0.27**
—
Study 3
Sex at birth
0.29
0.46
—
Age
22.49
5.61
0.15
—
Video game pursuit
2.90
0.55
0.59**
−0.13
0.91
COTS game
0.55
0.27
0.11
−0.16
0.22*
—
Multiple-choice assessment
0.71
0.16
0.09
−0.04
0.23*
0.36**
—
Study 4
Sex at birth
0.20
0.40
—
Age
24.04
6.85
0.29*
—
Video game pursuit
2.51
1.10
0.50**
0.10
0.93
COTS game
0.42
0.10
−0.02
0.03
−0.14
—
Multiple-choice assessment
0.55
0.25
0.06
−0.25*
0.30*
0.02
—
Table 1.
Descriptive statistics and correlations for Studies 1–4.
*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01. M = mean, SD = standard deviation, COTS = commercial-off-the-shelf. Sex at birth coded as 0 = female, 1 = male. The COTS game scores and multiple-choice assessment scores are percentages. Estimates of reliability are bolded along the diagonal.
4. Discussion
The purpose of this chapter was to provide information about the application of COTS games as game-based interventions. In the research series presented as part of this chapter, we sought to build upon a growing body of research literature on COTS games by showing the convergence between COTS game scores with traditional multiple-choice assessment scores on the same content. Overall, the research results answered our research question and showed that COTS game scores significantly and positively correlated with the traditional knowledge assessment scores in Studies 1–3 but not Study 4. Although a non-significant relationship was found in Study 4, we note that these results may be attributed to a limited sample size. Data collection was halted during Study 4 due to the onset of the COVD-19 pandemic and local laws prohibited in-person gatherings including the collection of in-person data which was part of this research protocol. Overall, these results suggest that when a COTS game is considered and chosen intentionally, that the COTS game scores may be reasonably similar to a traditional knowledge assessment score. We caveat these results by stating that these findings cannot generalize outside of these particular games and provide primarily a proof-of-concept to the consideration and use of COTS games. We encourage researchers and practitioners to collect and evaluate their own evidence for the COTS games they select and the intended application of those games.
4.1 Intentional game selection
The meaningful relationships between the COTS game scores and traditional assessments highlights the potential benefits of using game-based interventions. COTS games may provide viable solutions to learning and assessment contexts but must be considered carefully with the particular purpose of the game in mind. While some COTS games may demonstrate meaningful uses without being intentionally designed to do so [7, 9], it is important to note that not all COTS games will demonstrate similar results. Here we highlight the importance of selecting the right COTS game for the intended purpose. To avoid potential pitfalls of using a COTS game, individuals can prioritize the selection process by incorporating time for planning and review into the early stages of their project. Having a thorough understanding of the differences in game design and content is critical to selecting an appropriate COTS game for the intended purpose. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, learning and assessment are examples of two desired outcomes. To further illustrate how a COTS game could be reasonably connected to the end goal, we provide more detail about the content of the COTS games used in the series of research studies presented in this chapter.
4.1.1 Study 1
In the game Quintet, the primary content focuses on players learning their distinct responsibilities (i.e. the Scientist role can survey the surroundings while the Engineer role can repair and boost various functions) while learning to communicate and coordinate their actions with their teammates. Because the game missions require teammates to coordinate the timing of their actions, gameplay inevitably promotes active communication and collaboration between teammates. Teams will automatically perform better in meeting the mission objectives when they are actively communicating and coordinating their different actions.
4.1.2 Study 2
In the game Arm Surgery 2, the player is presented with factual information about specific surgical equipment and procedures. During gameplay, players are guided through several procedures where they have to select the correct tool and perform the correct action before the game can progress. Progressing through the game naturally promotes active attention towards these tools and procedures as players must monitor and maintain the patient’s health while performing their tasks to earn a higher score.
4.1.3 Study 3
In the game PC Building Simulator, players are responsible for their own PC repair shop. In order to improve their score, they must accurately diagnose the computer’s problem, order the correct parts, and repair or replace those parts before returning the PC to the customer. When players aren’t sure about particular parts, they can go to a guide to click on parts for the name and information on that part. For the gameplay to progress, players must continue to accurately identify and repair the defective components.
4.1.4 Study 4
In the game Car Mechanic Simulator 2, the player owns a car mechanic shop. Similar to the game in Study 3, the player must accurately diagnose the problem, order the needed parts, and replace those parts in the car. The individual can also go to schematics which will give the name and primary functioning of the different parts that will help them when trying to understand and diagnose a problem. Thus, gameplay naturally leads to improved understanding of the different parts of a car and their functioning.
Each of these topics are relevant to workplace learning and may present a relevant context for training or assessment. For example, in Study 1, participants must learn their role in the game but also communicate with members of their team, coordinate their actions, and effectively work together to meet the game objectives. In this instance, the participants cannot be successful together unless they work as a team. Although the environment of being in space does not present a typical work environment, players were actively engaging in workplace applicable teamwork skills. In contrast to this, the physical environment of the games in Studies 2–4 were relevant to the fields of their subject matter (healthcare, computer science, and automotive industry, respectively). As an increasing number of industries continue to consider and apply game-based interventions, the variety of different COTS game contexts becomes more relevant [41, 42, 43].
4.2 Low and high stakes contexts
While COTS games offer a reasonable alternative to the resource intensive commitment of developing a game, they do not provide the same precision and control compared to traditional methods, which can be an important component in some training and assessment contexts [9]. Because of this, it is important to only use COTS in particular contexts when this precision and control is not critical. Beyond assessing how the content of a COTS game is associated with the intended purpose, it’s imperative to consider whether the data will be used in a low stakes or a high stakes scenario.
High stakes scenarios occur when results could have a large, consequential influence on a person’s access to or receiving of resources. This means it might impact their pay, promotion, or selection into a program, course, or position. A low stakes scenario occurs when the results are used for general information given to the individual or for developmental purposes when shared with a larger institution. For example, using a game to assess applicants for a job would be high stakes. Whereas, using a game to assess high school students’ language skills to provide feedback on how to better prepare for college would be a low stakes scenario.
An additional consideration to distinguish high and low stakes scenarios is when a cost is associated with the service and when a claim is made with regard to the actual result of the intervention. For example, someone paying for a training course intended to improve their skills with a software is high stakes and should have evidence that this program improves the skills in individuals that it claims to improve. Similarly, if the program is free but it claims to improve the skill, it should still provide this evidence based on its claim. In contrast, if the program is a free game intended for entertainment purposes and does not make claims about improving cognitive functioning or other skill development then it is low stakes.
High stakes scenarios should be approached with extra care and use instruments or interventions with strong psychometric evidence on the reliability and validity of intended use. To this end, we recommend COTS games to be used primarily in low stakes scenarios. Given the degree of importance and variation that can occur in high stakes scenarios, control over a game or gamified experience is paramount so that any bias or unintended negative consequences can be reconciled. COTS games are typically used without the option to customize aspects of the game, hindering the ability to identify and rectify any pitfalls. Using established and rigorous science-based processes for the development of game-based interventions is especially important for high stakes training or assessment purposes. GBL solutions are best developed following empirical instructional system design (ISD) methodology while GBAs should follow standard assessment development and validation processes to demonstrate the psychometric properties of the assessment [9].
4.3 Recommendations for software developers
Given the results of this paper, it appears that COTS games have potential uses beyond entertainment purposes when selected with intention and applied thoughtfully. Below are recommendations for software developers regarding actions which might benefit a COTS game for being used for alternative purposes.
Firstly, software developers can make a variety of game metrics available to collect from gameplay as providing frequent and detailed feedback on performance is a key component of both training and assessment [44]. When games are used for training or assessment purposes, having detailed metrics (e.g., how long a player spent on a level, how many incorrect selections were made etc.) can be a helpful device. COTS games which provide a metrics sheet or summary of data would greatly aid in the game’s accessibility for alternate purposes. For example, many Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games (MMORPGs) and Multiplayer Online Battle Arena (MOBAs) make detailed game metrics publicly available for players to view statistics of their own and other players’ performance to better understand and improve their future gameplay [45].
Secondly, when possible, it would help to have software developers create easily customizable options in their games that could increase the usability of the game for alternative purposes. For example, some games could add additional modes (e.g., single player, cooperative, or competitive modes) which allow for alignment with a greater variety of intervention purposes. Games could also provide more content related tutorials so players have the opportunity to learn about the context of the game in a tutorial rather than just learning through game mechanics. For example, a medical based game could provide specific information about tools, procedures, and different considerations when caring for a patient. Additionally, learning and assessment components can be an added benefit when thoughtfully integrated into other contexts such as educational settings [46].
Thirdly, when a game is naturally aligned to an area that might have potential for alternative uses outside of entertainment (e.g., game has content relevant to child or adult learning or the content might potentially assess a relevant topic area) it would help to have software developers seek input or feedback from potential users. This may include contacting educators to ask about particular features they would want in the game if they were to use it for learning or posting summaries of the game on online forums and asking for general ideas on how to improve the game if it were used for assessment purposes. Understanding, and marketing, the particular qualities and game characteristics that would be most beneficial for alternative uses would help in promoting the selection of the COTS game.
4.4 Understanding COTS games and modern technologies
Considering the rapid emergence of new technologies, it is relevant to consider how some of the most recent innovations in the gaming world might impact the results discussed here. New technologies such as XR and VR offer high fidelity experiences in contexts that can be created and customized for individuals to experience. The potentially high impact of these new experiences involves the degree of realism they create for the player. Several researchers have begun to explore these technologies and their potential uses for training and assessment purposes, highlighting the hyper realistic environment as a key feature that future researchers and practitioners can capitalize on [3, 27].
This realism can be a valuable training or assessment component of the game or experience for individuals. For example, if trying to teach medical students how to perform a particular procedure, it may be beneficial to have them perform this skill under a variety of conditions such as in a quiet, focused space but also in a loud, and busy space that might better replicate the environment of an Emergency Room. Using XR or VR, the procedure could be adapted to different scenarios, and embedded within a seemingly realistic ER environment that allows common sights and sounds from this experience to be included within the training session.
Similarly for assessment, it may be critical for an electrical engineer to be able to perform specific repairs on power lines and equipment. In XR or VR, these repairs could be assessed in an environment that emulates a heights scenario, where the participant truly feels they are at the top of a powerline. The sights, sounds, and sensations they experience can bring a sense of presence and embodiment that is difficult, if not impossible, to emulate in non-XR or VR environments. In short, it is clear that there are new technologies emerging that could further enhance the usability and application of future COTS games.
5. Conclusion
Research has demonstrated that some game-based interventions may provide benefits in learning and assessment contexts. As the research on game-based interventions continues to mature, more empirical evidence is being produced on how to design and implement games in a more impactful way [47, 48]. Game-based interventions have much potential [9], but game design can be resource-intensive, making COTS games an attractive alternative when the requisite time, resources, or expertise are not available for game development. In the focal research series, we sought to explore how COTS game scores converge with traditional knowledge assessment scores and found preliminary proof-of-concept evidence that in this context, three of the four COTS games demonstrated significant convergence with the respective traditional, multiple-choice assessment. Although these findings do not generalize outside the context of these particular games, they do provide a promising future to the further investigation of COTS games as viable solutions in low stakes instructional and evaluative contexts. Overall, we recommend COTS games within particular contexts where a well-suited game is chosen and encourage individuals to exercise intention in how the COTS games are used.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) game, game-based assessments (GBAs), serious games, game-based learning (GBL), instructional games, multiple-choice assessments",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81217.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81217.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81217",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81217",totalDownloads:40,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 15th 2022",dateReviewed:"February 27th 2022",datePrePublished:"April 11th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"April 11th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Despite the growing interest in utilizing commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) games for instructional and assessment purposes there is a lack of research evidence regarding COTS games for these applications. This chapter considers the application of COTS games for instruction and assessment and provides preliminary evidence comparing COTS game scores to traditional multiple-choice assessments. In a series of four studies, we collected data and compared results from the performance in a COTS game to scores on a traditional multiple-choice assessment written for the purposes of each study. Each assessment was written to evaluate the same content presented in the game for each respective study. Three of the four studies demonstrated a significant correlation between the COTS game and the traditional multiple choice assessment scores. The non-significant value in Study 4 was likely due to a small sample size (n < 100). The results of these studies support our hypothesis and demonstrate that COTS games may be a useful educational tool for training or assessment purposes. We recommend that future research focuses on specific applications of COTS games to explore further opportunities for utilizing COTS in education and assessment.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81217",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81217",signatures:"Diana R. Sanchez, Amanda Rueda, Leila Jimeno Jimènez and Mahsa Norouzi Nargesi",book:{id:"11192",type:"book",title:"Computer Game Development",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Computer Game Development",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Branislav Sobota",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11192.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-565-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-564-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-566-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"109378",title:"Dr.",name:"Branislav",middleName:null,surname:"Sobota",slug:"branislav-sobota",fullName:"Branislav Sobota"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Important terminology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Game-based learning (GBL)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3 Game-based assessment (GBA)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"1.4 Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) games",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"2. Research series",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.1 Study 1",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.1.1 COTS game",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.1.2 Multiple-choice assessment",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.2 Study 2",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.1 COTS game",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.2.2 Multiple-choice assessment",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"2.3 Study 3",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"2.3.1 COTS game",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"2.3.2 Multiple-choice assessment",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"2.4 Study 4",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"2.4.1 COTS game",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"2.4.2 Multiple-choice assessment",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19",title:"3. Research results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"4. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"4.1 Intentional game selection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"4.1.1 Study 1",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"4.1.2 Study 2",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"4.1.3 Study 3",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"4.1.4 Study 4",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"4.2 Low and high stakes contexts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"4.3 Recommendations for software developers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_27_2",title:"4.4 Understanding COTS games and modern technologies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_33",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Bedwell WL, Pavlas D, Heyne K, Lazzara EH, Salas E. Toward a taxonomy linking game attributes to learning: An empirical study. Simulation & Gaming. 2012;43:729-760. DOI: 10.1177/1046878112439444'},{id:"B2",body:'Landers RN. 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San Francisco State University, San Francisco, USA
San Francisco State University, San Francisco, USA
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IntechOpen has always supported new and evolving ideas in scholarly publishing. We understand the community we serve, but to provide an even better service for our IntechOpen Authors and Academic Editors, we have partnered with leading companies and associations in the scientific field and beyond.
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OASPA
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STM
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COPE
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The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) provides advice to editors and publishers on all aspects of publication ethics and, in particular, how to handle cases of misconduct in research and publication. IntechOpen has been a member of COPE since 2013 and adheres to the COPE Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines, ensuring that we maintain the highest ethical standards.
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Creative Commons
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Creative Commons (CC) is a nonprofit organization that enables the sharing and use of creativity and knowledge through free legal tools. IntechOpen uses the CC BY 3.0 license for chapters, meaning Authors retain copyright and their work can be reused and adapted as long as the source is properly cited and Authors are acknowledged.
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Crossref
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Crossref is the official Digital Object Identifier (DOI) Registration Agency for scholarly and professional publications with a goal of making scholarly communications more effective. IntechOpen deposits metadata and registers DOIs for all content using the Crossref System. IntechOpen also deposits its references and uses the Crossref Cited-by service that enables researchers to track citation statistics.
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Altmetric and Dimensions from Digital Science
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Digital Science is a technology company serving the needs of scientific and research communities at key points along the full cycle of research. They support innovative businesses and technologies that make all parts of the research process more open, efficient and effective. IntechOpen integrates tools such as Altmetric to enable our researchers to track and measure the activity around their academic research and Dimensions, to ease access to the most relevant information and better understand and analyze the global research landscape.
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CLOCKSS
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CLOCKSS preserves scholarly publications in original formats, ensuring that they always remain available and openly accessible to everyone.
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DORA
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iThenticate
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Enago
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Straive
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Amazon
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Figshare
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OASPA
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The Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) was established in 2008 to represent the interests of Open Access (OA) publishers globally in all scientific, technical and scholarly disciplines. Its mission is carried out through exchange of information, the setting of standards, advancing models, advocacy, education, and the promotion of innovation.
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STM
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The International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers (STM) is the leading global trade association for academic and professional publishers. As a member, IntechOpen has not only made a commitment to STM's Ethical Principles.
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COPE
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The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) provides advice to editors and publishers on all aspects of publication ethics and, in particular, how to handle cases of misconduct in research and publication. IntechOpen has been a member of COPE since 2013 and adheres to the COPE Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines, ensuring that we maintain the highest ethical standards.
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Creative Commons
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Creative Commons (CC) is a nonprofit organization that enables the sharing and use of creativity and knowledge through free legal tools. IntechOpen uses the CC BY 3.0 license for chapters, meaning Authors retain copyright and their work can be reused and adapted as long as the source is properly cited and Authors are acknowledged.
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Crossref
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Crossref is the official Digital Object Identifier (DOI) Registration Agency for scholarly and professional publications with a goal of making scholarly communications more effective. IntechOpen deposits metadata and registers DOIs for all content using the Crossref System. IntechOpen also deposits its references and uses the Crossref Cited-by service that enables researchers to track citation statistics.
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Altmetric and Dimensions from Digital Science
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Digital Science is a technology company serving the needs of scientific and research communities at key points along the full cycle of research. They support innovative businesses and technologies that make all parts of the research process more open, efficient and effective. IntechOpen integrates tools such as Altmetric to enable our researchers to track and measure the activity around their academic research and Dimensions, to ease access to the most relevant information and better understand and analyze the global research landscape.
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CLOCKSS
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CLOCKSS preserves scholarly publications in original formats, ensuring that they always remain available and openly accessible to everyone.
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Counter
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COUNTER provides the Code of Practice that enables publishers and vendors to report usage of their electronic resources in a consistent way. This enables libraries to compare data received from different publishers and vendors.
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DORA
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DORA is a worldwide initiative covering all scholarly disciplines which recognizes the need to improve the ways in which the outputs of scholarly research are evaluated and seeks to develop and promote best practice. To date it has been signed by over 1500 organizations and around 14,700 individuals.
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iThenticate
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Enago
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IntechOpen collaborates with Enago, through its sister brand, Ulatus, one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. Their services are designed to convey the essence of your work to readers from across the globe in the language they understand.
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Straive
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Straive is the market leader in technology-driven solutions for the extraction, enrichment and transformation of content assets. IntechOpen publishing services are designed to meet the unique needs of Authors. As part of our commitment to that objective, we have an ongoing partnership agreement for production solutions.
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Amazon
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Amazon is the world’s largest online retailer and cloud services provider. IntechOpen books have been available on Amazon since 2017, guaranteeing more visibility for our Authors and Academic Editors.
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DHL
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IntechOpen has partnered with DHL since 2011 to ensure the fastest delivery of Print on Demand books.
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United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact
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River Valley Technology
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River Valley Technology is the world’s first XML-based publishing solution from submission to peer review to production and to final hosting, giving full control to publishers, with full transparency of data.
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Figshare
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Conventional heat-transfer fluids (HTFs) such as water, ethylene glycol, oils and other fluids are typically low-efficiency heat dissipation fluids. Thermal management is a key factor in diverse applications where these fluids can be used, such as in automotive, microelectronics, energy storage, medical, and nuclear cooling among others. Furthermore, the miniaturization and high efficiency of devices in these fields demand successful heat management and energy-efficient materials. The advent of nanofluids could successfully address the low thermal efficiency of HTFs since nanofluids have shown many interesting properties, and the distinctive features offering extraordinary potential for many applications. Nanofluids are engineered by homogeneously suspending nanostructures with average sizes below 100 nm within conventional fluids. 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Then, technologies for channel fabrication (ranging from photolithography and chemical etching, to imprinting, and to 3D-printing) are reviewed. The reference list is extensive and (within each topic) it is arranged chronologically. Examples (with emphasis on those from the authors’ laboratory) are highlighted. Among them, they involve plasma miniaturization via microplasma formation inside micro-fluidic (and in some cases millifluidic) channels fabricated on 2D and 3D-chips. Questions addressed include: How small plasmas can be made? What defines their fundamental size-limit? How small analytical plasmas should be made? And what is their ignition voltage? The discussion then continues with the science, technology and applications of nanofluidics. The conclusions include predictions on potential future development of portable instruments employing either micro or nanofluidic channels. Such portable (or mobile) instruments are expected to be controlled by a smartphone; to have (some) energy autonomy; to employ Artificial Intelligence and Deep Learning, and to have wireless connectivity for their inclusion in the Internet-of-Things (IoT). In essence, those that can be used for chemical analysis in the field for “bringing part of the lab to the sample” types of applications.",book:{id:"6514",slug:"microfluidics-and-nanofluidics",title:"Microfluidics and Nanofluidics",fullTitle:"Microfluidics and Nanofluidics"},signatures:"Vassili Karanassios",authors:[{id:"60925",title:"Prof.",name:"Vassili",middleName:null,surname:"Karanassios",slug:"vassili-karanassios",fullName:"Vassili Karanassios"}]},{id:"57228",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71002",title:"Thresholding Algorithm Optimization for Change Detection to Satellite Imagery",slug:"thresholding-algorithm-optimization-for-change-detection-to-satellite-imagery",totalDownloads:1682,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"To detect changes in satellite imagery, a supervised change detection technique was applied to Landsat images from an area in the south of México. At first, the linear regression (LR) method using the first principal component (1-PC) data, the Chi-square transformation (CST) method using first three principal component (PC-3), and tasseled cap (TC) images were applied to obtain the continuous images of change. Then, the threshold was defined by statistical parameters, and histogram secant techniques to categorize as change or unchanged the pixels. A threshold optimization iterative algorithm is proposed, based on the ground truth data and assessing the accuracy of a range of threshold values through the corresponding Kappa coefficient of concordance. Finally, to evaluate the change detection accuracy of conventional methods and the threshold optimization algorithm, 90 polygons (15,543 pixels) were sampled, categorized as real change/unchanged zones, and defined as ground truth, from the interpretation of color aerial photo slides aided by the land cover maps to obtain the omission/commission errors and the Kappa coefficient of agreement. The results show that the threshold optimization is a suitable approach that can be applied for change detection analysis.",book:{id:"6126",slug:"colorimetry-and-image-processing",title:"Colorimetry and Image Processing",fullTitle:"Colorimetry and Image Processing"},signatures:"René Vázquez-Jiménez, Rocío N. Ramos-Bernal, Raúl Romero-\nCalcerrada, Patricia Arrogante-Funes, Sulpicio Sanchez Tizapa and\nCarlos J. Novillo",authors:[{id:"213505",title:"Dr.",name:"René",middleName:null,surname:"Vázquez-Jiménez",slug:"rene-vazquez-jimenez",fullName:"René Vázquez-Jiménez"},{id:"213527",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Romero-Calcerrada",slug:"raul-romero-calcerrada",fullName:"Raúl Romero-Calcerrada"},{id:"213529",title:"Dr.",name:"Rocío N.",middleName:null,surname:"Ramos-Bernal",slug:"rocio-n.-ramos-bernal",fullName:"Rocío N. Ramos-Bernal"},{id:"213530",title:"MSc.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Arrogante-Funes",slug:"patricia-arrogante-funes",fullName:"Patricia Arrogante-Funes"},{id:"213531",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos J.",middleName:null,surname:"Novillo",slug:"carlos-j.-novillo",fullName:"Carlos J. Novillo"},{id:"221412",title:"Dr.",name:"Sulpicio",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Tizapa",slug:"sulpicio-sanchez-tizapa",fullName:"Sulpicio Sánchez-Tizapa"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"53106",title:"Dynamical Particle Motions in Vortex Flows",slug:"dynamical-particle-motions-in-vortex-flows",totalDownloads:2278,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Circular vortex flows generate interesting self-organizing phenomena of particle motions, that is, particle clustering and classification phenomena. These phenomena result from interaction between vortex dynamics and relaxation of particle velocity due to drag. This chapter introduces particle clustering in stirred vessels and particle classification in Taylor vortex flow based on our previous research works. The first part of this chapter demonstrates and explains a third category of solid-liquid separation physics whereby particles spontaneously localize or cluster into small regions of fluids by taking the clustering phenomena in stirred vessels as an example. The second part of this chapter discusses particle classification phenomena due to shear-induced migration. Finally, this chapter discusses about process intensification utilizing these self-organizing phenomena of particle motions in vortex flows.",book:{id:"5370",slug:"vortex-dynamics-and-optical-vortices",title:"Vortex Dynamics and Optical Vortices",fullTitle:"Vortex Dynamics and Optical Vortices"},signatures:"Steven Wang and Naoto Ohmura",authors:[{id:"186403",title:"Prof.",name:"Naoto",middleName:null,surname:"Ohmura",slug:"naoto-ohmura",fullName:"Naoto Ohmura"},{id:"187311",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"steven-wang",fullName:"Steven Wang"}]},{id:"67203",title:"Introductory Chapter: Swirling Flows and Flames",slug:"introductory-chapter-swirling-flows-and-flames",totalDownloads:1671,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"7409",slug:"swirling-flows-and-flames",title:"Swirling Flows and Flames",fullTitle:"Swirling Flows and Flames"},signatures:"Toufik Boushaki",authors:[{id:"101545",title:"Dr.",name:"Toufik",middleName:null,surname:"Boushaki",slug:"toufik-boushaki",fullName:"Toufik Boushaki"}]},{id:"53651",title:"Vortex Spinning System and Vortex Yarn Structure",slug:"vortex-spinning-system-and-vortex-yarn-structure",totalDownloads:5054,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Studying the yarn formation with the swirling air concept arouse of interest of the researchers for a long time because it appears to be easy to understand as a spinning principle. These kinds of systems are known as the vortex yarn spinning systems. The air-jet spinning methods have been developed since it is possible to eliminate the movable elements as the spindle and the traveler in ring spinning or the centrifuge in rotor spinning. The success of Murata vortex spinning (MVS) system which is the newest system after all studies of air-jet systems has been much acceptable especially for the spinning ability of 100% cotton in high speeds (500 m/min) and the yarn structure resembling ring yarn structure rather than rotor yarns. This study summarizes the historical background of vortex spinning, the spinning principle and the structure of the yarn spun on this system, as well as the factors influencing the yarn quality and finally the developments in vortex spinning technology.",book:{id:"6028",slug:"vortex-structures-in-fluid-dynamic-problems",title:"Vortex Structures in Fluid Dynamic Problems",fullTitle:"Vortex Structures in Fluid Dynamic Problems"},signatures:"Gizem Karakan Günaydin and Ali Serkan Soydan",authors:[{id:"186277",title:"Dr.",name:"Gizem",middleName:null,surname:"Karakan Günaydin",slug:"gizem-karakan-gunaydin",fullName:"Gizem Karakan Günaydin"},{id:"186607",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Serkan Soydan",slug:"ali-serkan-soydan",fullName:"Ali Serkan Soydan"}]},{id:"59009",title:"Thermal Transport and Challenges on Nanofluids Performance",slug:"thermal-transport-and-challenges-on-nanofluids-performance",totalDownloads:1758,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Progress in technology and industrial developments demands the efficient and successful energy utilization and its management in a greater extent. Conventional heat-transfer fluids (HTFs) such as water, ethylene glycol, oils and other fluids are typically low-efficiency heat dissipation fluids. Thermal management is a key factor in diverse applications where these fluids can be used, such as in automotive, microelectronics, energy storage, medical, and nuclear cooling among others. Furthermore, the miniaturization and high efficiency of devices in these fields demand successful heat management and energy-efficient materials. The advent of nanofluids could successfully address the low thermal efficiency of HTFs since nanofluids have shown many interesting properties, and the distinctive features offering extraordinary potential for many applications. Nanofluids are engineered by homogeneously suspending nanostructures with average sizes below 100 nm within conventional fluids. This chapter aims to focus on a detail description of the thermal transport behavior, challenges and implications that involve the development and use of HTFs under the influence of atomistic-scale structures and industrial applications. Multifunctional characteristics of these nanofluids, nanostructures variables and features are discussed in this chapter; the mechanisms that promote these effects on the improvement of nanofluids thermal transport performance and the broad range of current and future applications will be included.",book:{id:"6514",slug:"microfluidics-and-nanofluidics",title:"Microfluidics and Nanofluidics",fullTitle:"Microfluidics and Nanofluidics"},signatures:"José Jaime Taha-Tijerina",authors:[{id:"182402",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:"Jaime",surname:"Taha-Tijerina",slug:"jose-taha-tijerina",fullName:"Jose Taha-Tijerina"}]},{id:"61556",title:"Microfluidics and Nanofluidics: Science, Fabrication Technology (From Cleanrooms to 3D Printing) and Their Application to Chemical Analysis by Battery-Operated Microplasmas-On-Chips",slug:"microfluidics-and-nanofluidics-science-fabrication-technology-from-cleanrooms-to-3d-printing-and-the",totalDownloads:1874,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The science and phenomena that become important when fluid-flow is confined in microfluidic channels are initially discussed. Then, technologies for channel fabrication (ranging from photolithography and chemical etching, to imprinting, and to 3D-printing) are reviewed. The reference list is extensive and (within each topic) it is arranged chronologically. Examples (with emphasis on those from the authors’ laboratory) are highlighted. Among them, they involve plasma miniaturization via microplasma formation inside micro-fluidic (and in some cases millifluidic) channels fabricated on 2D and 3D-chips. Questions addressed include: How small plasmas can be made? What defines their fundamental size-limit? How small analytical plasmas should be made? And what is their ignition voltage? The discussion then continues with the science, technology and applications of nanofluidics. The conclusions include predictions on potential future development of portable instruments employing either micro or nanofluidic channels. Such portable (or mobile) instruments are expected to be controlled by a smartphone; to have (some) energy autonomy; to employ Artificial Intelligence and Deep Learning, and to have wireless connectivity for their inclusion in the Internet-of-Things (IoT). In essence, those that can be used for chemical analysis in the field for “bringing part of the lab to the sample” types of applications.",book:{id:"6514",slug:"microfluidics-and-nanofluidics",title:"Microfluidics and Nanofluidics",fullTitle:"Microfluidics and Nanofluidics"},signatures:"Vassili Karanassios",authors:[{id:"60925",title:"Prof.",name:"Vassili",middleName:null,surname:"Karanassios",slug:"vassili-karanassios",fullName:"Vassili Karanassios"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"224",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11975,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Engineering, University of Naples “Parthenope,” Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Italy. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plants, logistics, manufacturing, and safety. She serves as an associate editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process and is an editorial board member for several other journals. She is also a member of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) Academy.",institutionString:"Parthenope University of Naples",institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11976,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11977,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the 'new normal'. Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.",institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11978,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. Current research interests include trophic flows across ecosystems; watershed impacts of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning; ecological civilization and water resource management; urban ecology and urban/rural sustainable development.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Soochow University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11979,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. He holds a Master’s Degree in Urban Development Planning from the University College of London (UCL), and a Ph.D. in Urban Planning & Engineering from TU Berlin. He has conducted applied research on urban planning and infrastructure issues in over 20 countries in Africa and Asia. In 2005 he joined Eawag-Sandec as Leader of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning Group. 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In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"8",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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