\r\n\tRecent advances regarding pathogenesis, cardiovascular risk assessment, prediction of damage, and recent advances in treatment, including tolerogenic and biological agents, are welcome to be included in this book. Relevant contributions regarding standard therapies and their optimal use, as well as the role of new therapeutic options, either in combination with previous agents or alone are of interest.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-348-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-347-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-349-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"7005f26b225e5923d4ce4cd7c52f6fe9",bookSignature:"M.D. Sophia Lionaki and Dr. Minas Karagiannis",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11726.jpg",keywords:"Epidemiology, Genetics, Clinical Picture, Physical Examination, Pathogenesis, Histopathology, Nomenclature, Clinical Syndromes, Clinical Picture, Evaluation, Pregnancy Planning, Risk Assessment",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 17th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 17th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 16th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 4th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 3rd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A researcher devoted to clinical research related to autoimmune diseases of the kidney and especially ANCA vasculitis and lupus nephritis. Dr. Lionaki obtained her MD from the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens and has a Ph.D. degree in \"Membranous Nephropathy”. She is an expert in the field of 'Glomerular Diseases' as a result of a fellowship for more than 2 years at the Nephrology Department of the University of North Carolina, at Chapel Hill in the USA.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"213115",title:"M.D.",name:"Sophia",middleName:null,surname:"Lionaki",slug:"sophia-lionaki",fullName:"Sophia Lionaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/213115/images/system/213115.png",biography:"Sophia Lionaki, MD, PhD is an Assistant Professor In Nephrology in the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece. She obtained her MD from National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece in 1996 and has a Ph.D degree on \"Membranous Nephropathy”. She is an expert in the field of 'Glomerular Diseases' as a result of a fellowship for more than 2 years at the Nephrology Department of the University of North Carolina, at Chapel Hill in USA under the mentorship of Professors Ronald J. Falk and J.Charles Jennette. \nHer research interests include: ANCA vasculitis and glomerulonephritis, lupus nephritis, primary glomerulonephritides, immunology of the kidney.",institutionString:"National and Kapodistrian University of Athens",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"National and Kapodistrian University of Athens",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"451879",title:"Dr.",name:"Minas",middleName:null,surname:"Karagiannis",slug:"minas-karagiannis",fullName:"Minas Karagiannis",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:"National and Kapodistrian University of Athens",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National and Kapodistrian University of Athens",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"418641",firstName:"Iva",lastName:"Ribic",middleName:null,title:"M.Sc.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418641/images/16830_n.png",email:"iva.r@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7073",title:"Lupus",subtitle:"New Advances and Challenges",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"72a1c80811ab9ff742c3d3ebefada247",slug:"lupus-new-advances-and-challenges",bookSignature:"Sophia Lionaki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7073.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"213115",title:"M.D.",name:"Sophia",surname:"Lionaki",slug:"sophia-lionaki",fullName:"Sophia Lionaki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
\n
1.1. Spinal cord injury
\n
Spinal cord injury represents a significant health problem associated with lifelong disability and a broad range of secondary complications. Although spinal cord trauma causes loss of neuronal cell bodies as well as myelinated axons, the dysfunction of the white matter tracts is the factor that determines most of the clinical symptoms. In addition, the management of spinal cord injury patients is challenging. According to the damaged part of the spinal cord, the spinal cord injury can lead to the respiratory insufficiency due to the paralysis of breathing muscles, necessitating mechanical ventilators, phrenic nerve pacing, loss of sensory and motor functions, recurrent kidney stones, urinary tract infection, pressure sores, and cardiac and respiratory dysfunction. In the majority of cases, the spinal cord injury results into the spinal cord ischemia due to the superficial position of fine arterial system of the spinal cord.
\n
\n
\n
1.2. Laboratory animals in experimental spinal cord injury
\n
The advances made so far with the benefit of animal model have been primarily in understanding the cell biology of the injured nervous system. Rodent models are the common type of mammal employed in experimental spinal cord injury studies, and widespread research have been conducted using rats, mice, gerbils, guinea pigs, and hamsters [1]. Other animal experiments include cats, rabbits, and dogs [1, 2]. Of course, larger mammals such as nonhuman primate, goats, and pigs are also used but very rarely and are less experienced models based in spinal cord injury research, requiring expensive aftercare and housing as well as stringent ethical considerations [1–4].
\n
\n
1.2.1. Rabbit
\n
Rabbits are commonly used in biomedical research. Currently, many strains of rabbit are available. Laboratory rabbits belong to the order Lagomorpha and are collectively referred to as lagomorphs [5]. The most popular strain for research purposes is a medium-sized (weighing between 3 and 5 kg), New Zealand White outbred rabbit. A number of advantages make rabbits a widely used animal in biomedical research. Their size, ease of handling, and relative ease of blood collection due to their large ear vessels make them suitable for many types of experiments [6]. The rabbits are suitable for long-term experiments, because most of them live for 5–8 years, but some individuals live to the age of 10 years or more.
\n
\n
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1.2.2. Guinea pig
\n
Guinea pigs occupy special place in research. This rodent species, with its unique physiology and anatomy, has come to symbolize all experimental subjects. The special place in research implies that guinea pigs are one of the most commonly used laboratory animals in research. They represent an appropriate animal for several types of experiments because of their small size, cleanliness, docileness, and relatively easy maintenance [7].
\n
\n
\n
1.2.3. Rabbit and guinea pig in experimental spinal cord injury
\n
The two before-mentioned species have been used as experimental models in the study of spinal cord ischemic injury, and the effect of various neuroprotective drugs on such way altered the nervous tissue [8–13]. The more detailed knowledge of anatomy of the spinal cord blood supply with focus on all possible variations can contribute to the protection of the spinal cord. The aim of our study was to describe the arterial blood supply to rabbit and guinea pig spinal cord using the corrosion and dissecting technique. We described some variations of the principal arteries and the segmental arteries contributing to the arterial blood supply in the corresponding region.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
2. Materials and methods
\n
\n
2.1. Experimental animals
\n
\n
2.1.1. Rabbit
\n
Adult New Zealand White rabbits in number of 20, at 140 days of age (weight range 2.5–3 kg) consisting of 10 males and 10 females, were used in this study. The work was performed in an accredited experimental laboratory at the University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, Slovak Republic. Standard conditions were ensured to all animals: approved cages, relative humidity (45%), temperature (15–20°C), light period (12 hours), feed (granular mixed, KLASIK, de Heus, Bučovice, Czech Republic), and drinking water (ad libitum). The corrosion technique was used for 10 rabbits, females (n = 5) and males (n = 5), and the dissecting technique for 10 rabbits, females (n = 5) and males (n = 5).
\n
\n
\n
2.1.2. Guinea pig
\n
Adult English self guinea pigs in number of twenty, at 220 days of age (weight range 0.8–1 kg) consisting of 10 males and 10 females, were used in this study. The work was performed in an accredited experimental laboratory at the University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, Slovak Republic. Standard conditions were ensured to all animals: approved cages, relative humidity (45%), temperature (15–20°C), light period (12 hours), feed (FANTASIA, Tatrapet, Liptovský Mikuláš, Slovak Republic), and drinking water (ad libitum). The corrosion technique was used for 10 guinea pigs, females (n = 5) and males (n = 5), and the dissecting technique for 10 guinea pigs, females (n = 5) and males (n = 5).
\n
\n
\n
\n
2.2. Casting media
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\n
2.2.1. Corrosion technique
\n
In the corrosion technique, Spofacryl (SpofaDental, Czech Republic) was used as a casting medium. It consists of a powdered component (copolymer of methyl methacrylate, copolymer of methacrylate, sodium p-toluenesulfinate, pigments, and fluorescent agent), liquid component (methyl methacrylate, methacrylic acid, ethylene glycol dimethacrylate, stabilizers, and amine), and red pigment (1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, bis[2-ethylhexyl ester], epoxidized soybean oil, and 2-naphthalenecarboxylic acid).
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\n
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2.2.2. Dissecting technique
\n
Batson’s No. 17 Plastic Replica and Corrosion Kit (Polysciences Europe GmbH, Germany) was used as a casting medium in the dissecting technique. It consists of base solution A (polymethyl methacrylate; methyl methacrylate; dibutyl phthalate; 2-methyl-, 1,2-ethanediyl ester; and 2-propenoic acid), catalyst (dibutyl phthalate, benzoyl peroxide, and acetone), promoter C (N,N-dimethyl-4-toluidine and dibutyl phthalate), and red pigment (2-naphthalenecarboxylic acid, 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, epoxidized soybean oil, and bis[2-ethylhexyl ester]).
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\n
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2.3. Methods
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2.3.1. Surgical preparation of animals
\n
First step in surgical preparation of animals was the intravenous application of heparin (50,000 UI/kg) 30 minutes before the animals were euthanized using the embutramide (T-61, 0.3 mL/kg) also intravenously. For better manipulation during the dissection and prevention from the hair sticking to the corrosive casts during maceration process was the skin subsequently as far as possibly removed. The entrance into the thoracic cavity was performed from the left side by removing of the parts of the ribs. Before the introduction of a ligature to the initial part of ascending aorta, the pericardial cavity was opened. Plastic cannula was inserted into the ascending aorta through the opened left ventricle. After the cannula was fixed in the ascending aorta, the perfusion started. The decrease of pressure in arteries and veins and performing of good injection were accomplished by opening of the right auricle of the heart. The manual perfusion of the arterial and venous system using the cannula by means of 2.5–3 l of warm (37°C), pH 7.3, and 0.9% NaOH in 0.01 M phosphate took 15–20 min [14].
\n
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2.3.2. Casting medium preparation
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\n
2.3.2.1. Corrosion technique
\n
Powdered component with a weight of 20 g was added to the red pigment. To this mixture, liquid component in amount of 10 mL was added, and both components were mixed together.
\n
\n
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2.3.2.2. Dissecting technique
\n
The red pigment was added to the base solution A prior to mixing the catalyst and promoter C. The pigment was added in the amount of 5% of the base solution A. After mixing of the base solution A and the pigment together, the mixture was divided into two similar parts. Each of them has a volume of 10 mL. The first of these parts was mixed with the catalyst in volume of 6 mL. The second part was mixed with six drops of promoter C. After the initial mixing, these two parts were fused and mixed together.
\n
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2.3.3. Casting medium application
\n
The same cannula fixed to the ascending aorta serves for manual filling of the arterial system with the casting medium. The red casting medium in the superficial body vessels determined the adequate filling of arteries and an even distribution. After the completion of arterial casting, for at least 30 minutes, the bodies must not be manipulated. After this time period, the bodies were submersed in water (40–60°C; 24 hours) to ensure adequate polymerization of the applied casting medium in the arterial system.
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\n
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2.3.4. Corrosion technique
\n
The variable soft tissues, which surrounded the polymerized casting medium, were dissolved by the potassium hydroxide (KOH) in concentration of 2–4% for 2 days. For the faster corrosion, a constant temperature (40°C) of the used solution must be achieved [15]. Every 12 hours, the corrosion solution was changed. After the dissolution, the rest of the surrounding soft tissues were removed from the corrosion casts in running water. Then, the corrosion casts were dried at the room temperature.
\n
\n
\n
2.3.5. Dissecting technique
\n
By the dissecting technique, 10% formaldehyde was injected into the vertebral canal between the last lumbar vertebra and sacrum, between the last cervical and first thoracic vertebra, and between the occipital bone and the first cervical vertebra to fix the spinal cord. After 1-week fixation, the vertebral canal was opened by removing vertebral arches in sacral, lumbar, thoracic, and cervical regions. Also, the occipital bone was partly removed. The prepared spinal cords were fixed in 10% formaldehyde (Section 1).
\n
\n
\n
\n
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3. Results
\n
\n
3.1. Rabbit
\n
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3.1.1. Cervical spinal cord
\n
In the cervical spinal cord, we found more complex arterial blood supply in comparison with the rest of the spinal cord. The most cranial section of cervical spinal cord was supplied with blood by means of small branches arising from the posterior inferior cerebellar artery. This artery originated from the vertebral artery bilaterally. The bilateral vertebral arteries entered into the vertebral canal through the lateral vertebral opening of the atlas. The fusion of the bilateral vertebral arteries was located on the caudal border of the dorsal surface of the basilar part of the occipital bone. From this fusion, the basilar artery which participated on the formation of arterial cerebral ring continued cranially. The fusion of vertebral arteries was present in 50% of cases without gap (Figure 1) and in 30% of cases with one longitudinal gap (Figure 2). In 20% of cases, we found two gaps. At the level of fusion of bilateral vertebral arteries originated the ventral spinal artery. Its origin was from the right-sided vertebral artery, from the left-sided vertebral artery (Figure 2), and from the anastomosis of two branches, each coming from the medial surface of the corresponding vertebral artery (Figure 1). The frequency of origins of ventral spinal artery is shown in Table 1.
\n
Figure 1.
The origin of the ventral spinal artery from the anastomosis of two branches, each coming from the medial surface of the corresponding vertebral artery. (1) Basilar artery, (2) left vertebral artery, (3) right vertebral artery, and (4) ventral spinal artery. Macerated specimen, dorsal view, magnification 8x.
\n
Figure 2.
The origin of the ventral spinal artery from the left-sided vertebral artery. The fusion of bilateral vertebral arteries is visible on one longitudinal gap. (1) Basilar artery, (2) left vertebral artery, (3) right vertebral artery, and (4) ventral spinal artery. Macerated specimen, dorsal view, magnification 12.5x.
\n
\n
\n
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\n\n
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Corrosion technique (%)
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Dissecting technique (%)
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Average (%)
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\n\n\n
\n
Bilateral origin
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20
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30
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25
\n
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\n
Right-sided origin
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40
\n
40
\n
40
\n
\n
\n
Left-sided origin
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40
\n
30
\n
35
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Origin of ventral spinal artery using the corrosion technique (10 rabbits) and dissecting technique (10 rabbits).
\n
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\n\n
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Occurrence of spinal branches (%)
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\n
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Right
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Left
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\n
C 1
\n
0
\n
0
\n
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C 2
\n
70
\n
50
\n
\n
\n
C 3
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50
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30
\n
\n
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C 4
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50
\n
50
\n
\n
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C 5
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30
\n
50
\n
\n
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C 6
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20
\n
70
\n
\n
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C 7
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30
\n
50
\n
\n
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C 8
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50
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50
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Frequency of occurrence of spinal branches in the cervical spinal cord using the dissecting technique (10 rabbits).
C, cervical segment of the spinal cord.
\n
Figure 3.
Dorsal branches of the spinal branches joining the irregular dorsal spinal arteries. (1) Dorsal branch of spinal branch and (2) irregular dorsal spinal artery. Dissected specimen, dorsolateral view, magnification 5x.
\n
The ventral spinal artery was located along the ventral median fissure on the ventral surface of the cervical spinal cord. Bilateral vertebral arteries gave off spinal branches which entered the vertebral canal through the intervertebral openings. Inside the vertebral canal, the spinal branches divided into the dorsal and ventral branch with direction to the spinal cord. The ventral branches joined the ventral spinal artery. The frequency of occurrence of individual ventral branches joining the ventral spinal artery is shown in Table 2. In the cervical spinal cord, the ventral branches joining the ventral spinal artery were present as right-sided in 46.2% and as left-sided in 53.8% of cases.
\n
We found two irregular longitudinal dorsal spinal arteries receiving dorsal branches of spinal arteries (Figure 3) or the absence of the dorsal spinal arteries (Figure 4) on the dorsal surface of the spinal cord. In the case of the presence of two longitudinal dorsal spinal arteries, their arrangement was very variable. These two longitudinal dorsal spinal arteries were formed only by fusion of the small cranially and caudally directed branches originating from the dorsal branches. In the case of the absence of dorsal spinal arteries, the dorsal surface of the spinal cord was supplied by means of dorsal branches forming irregular loops between each other on the same and on the opposite side. There was no origin of the dorsal spinal arteries present in the area of fusion of bilateral vertebral arteries. The frequency of occurrence of dorsal branches was the same as of the ventral branches.
\n
Figure 4.
Dorsal branches of the spinal branches in the form of irregular loops. (1) Dorsal branch of spinal branch. Dissected specimen, dorsal view, magnification 12.5x.
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\n
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3.1.2. Thoracolumbar spinal cord
\n
The thoracic spinal cord received the arterial blood by means of spinal branches originating from the dorsal intercostal arteries which were present in 13 pairs. Dorsal intercostal arteries as paired branches arising from the dorsal surface of the thoracic aorta were present in nine pairs in 70% of cases, in eight pairs in 20% of cases, and in 10 pairs in 10% of cases. The remaining three to five pairs originated from the supreme intercostal artery. The more cranial origin of the left-sided dorsal intercostal arteries than the right-sided was present in 60% of cases (Figure 5). The origin of right- and left-sided dorsal intercostal arteries at the same level was present in 20% of cases (Figure 6). The origin of first nine pairs at the same level and the more cranial origin of the left-sided arteries than the right-sided by the remaining pairs were present in 10% of cases. The more cranially located origin of the right-sided arteries than the left-sided arteries by the first eight pairs and the origin of the remaining pairs at the same level were found in 10% of cases.
\n
Figure 5.
More cranially located origin of the left-sided dorsal intercostal arteries than the right-sided. (1) Thoracic aorta, (2) 10th left dorsal intercostal artery, (3) 10th right dorsal intercostal artery, (4) eighth left dorsal intercostal artery, and (5) eighth right dorsal intercostal artery. The black line indicates the shift of origin of dorsal intercostal arteries. Macerated specimen, dorsal view, macroscopic image.
\n
Figure 6.
Origin of dorsal intercostal arteries at the same level. (1) Thoracic aorta, (2) 10th left dorsal intercostal artery, (3) 10th right dorsal intercostal artery, (4) seventh left dorsal intercostal artery, and (5) seventh right dorsal intercostal artery. The black line indicates the place of origin of dorsal intercostal arteries. Macerated specimen, dorsal view, macroscopic image.
\n
The paired lumbar arteries originated from the dorsal surface of the abdominal aorta. Their spinal branches represent the arterial blood supply to the lumbar spinal cord. Lumbar arteries in number of six pairs were present in 90% of cases and in five pairs in 10% of cases. The remaining last pair was originating from the median sacral artery. In 60% of cases, the lumbar arteries at the same level originated by means of a common trunk (Figure 7). The independent origin of first two pairs and the origin of the remaining pairs by means of a common trunk were present in 30% of cases (Figure 8). The more cranial origin of the left-sided lumbar arteries than the right-sided lumbar arteries by the first two pairs and the origin of lumbar arteries by the remaining pairs by means of a common trunk from the dorsal surface of the abdominal aorta were present in 10% of cases.
\n
Figure 7.
Origin of lumbar arteries by means of a common trunk. (1) Abdominal aorta and (2) the point of division of common trunk for bilateral lumbar arteries. L 2—second lumbar vertebra and L 6—sixth lumbar vertebra. Macerated specimen, lateral view, macroscopic image.
\n
Figure 8.
Origin of lumbar arteries by means of a common trunk. The first two pairs originated as independent branches. (1) Abdominal aorta, (2) common trunk for bilateral lumbar arteries, and (3) the separate origin of bilateral lumbar arteries. Macerated specimen, lateral view, macroscopic image.
\n
The spinal branches with origin from the dorsal intercostal and lumbar arteries entered the vertebral canal through the intervertebral openings in association with the respective spinal nerve roots. Inside the vertebral canal, each spinal branch was divided into the dorsal and ventral branches. The ventral branches joined the ventral spinal artery.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Level
\n
Occurrence of spinal branches (%)
\n
\n
\n
\n
Ventral
\n
Dorsal
\n
\n
\n
\n
Right
\n
Left
\n
Right
\n
Left
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Th 1
\n
20
\n
50
\n
40
\n
50
\n
\n
\n
Th 2
\n
60
\n
70
\n
70
\n
40
\n
\n
\n
Th 3
\n
0
\n
30
\n
50
\n
70
\n
\n
\n
Th 4
\n
30
\n
60
\n
70
\n
90
\n
\n
\n
Th 5
\n
0
\n
90
\n
40
\n
100
\n
\n
\n
Th 6
\n
20
\n
100
\n
30
\n
60
\n
\n
\n
Th 7
\n
70
\n
70
\n
100
\n
60
\n
\n
\n
Th 8
\n
20
\n
100
\n
60
\n
100
\n
\n
\n
Th 9
\n
10
\n
30
\n
0
\n
70
\n
\n
\n
Th 10
\n
20
\n
80
\n
60
\n
20
\n
\n
\n
Th 11
\n
30
\n
30
\n
50
\n
80
\n
\n
\n
Th 12
\n
10
\n
40
\n
0
\n
80
\n
\n
\n
Th 13
\n
40
\n
60
\n
30
\n
100
\n
\n
\n
L 1
\n
50
\n
50
\n
50
\n
40
\n
\n
\n
L 2
\n
30
\n
20
\n
40
\n
80
\n
\n
\n
L 3
\n
50
\n
60
\n
60
\n
60
\n
\n
\n
L 4
\n
70
\n
80
\n
30
\n
40
\n
\n
\n
L 5
\n
50
\n
70
\n
60
\n
50
\n
\n
\n
L 6
\n
50
\n
50
\n
50
\n
50
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
Occurrence of ventral and dorsal branches of arterial spinal branches in the thoracolumbar spinal cord (dissecting technique, 10 rabbits).
L, lumbar segment of the spinal cord and Th, thoracic segment of the spinal cord.
\n
The frequency of occurrence of individual ventral branches is shown in Table 3. The left-sided ventral branches entering the ventral spinal artery in thoracic spinal cord were present in 71.1% of cases and the right-sided ventral branches in 28.9% of cases. The left-sided ventral branches entering the ventral spinal artery in lumbar spinal cord were present in 52.4% of cases and right-sided in 47.6% of cases. Along the entire thoracolumbar spinal cord, the left-sided ventral branches were present in 64.4% of cases and the right-sided in 35.6% of cases, which is most likely related to left-sided localization of the descending aorta.
\n
Figure 9.
Left-sided localization of the artery of Adamkiewicz. (1) Ventral spinal artery, (2) the artery of Adamkiewicz, (3) branch of the artery of Adamkiewicz running cranially, and (4) ventral branch of spinal branch of the fifth right lumbar artery. Dissected specimen, ventral view, macroscopic image.
\n
Figure 10.
Right-sided localization of the artery of Adamkiewicz. (1) Ventral spinal artery and (2) the artery of Adamkiewicz. Dissected specimen, ventral view, macroscopic image.
\n
A feeding artery with larger diameter entered the ventral spinal artery together with numerous weak spinal branches with smaller diameter. This bigger artery originated from the spinal branch which arose from the sixth lumbar artery. Thereafter, it arose and it ran through the intervertebral foramen to enter the vertebral canal. In all the studied specimens, we found this artery, which is known as the artery of Adamkiewicz or the arteria radicularis magna. It was present as left-sided artery in 50% of cases (Figure 9) and as right-sided artery also in 50% of cases (Figure 10). The artery of Adamkiewicz represented the arterial blood supply of the lumbar spinal cord caudally from the point of narrowing of the ventral spinal artery. After reaching median ventral fissure, it ran caudally replacing the ventral spinal artery and sent an important thin branch cranially to the thinning ventral spinal artery (Figure 9).
\n
Figure 11.
The presence of two irregular longitudinal dorsal spinal arteries. (1) Dorsal spinal artery. Dissected specimen, dorsal view, magnification 12.5x.
\n
Figure 12.
The absence of longitudinal dorsal spinal arteries. (1) Dorsal branch of spinal branch. Dissected specimen, dorsal view, magnification 12.5x.
\n
On the dorsal surface of the thoracolumbar spinal cord, two irregular longitudinal dorsal spinal arteries were present in 70% of cases (Figure 11). They were located bilaterally in the lateral dorsal groove. We found the absence of longitudinal dorsal spinal arteries on the dorsal surface of thoracolumbar spinal cord in 20% of cases (Figure 12). Three irregular longitudinal dorsal spinal arteries receiving the dorsal branches were present in 10% of cases. The third artery was lying in the median dorsal groove (Figure 13). In the cases of the presence of two irregular longitudinal dorsal spinal arteries, these were formed only by the fusion of small cranially and caudally directed branches arising from the dorsal branches of the spinal branches. They formed irregular loops between each other on the same and on the opposite side. The frequency of occurrence of individual dorsal branches is shown in Table 3. The dorsal branches in the thoracic spinal cord were present in 60.5% of cases as left-sided and in 39.5% of cases as right-sided. The dorsal branches in the lumbar spinal cord were present in 52.5% of cases as left-sided and in 47.5% of cases as right-sided. Along the entire thoracolumbar spinal cord, the left-sided dorsal branches were present in 58.2% of cases and the right-sided in 41.8% of cases; this is most likely related to the left-sided localization of the descending aorta.
\n
Figure 13.
Dorsal branches of spinal branches forming three irregular longitudinal dorsal spinal arteries. (1) Dorsal spinal artery and (2) dorsal branch of spinal artery. Dissected specimen, dorsal view, magnification 12.5x.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3.2. Guinea pig
\n
\n
3.2.1. Cervical spinal cord
\n
The arterial blood supply to the cervical spinal cord was more complex in comparison with the rest of the spinal cord. Numerous small branches arising from the posterior inferior cerebellar artery supplied the most cranial section of the first segment of the cervical spinal cord. Bilateral vertebral arteries entered the vertebral canal through the lateral vertebral opening of the atlas. These two arteries fused together on the caudal margin of the basilar part of the occipital bone. From the fusion originated the cranially directed basilar artery which participated on the formation of the cerebral arterial circle. The fusion of bilateral vertebral arteries has no triangular gap in 60% of cases (Figure 14) and one longitudinal gap in 30% of cases. A communicating branch between bilateral vertebral arteries was present in 10% of cases (Figure 15). The ventral spinal artery originated at the place of fusion of bilateral vertebral arteries. This origin was from the right-sided vertebral artery (Figure 15), from the left-sided vertebral artery, and from the anastomosis of two branches originating from the medial surface of the corresponding vertebral artery (Figure 14). The frequency of rostral origins of the ventral spinal artery is shown in Table 4.
\n
The ventral spinal artery runs along the ventral median fissure of the cervical spinal cord. Spinal branches originating from the bilateral vertebral arteries entered the vertebral canal through the intervertebral openings. Inside the vertebral canal, they were divided into the dorsal and ventral branches with direction to the spinal cord. Some of the ventral branches joined the ventral spinal artery. The frequency of occurrence of individual ventral branches joining the ventral spinal artery is shown in Table 5. The left-sided ventral branches joining the ventral spinal artery were present in 58.2% of cases and the right-sided in 41.8% of cases.
\n
Figure 14.
The anastomosis of two branches with origin on the medial surface of bilateral vertebral arteries forming the ventral spinal artery. (1) Basilar artery, (2) left vertebral artery, (3) right vertebral artery, and (4) ventral spinal artery. Macerated specimen, dorsal view, magnification 12.5x.
\n
Figure 15.
Ventral spinal artery originating from the right vertebral artery. Connection of both vertebral arteries by means of communicating branch. (1) Basilar artery, (2) left vertebral artery, (3) right vertebral artery, (4) ventral spinal artery, and (5) communicating branch. Macerated specimen, dorsal view, magnification 12.5x.
\n
On the dorsal surface of the cervical spinal cord, we found two longitudinal dorsal spinal arteries in 60% of cases (Figure 16), three longitudinal dorsal spinal arteries in 30% of cases (Figure 17), or they were absent in 10% of cases. The fusion of the small cranially and caudally directed branches originating from the dorsal branches of spinal arteries represents the form of two longitudinal dorsal spinal arteries. In the cases of the absence of the dorsal spinal arteries, the dorsal surface of the cervical spinal cord receives the arterial blood by means of dorsal branches of spinal arteries with very irregular arrangement (Figure 18). We found no rostral origins of dorsal spinal arteries in the place of fusion of bilateral vertebral arteries. The frequency of occurrence of individual dorsal branches reaching the cervical spinal cord is shown in Table 5. The left-sided dorsal branches were present in 63.3% of cases, and the right-sided dorsal branches were present in 36.7% of cases.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
\n
Corrosion technique (%)
\n
Dissecting technique (%)
\n
Average (%)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Bilateral origin
\n
20
\n
30
\n
25
\n
\n
\n
Right-sided origin
\n
40
\n
40
\n
40
\n
\n
\n
Left-sided origin
\n
40
\n
30
\n
35
\n
\n\n
Table 4.
Rostral origin of ventral spinal artery using the corrosion technique (10 guinea pigs) and dissecting technique (10 guinea pigs).
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Level
\n
Occurrence of spinal branches (%)
\n
\n
\n
\n
Ventral
\n
Dorsal
\n
\n
\n
\n
Right
\n
Left
\n
Right
\n
Left
\n
\n\n\n
\n
C 1
\n
0
\n
0
\n
50
\n
50
\n
\n
\n
C 2
\n
30
\n
30
\n
0
\n
50
\n
\n
\n
C 3
\n
0
\n
0
\n
50
\n
60
\n
\n
\n
C 4
\n
30
\n
60
\n
30
\n
90
\n
\n
\n
C 5
\n
50
\n
50
\n
50
\n
50
\n
\n
\n
C 6
\n
90
\n
30
\n
60
\n
100
\n
\n
\n
C 7
\n
0
\n
100
\n
0
\n
50
\n
\n
\n
C 8
\n
30
\n
50
\n
50
\n
50
\n
\n\n
Table 5.
Frequency of occurrence of ventral branches of spinal branches of the cervical spinal cord using the dissecting technique (10 guinea pigs).
C, cervical segment of the spinal cord.
\n
Figure 16.
The presence of two dorsal spinal arteries. (1) Dorsal spinal artery. Dissected specimen, dorsal view, magnification 12.5x.
\n
Figure 17.
The presence of three dorsal spinal arteries. (1) Dorsal spinal artery. Dissected specimen, dorsal view, magnification 12.5x.
\n
Figure 18.
Dorsal branches of spinal branches with irregular arrangement. Dissected specimen, dorsolateral view, magnification 12.5x.
\n
Figure 19.
Dorsal intercostal arteries. (1) Thoracic aorta, (2) dorsal intercostal arteries with independent origin, (3) craniocaudal division of a common trunk of dorsal intercostal arteries, and (4) right-left division of common trunk of dorsal intercostal arteries. Macerated specimen, dorsal view, magnification 5x.
\n
\n
\n
3.2.2. Thoracolumbar spinal cord
\n
In the thoracic spinal cord, the arterial blood supply is performed by means of spinal branches arising from the dorsal intercostal arteries (Figure 19) which were present in number of 12 pairs. Dorsal intercostal arteries originated from the dorsal surface of the thoracic aorta in number of eight pairs in 70% of cases, in number of seven pairs in 20% of cases, and in number of nine pairs in 10% of cases. The remaining three to five pairs arose from the supreme intercostal artery. The origin of dorsal intercostal arteries by means of common trunk was present in 70% of cases. We found the division in right-left direction of common trunk in 60% of cases and in craniocaudal direction in 40% of cases. There was a high degree of variability present in the formation of common trunk. It was formed by two dorsal intercostal arteries in four cases, by three arteries in one case, by four arteries in one case, and by five arteries also in one case. The right- and left-sided arteries at the same level originated independently in 30% of cases.
\n
The lumbar spinal cord received the arterial blood supply by means of spinal branches originating from the paired lumbar arteries. In all the cases, we found seven pairs of lumbar arteries. The first six pairs originated from the dorsal surface of the abdominal aorta, and the last one pair was a branch from the median sacral artery in 80% of cases. The origin of two last pairs from the median sacral artery was present in 10% of cases. Also in 10% of cases, we found the origin of all seven pairs from the abdominal aorta. The origin of lumbar arteries at the same level by means of a common trunk with the division in the right-left direction was present in 60% of cases. The independent origin of the right- and left-sided arteries at the same level was present in 40% of cases (Figure 20).
Figure 20.
Origin of lumbar arteries. (1) Abdominal aorta and (2) independent origin of lumbar arteries. Macerated specimen, dorsal view, magnification 5x.
\n
Dorsal intercostal arteries and lumbar arteries gave off spinal branches which entered the vertebral canal through the intervertebral openings. The entering was associated with the respective spinal nerve roots. After their entrance into the vertebral canal, the spinal branches divided into the dorsal and ventral branch. The ventral branches joined the ventral spinal artery. The occurrence of individual ventral branches joining the ventral spinal artery is shown in Table 6. The ventral spinal artery was located subdurally along the ventral median fissure of the thoracolumbar spinal cord. We found the left-sided ventral branches joining the ventral spinal artery in the thoracic spinal cord in 69.5% of cases and the right-sided in 30.5% of cases. We found the left-sided ventral branches joining the ventral spinal artery in the lumbar spinal cord in 54.2% of cases and right-sided in 45.8% of cases. Along the entire thoracolumbar spinal cord, the left-sided branches joining the ventral spinal artery were present in 63.8% of cases and right-sided in 36.2% of cases, which is most likely related to the left-sided localization of the descending aorta.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Level|
\n
Occurrence of spinal branches (%)
\n
\n
\n
\n
Ventral
\n
Dorsal
\n
\n
\n
\n
Right
\n
Left
\n
Right
\n
Left
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Th 1
\n
30
\n
60
\n
50
\n
50
\n
\n
\n
Th 2
\n
30
\n
30
\n
50
\n
60
\n
\n
\n
Th 3
\n
30
\n
100
\n
30
\n
30
\n
\n
\n
Th 4
\n
0
\n
30
\n
0
\n
30
\n
\n
\n
Th 5
\n
0
\n
50
\n
30
\n
50
\n
\n
\n
Th 6
\n
50
\n
50
\n
30
\n
30
\n
\n
\n
Th 7
\n
0
\n
30
\n
30
\n
50
\n
\n
\n
Th 8
\n
30
\n
60
\n
30
\n
0
\n
\n
\n
Th 9
\n
0
\n
50
\n
10
\n
30
\n
\n
\n
Th 10
\n
50
\n
50
\n
30
\n
50
\n
\n
\n
Th 11
\n
30
\n
30
\n
30
\n
90
\n
\n
\n
Th 12
\n
0
\n
30
\n
60
\n
30
\n
\n
\n
L 1
\n
0
\n
0
\n
50
\n
30
\n
\n
\n
L 2
\n
0
\n
90
\n
30
\n
30
\n
\n
\n
L 3
\n
30
\n
0
\n
0
\n
30
\n
\n
\n
L 4
\n
60
\n
30
\n
0
\n
30
\n
\n
\n
L 5
\n
50
\n
50
\n
0
\n
60
\n
\n
\n
L 6
\n
50
\n
0
\n
90
\n
100
\n
\n
\n
L 7
\n
30
\n
90
\n
30
\n
100
\n
\n\n
Table 6.
Occurrence of ventral and dorsal branches of arterial spinal branches in the thoracolumbar spinal cord (dissecting technique, 10 guinea pigs).
L, lumbar segment of the spinal cord and Th, thoracic segment of the spinal cord.
\n
In addition to relatively small spinal branches, a bigger feeding artery with origin from the spinal branch of the fifth left lumbar artery in 60% of cases was present (Figure 21). The doubled artery of Adamkiewicz with two different levels of origin was present in 30% of cases. The left-sided artery originated from the spinal branch of the fourth lumbar artery and the right-sided from the spinal branch of the fifth lumbar artery (Figure 22). The artery of Adamkiewicz with the origin from the spinal branch of the fifth right- and left-sided lumbar artery was present in 10% of cases. These two separated arteries were continuing caudally on the ventral surface of the lumbar spinal cord. These two arteries fused together at the level of the sixth lumbar vertebra. From this point, the single ventral spinal artery continued caudally. A communicating branch connected together with the bilateral spinal branches at the level of the fifth lumbar artery and sent cranially thin branches joining the ventral spinal artery (Figure 23). In all the cases, the artery of Adamkiewicz was joining the ventral spinal artery.
\n
Figure 21.
Left-sided localization of artery of Adamkiewicz. (1) Ventral spinal artery and (2) artery of Adamkiewicz. Dissected specimen, ventral view, magnification 8x.
\n
Figure 22.
Doubled artery of Adamkiewicz. (1) Ventral spinal artery, (2) right-sided artery of Adamkiewicz, and (3) left-sided artery of Adamkiewicz. Dissected specimen, ventral view, magnification 8x.
\n
Figure 23.
Doubled artery of Adamkiewicz. (1) Ventral spinal artery, (2) right-sided artery of Adamkiewicz, (3) left-sided artery of Adamkiewicz, and (4) communicating branch. Dissected specimen, ventral view, magnification 12.5x.
\n
In 60% of cases, we found two irregular longitudinal dorsal spinal arteries located in lateral dorsal grooves (Figure 24). The dorsal branches of spinal branches were joined to the dorsal spinal arteries. Three irregular longitudinal dorsal spinal arteries receiving the dorsal branches of spinal branches were present in 40% of cases (Figure 25). The third dorsal spinal artery runs along the median dorsal groove. The occurrence of individual dorsal branches is shown in Table 6. In the cases of the presence of two irregular longitudinal dorsal spinal arteries, they were formed only by the fusion of the small cranially and caudally directed branches originating from the dorsal branches. The left-sided dorsal branches in the thoracic spinal cord were present in 56.8% and the right-sided in 43.2% of cases. The left-sided dorsal branches in the lumbar spinal cord were present in 65.5% of cases and right-sided in 34.5% of cases. Along the entire thoracolumbar spinal cord, the left-sided dorsal branches were present in 60.3% of cases and the right-sided in 39.7% of cases.
\n
Figure 24.
The presence of two longitudinal dorsal spinal arteries. (1) Dorsal spinal artery. Dissected specimen, dorsal view, magnification 12.5x.
\n
Figure 25.
The presence of three longitudinal dorsal spinal arteries. (1) Dorsal spinal artery. Dissected specimen, dorsal view, magnification 12.5x.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Discussion
\n
\n
4.1. Cervical spinal cord
\n
Based on our results, it can be concluded that the blood supply of the cervical spinal cord in rabbit and guinea pig has high variability. In contrast with our findings, only uniform origin of the ventral spinal artery in both species was described [16, 17]. Cervical spinal cord injury was studied in several species of experimental animals. The dogs, rats, pigs, rabbits, and guinea pigs belong to the most used species. The arterial arrangement of the cervical spinal cord in the dog was studied in detail with pointing on the variations in formation of the ventral spinal artery and the frequency of occurrence of spinal branches [18]. The rat was also studied in details, but the results of several studies differ [17, 19–21]. In pigs, only variations and the presence of extrasegmental arteries of the spinal cord blood supply were described [22, 23]. The frequency of occurrence of the spinal branches in our study was higher on the left than on the right side, opposite to the dog [18].
\n
The arterial blood supply to the cervical spinal cord in monkeys, dogs, rabbits, and rats was studied by [24]. The origin of the ventral spinal artery was not recorded, and the ventral spinal artery was described as paired vessel. In our specimens, the ventral spinal artery was in a form of a single trunk with different types of origin in the place of fusion of bilateral vertebral arteries. In this work, the origin of dorsal spinal arteries from the posterior inferior cerebellar artery was described. In our specimens, we did not find the origin of the dorsal spinal arteries.
\n
Some reports described the similarity of the arterial blood supply to the cervical spinal cord in rabbits, guinea pigs, and humans [16, 17]. Based on our study, we can conclude that there is partly different arterial pattern compared with human. The fusion of basilar artery is in human without gap [25]. In rabbits and guinea pigs, we found different types and numbers of gaps. In humans, the anterior spinal artery (homologue to the ventral spinal artery in animals) is formed by the fusion of the anterior spinal branches arising from the vertebral arteries [26]. In rabbits and guinea pigs, we found three different types of origin of ventral spinal artery in the place of fusion of vertebral bilateral arteries. In rabbits, we found the right-sided ventral branches joining the ventral spinal artery in 46.2% and left-sided in 53.8% of cases, and in guinea pig, the right-sided ventral branches were present in 41.8% of cases and the left-sided in 58.2% of cases. Only two or three ventral branches joining the anterior spinal artery were described in humans [27].
\n
In rabbits and guinea pigs, we found on the dorsal surface high variability in the arrangement of the dorsal spinal arteries (in human, the posterior spinal arteries). The posterior spinal arteries in human are normally continuous rostral to caudal and supply the posterior third of the spinal cord [28]. The frequency of occurrence of individual dorsal and ventral branches in rabbits and guinea pigs was greater than in the case in humans.
\n
According to our results, it can be concluded that the higher resistance to ischemic damage by the interruption of ventral and dorsal spinal arteries was because of the presence of dorsal and ventral branches reaching the cervical spinal cord in almost every segment. Rabbits and guinea pigs are often used as an experimental model for the study of spinal cord injury. The cervical spinal cord served as experimental model for the study of several types of damage [13, 29, 30].
\n
\n
\n
4.2. Thoracolumbar spinal cord
\n
Based on our results, it can be concluded that the blood supply to the thoracolumbar spinal cord in rabbit and guinea pig has high variability. The anatomical arrangement with regard to the origin of segmental dorsal intercostal and lumbar arteries has a very important role during operations of thoracoabdominal aneurysms [31]. Correctly performed reimplantation of segmental arteries decreases the risk of spinal cord ischemia, which can also lead to the paraplegia [32–34]. Till now in rabbits, the segmental arteries were described as paired branches originating independently from the dorsal surface of descending aorta [35, 36]. In guinea pigs, the presence of dorsal intercostal arteries with the origin from the supreme intercostal artery and the costocervical trunk was very variable. It varies from four to seven arteries on each side. Twelve pairs of dorsal intercostal arteries were present, and the remaining arteries were direct branches with the origin from the thoracic aorta [37]. In guinea pigs, the dorsal intercostal and lumbar arteries were described as paired branches arising independently from the dorsal surface of descending aorta [35, 36]. In guinea pigs, two types of origin of seven pairs of lumbar arteries were found: an independent origin and origin by means of a common trunk of the arteries at the same level [38].
\n
In the study of ischemic injury in the thoracolumbar spinal cord, dogs, rats, pigs, rabbits, guinea pigs, and mice were used as experimental animals. In dogs, high variability in the density of arteries forming the spinal arterial ring and in the spinal branches was described [18]. In rats, the results in the study of arterial supply to the thoracolumbar spinal cord were very different [17, 19–21]. The dorsal spinal arteries were found in number of two [39] or as less constant [19]. In pigs, the studies were concentrated on the extrasegmental blood supply to the thoracolumbar spinal cord [22]. In mice, the spinal cord blood supply was partially described [10, 40].
\n
Only one work dealing with arterial arrangement of the thoracolumbar spinal cord in rabbit and guinea pig was published [17]. But in this work, the artery of Adamkiewicz, the place of its origin, and any other variations were not described. We found variable arrangement of the artery of Adamkiewicz in rabbit and guinea pig, but in both species it was present in all cases. In guinea pig, doubled artery of Adamkiewicz with origin from spinal branch of the third or fourth lumbar artery was found [16]. In our study, the artery of Adamkiewicz was single or doubled with variable level of origin. In dogs, the artery of Adamkiewicz was found only in one half of the studied specimens. In rats, the presence of artery of Adamkiewicz is questionable. Some authors described its presence in all cases [17, 19, 20, 41], but some authors doubt its presence [21, 42]. In pigs, the artery of Adamkiewicz was not described [12, 13]. In mice, it was found in all cases [10] and also in humans [43].
\n
The vascular arrangement of the dorsal spinal arteries in rabbits and guinea pigs was very variable. The dorsal spinal arteries in guinea pigs were described as two smaller anastomotic chains of arteries, running in the lateral dorsal grooves [16]. In our study, the number of dorsal spinal arteries varied from two to three. In humans, the posterior spinal arteries (homologue to the dorsal spinal arteries in animals) were found as normally trunks continuing in the cranial to caudal direction [28]. In dogs, four dorsal spinal arteries were described [18]. In rats, two much less constant dorsal spinal arteries with irregular connections between each other were found [19]. In mice, two spinal arteries [10] or only one single artery were described [40].
\n
Our results indicate high variability in the presence of dorsal and ventral branches supplying the rabbit and guinea pig thoracolumbar spinal cord. On the left side, they occurred in higher numbers. The segmental arteries reaching the spinal cord ensured the blood supply of the ventral and dorsal surface of the respective segments of thoracolumbar spinal cord. In rabbits, the absence or irregularity of dorsal and ventral branches supplying the thoracic spinal cord was higher than that of branches supplying the lumbar spinal cord. The higher risk of ischemic damage to the thoracic spinal cord in rabbit was concluded. In guinea pigs, we found higher absence or irregularity of dorsal and ventral branches supplying the lumbar spinal cord, which allowed us to assume higher risk of irreparable ischemic damage to the lumbar spinal cord.
\n
Based on results of the study, it is possible to conclude that the more appropriate model for the experimental study of ischemic injury of the thoracic spinal cord is the guinea pig and of the lumbar spinal cord is the rabbit, due to a lower incidence of variations of arterial arrangement in the corresponding spinal cord region. This implies that the thoracic spinal cord in guinea pig and lumbar spinal cord in rabbit are the most similar in their arterial arrangement to the homosegmental blood supply of human spinal cord.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusion
\n
The principles of blood vessel distribution to the spinal cord can be explained by the studies of arterial arrangements of several animals used as experimental models. In general, these studies can provide the additional information about the vascularization schema of the central nervous system [19].
\n
For the prediction of functional results of neurological injuries and disorders, animal models from which the rodent models have a special place were used. Several clinical symptoms described in human patients are very parallel to the symptoms observed in rodents. The analysis of therapeutic approaches and behavioral sequel will help to determinate the limitations and strengths of animal models. It is very important to respect each aspect before an experimental study is started [44]. It is important to assess goals and expectations of the experiment before choosing a model. The understanding of the arterial arrangement to the spinal cord plays a very important role in avoiding the spinal cord ischemia or infarction during surgical interventions to the spine [45]. The presence of the artery of Adamkiewicz and nearly regular segmental blood supply to the thoracolumbar spinal cord in all studied animals is responsible for the use of rabbit and guinea pig as a simple model of ischemic damage to the thoracolumbar spinal cord.
\n
The determination of appropriate species in the experiments of spinal cord injury requires the detailed study of the spinal cord arteries in all species used in this research area. The biased or erroneous outcomes can be caused by the presence of variation in arterial arrangement.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"artery, experiment, guinea pig, rabbit, spinal cord injury",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/51758.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/51758.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51758",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51758",totalDownloads:1209,totalViews:187,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:65,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 10th 2014",dateReviewed:"May 23rd 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 19th 2016",dateFinished:"July 22nd 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Spinal cord ischemia belongs to the one of the most frequently occurring results of spinal cord damage, with broad range of several symptoms and complications. The superficial position of fine arterial system of the spinal cord predicts the spinal cord ischemic injury. The laboratory animals, such as rabbits and guinea pigs, serve for the study of spinal cord ischemic injury. The aim of this work was to describe the arterial blood supply to the spinal cord in New Zealand White rabbits and English self guinea pigs, using the corrosion and dissecting technique. In both species, we found variations in arrangement and origin of segmental arteries of descending aorta, the basilar artery, the ventral spinal artery, the dorsal spinal arteries, the artery of Adamkiewicz, and the segmental dorsal and ventral branches arising from the arterial spinal branches. The presence of the artery of Adamkiewicz and nearly regular segmental blood supply to the spinal cord are responsible for the use of rabbit and guinea pig as a simple model of ischemic damage to the spinal cord. The understanding of the arterial arrangement to the spinal cord plays a very important role in avoiding the spinal cord ischemia or infarction during surgical interventions to the spine.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/51758",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/51758",book:{id:"4725",slug:"ischemic-stroke-updates"},signatures:"David Mazensky and Slavka Flesarova",authors:[{id:"88140",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Mazensky",fullName:"David Mazensky",slug:"david-mazensky",email:"MazenskyD@azet.sk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary Medicine in Košice",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovakia"}}},{id:"174871",title:"Dr.",name:"Slavka",middleName:null,surname:"Flesarova",fullName:"Slavka Flesarova",slug:"slavka-flesarova",email:"slavka.flesarova@uvlf.sk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Spinal cord injury",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2. Laboratory animals in experimental spinal cord injury",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"1.2.1. Rabbit",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"1.2.2. Guinea pig",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"1.2.3. Rabbit and guinea pig in experimental spinal cord injury",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7",title:"2. Materials and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.1. Experimental animals",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.1.1. Rabbit",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.1.2. Guinea pig",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"2.2. Casting media",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.2.1. Corrosion technique",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.2.2. Dissecting technique",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"2.3. Methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"2.3.1. Surgical preparation of animals",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"2.3.2. Casting medium preparation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_4",title:"2.3.2.1. Corrosion technique",level:"4"},{id:"sec_15_4",title:"2.3.2.2. Dissecting technique",level:"4"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"2.3.3. Casting medium application",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"2.3.4. Corrosion technique",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"2.3.5. Dissecting technique",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22",title:"3. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"3.1. Rabbit",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"Table 3.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"3.2. Guinea pig",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_26_3",title:"Table 6.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_29",title:"4. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_29_2",title:"4.1. Cervical spinal cord",level:"2"},{id:"sec_30_2",title:"4.2. Thoracolumbar spinal cord",level:"2"},{id:"sec_32",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nBlight AR. Animal models of spinal cord injury. Topics in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation. 2000;6:1–13. 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DOI: 10.1016/j.spinee.2013.03.017\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"David Mazensky",address:"MazenskyD@azet.sk",affiliation:'
University of Veterinary Medicine Pharmacy, Kosice, Slovak Republic
University of Veterinary Medicine Pharmacy, Kosice, Slovak Republic
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Madu and Yi Lu",authors:[{id:"40915",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",fullName:"Yi Lu",slug:"yi-lu"},{id:"195224",title:"Mr.",name:"Victor",middleName:null,surname:"Gardner",fullName:"Victor Gardner",slug:"victor-gardner"},{id:"195226",title:"Dr.",name:"Chikezie",middleName:null,surname:"Madu",fullName:"Chikezie Madu",slug:"chikezie-madu"}]},{id:"53575",title:"Antiangiogenic Therapy for Hepatocellular Carcinoma",slug:"antiangiogenic-therapy-for-hepatocellular-carcinoma",signatures:"Kosuke Kaji and Hitoshi Yoshiji",authors:[{id:"192883",title:"Dr.",name:"Kosuke",middleName:null,surname:"Kaji",fullName:"Kosuke Kaji",slug:"kosuke-kaji"},{id:"195636",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Yoshiji",fullName:"Hitoshi Yoshiji",slug:"hitoshi-yoshiji"}]},{id:"53335",title:"MCAM and its Isoforms as Novel Targets in Angiogenesis Research and Therapy",slug:"mcam-and-its-isoforms-as-novel-targets-in-angiogenesis-research-and-therapy",signatures:"Jimmy Stalin, Lucie Vivancos, Nathalie Bardin, Françoise Dignat-\nGeorge and Marcel Blot-Chabaud",authors:[{id:"192897",title:"Dr.",name:"Jimmy",middleName:null,surname:"Stalin",fullName:"Jimmy Stalin",slug:"jimmy-stalin"},{id:"195979",title:"Ms.",name:"Lucie",middleName:null,surname:"Vivancos",fullName:"Lucie Vivancos",slug:"lucie-vivancos"},{id:"195980",title:"Prof.",name:"Nathalie",middleName:null,surname:"Bardin",fullName:"Nathalie Bardin",slug:"nathalie-bardin"},{id:"195981",title:"Prof.",name:"Francoise",middleName:null,surname:"Dignat-George",fullName:"Francoise Dignat-George",slug:"francoise-dignat-george"},{id:"195982",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"Blot-Chabaud",fullName:"Marcel Blot-Chabaud",slug:"marcel-blot-chabaud"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2038",title:"Coronary Artery Disease",subtitle:"Current Concepts in Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, Diagnostics and Treatment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"55361f89e408a849c1153253684afe45",slug:"coronary-artery-disease-current-concepts-in-epidemiology-pathophysiology-diagnostics-and-treatment",bookSignature:"David Gaze",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2038.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"71983",title:"Dr.",name:"David C.",surname:"Gaze",slug:"david-c.-gaze",fullName:"David C. 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1. Introduction
Solar energy is the primary driving force behind natural activities on the Earth’s surface. The energy expenditure on the surface of the ground which depends on the landscape is a core factor in geological, environmental and risk modeling models. The contribution of radiation is also related to the biodiversity of plants and biomass production. The Sun is an ample, infinite supply of energy available all over the world which is only minimally used [1, 2, 3]. From around beginning of the century, solar-radiation technology developments became highly political when potential solutions to fossil fuel-based traditional energy systems became recognized. Solar energy systems are widely agreed to mitigate global challenges including climate change, insecurity in the developed world and lack of stability of energy supply in most of the world’s economies. As for other emerging creative developments, there is a need to make significant improvements to the way in which energy is produced, distributed and used, such as a poor understanding of technological choices, higher initial investment costs and a more conservative social environment. Country assistance policies (up to 10-20 years) should be established in order to address these obstacles, identifying suitable legal and financial instruments.
The spatial and temporal solar energy affecting the earth’s surface has a seasonal dynamics (due to astronomical factors) which is modulated by stochastic weather variability. It influences solar energy systems’ efficiency, reliability and economy. Photovoltaics is a fast growing technology, with a better understanding of the primary solar power resource. Enhanced expertise will lead greatly to better location and economic evaluation of new plants, to efficiency management and to energy projection. Improved understanding for solar energy systems incorporation into current energy and economic processes is also essential. The spatial dependence of renewable energy production and its distribution raise issues that often involve precise location-dependent answers in the policy process [4, 5, 6].
Much like the fossil-fuel-based energy sector relies on exploration of the energy markets and the proven reserves for discovery and economic benefit, renewable energy relies upon assessing the energy production strategy and marketing resources [7, 8, 9]. The basic resources and fuel available are solar radiation for solar-based clean energy technology such as solar thermal and photovoltaic systems. Measured data was used to determine the solar resource for this technology, where accessible. Fortunately, the uneven distribution of calculated solar data in space, and in particular over time, contributes to the use of modeled solar light as the basis for various technological and economic decisions. There are major uncertainties in the measured and modeled solar radiation. Most solar radiation models are assisted by measured data, often unknown to the uncertainty or precision of these measured data [10, 11, 12, 13].
The energy emitted by sun and terrestrial fraction of the energy flux is marked by the Solar Constant. The solar constant is defined mainly as the measurement per unit time of solar energy flux density perpendicular to the direction of the light. Satellites outside of the earth’s atmosphere are the most reliably measured. The solar constant is measured at 1367 W/m2 at present [8, 9, 14]. This percentage ranges by 3 percent since the earth’s orbit is elliptical and the length of the year is different from the Sun. There is also a little variance in the solar constant due to variations in Sun’s light. This importance encompasses all forms of radiation, a large portion of which is lost as the light travels into the atmosphere.
The solar radiation is absorbed, dispersed, reflected or released as it travels through the atmosphere. The energy flux density is reduced in all these processes. In reality, the Solar Flow Density in sunny days is reduced by about 30% compared to alien radiation, which on a cloudy day is reduced by as much as 90% [15].
As a consequence the direct radiation that comes to the earth’s surface (or an equipment mounted on the earth’s surface) never reaches 83%. This direct radiation is known as beam radiation from the solar disc. Diffuse radiation is characterized as the dispersed, reflecting radiation that is transmitted out from all directions to the surface of the Earth (reflective of other bodies, molecules, particles, droplets etc.) [10]. Complete (or global) radiation is the sum of the beam and diffuse components. The Table 1 shows the gadgets that are used for the measurement of different solar quantities.
Particulars
Details
Village
Patyari Kaltan
Block
Ghagwal
District
Samba
State
Jammu and Kashmir
Country
India
Time Zone
IST (UTC + 05:30)
Latitude
34.09
Longitude
74.79
Total number of Houses
35
Table 1.
Details about the village Patyari Kaltan.
Solar radiation data obtained by the instruments described above form the basis for developing any solar project. A case study of village Patyari Kaltan situated in district Samba of Jammu is explained in the next section using energy auditing.
This study seeks to reconcile demand and supply differences by investigating the feasibility of using an off-grid PV system to generate power to consume the household. The main objectives for this study are the significant global solar radiation levels in the region as well as the low home energy use. The purpose of this chapter is, via mathematical modeling, to assess the technoeconomic feasibility of an off grid PV system. This paper does not include the environmental and political aspects of using offset photovoltaic systems or other Photovoltaic hybrid systems. With respect to this investigation, solar radiation, PV peak power, inverter size, batteriesize and a charging controller are the relevant characteristics specified in this work. The remaining chapter is organized in the following subsections:
The Section 2 provides a concise background of the study while Section 3 presents the problem formulation. The detailed methodology adopted is explained in Section 4. The results and the discussion are contained in Section 5 while the conclusion of the paper is in Section 6.
2. Background
A.K.M. Sadrul Islam etc. (2012) indicated that an 8 kW PV system linked with a 15 kw gasoline generator and 25 battery counts is the most economically viable alternative (nominal power 800 Ah, nominal voltage 2 V each) [16]. Abolfazl Ghasemi et.al (2013) highlighted the potential sun rays and the lives of remote, powered, non-connected hybrid PV-diesel battery-powered communities in Iran as excellent [17]. Mohan L. Kolhe et al. described the best hybrid architecture for energy at a cost of $0.34/kWh as a 30 kW PV system, 40 kW wind, 25 kW diesel power supplies, and a bank of 222kWh batteries [18]. M. Kashif Shajzad et.al (2017) reported that the optimum solution was constructed to conduct a cost analysis of 10 kW hybrid PV panels, 8.0 kW biogas generator, 32 battery storage and 12 KW converters [19]. Simulation results for a hybrid power system of 13 kW PV modules, 14,7 kW of hydro power, 8 battery storing units, 5 kW of the diesel generator and 9 kW converters were characterized as the optimal solution with a $113201 NPC by Ali Saleh Aziz et.al (2019). [20]. Zhen-yu Zhao et.al (2019), Muhammad Ifran, discussed the cost of traditional grid power and solar PV, which are designed to assess the economic efficiency of two simulation-driven technologies. Five areas, Bhakkar, Kanewal, Multan, Bahawalnagar and Rajanpur were selected in this paper. Research has shown that Kanewal has the maximum yearly solar irradiation in this area (5.50 KWh/m2, 22].
3. Problem formulation
Increase in energy expenditure and worldwide dependence on fossil fuels lead to power shortages and global warming. Generally the diesel generator is used in both on-grid and off-grid systems for a reliable power source [11, 21]. This is a costly and also causes environmental toxic waste. In the country there is enormous resource of renewable energy source that is not being effectively utilized. Reliable renewable hybrid systems need to be developed by using the available renewable sources These hybrid systems can be a viable option in universities, companies, hospitals, industry and rural communities to fulfill the energy needs. The construction of such systems needs detailed study of renewable energy supplies by the location, because without this the hybrid device may be massive, which raises the device expenses [12, 22].
In order to investigate the financial and technological viability of the hybrid energy systems, the feasibility of dissimilar systems configurations and energy requirements needs need to be analyzed and analyzed.
4. Methodology
4.1 Site selection
The Jammu and Kashmir shares international boundary with Pakistan & China. The Line of Control on the area of Pakistan divides the UT which turns one part as J&K‘and the other part as POK‘[15, 23, 24, 25, 26]. It also shares boundary with other state like Himachal Pradesh and Punjab [23, 24, 27]. The UT has two different parts namely 1) Jammu and 2) Kashmir. The two parts of the state differ drastically from each other on the basics of climate.
Rapid population growth and hi-tech development in recent decades have led to additional energy consumption, especially in the power sector [25]. In addition, there are numerous parts of the world in rising countries which have minimal or no way to electrical energy, particularly in rural areas [28, 29, 30, 31]. Rural electrification is also stated to be very necessary for rural development in order to achieve economic growth, elimination of deprivation, generation of jobs and improvement of village living standards [32]. According to the 2011 Indian census, out of 1.21 billion, 0.83 billion live in rural areas and about 44 per cent of the population lack grid access [33]. Electricity generation has to be improved to solve these issues. In India, fossil fuel emissions produce a large proportion of electricity [34].
Patyari Katlan is a village located in Jammu-Kashmir Samba district which falls in India. Table 1 shows the profile of Village adopted for study. The total residential consumption of the rural community is 1083.432 kWh/day in the summer.
Load profile: Load of the selected village depends on the equipments used in the houses. Load calculated by Energy audit of the village. There are 35 houses in the village and the equipments connected in the houses are tube lights, fans, coolers, TV’s, refrigerators only. The equipments connected in the village are very less because the village is just 2 km away from the Pakistan border so the village is not so well developed [16].
Energy Audit: Energy audit is defiened as “organized monitoring and review of energy usage and energy use of site, facility, system or entity with the goal of defining and reporting on energy flows and future changes in energy quality.” [17, 19, 20, 21, 35].
Energy saving is extremely relevant as the demand is rising day by day in the country, looking at the situation energy auditing is being performed. This is a method of monitoring how electricity is being used, and finding places wherever pollution can be reduced if not eradicate entirely. [27, 36]
The energy use by lighting and big appliances such as fridge, fans, etc. in 24 hours is calculated by doing survey. The wattage of each equipment is represented in Table 2. Figure 1 shows the hourly variation of each equipment. The highest energy is consumed by refrigerator and lowest by lighting system. The rural community’s average residential consumption is 1083,432 kWh per day in the summer, and 718,952 kWh per day in the winter months. Monthly residential consumption of the village is shown in the Table 3. Figure 2 depicts the graphical representation of monthly residential consumption. The Table 3 shows that the peak load is in the July month i.e. 33586.392kWh. And the minimum energy utilization is in the February month i.e. 20130.656kWh.
Residential load
S.no
Equipment
No. of equipment
Wattage (w)
Consumed electricity per day (kwh)
Consumed electricity per month (kwh)
Consumed electricity per year (kwh)
1
Lighting
502
36
289.152
8674.56
104094.7
2
Fans
179
70
200.48
6014.4
36086.4
3
Coolers
41
250
164
4920
14760
4
TV
35
70
9.8
294
3528
5
Refrigerator
35
750
420
12600
151200
Table 2.
Residential load of the village.
Figure 1.
Wattage of equipments connected in the houses of village.
Months
Energy consumed per month (kwh)
Months
Energy consumed per month (kwh)
January
22287.512
July
33586.392
February
20130.656
August
32502.96
March
22287.512
September
27582.96
April
27582.96
October
22287.512
May
28502.392
November
21568.56
June
32502.96
December
22287.512
Total
313109.888
Table 3.
Energy consumed per month.
Figure 2.
Power consumed per month in village Patyari Kaltan (thali) in KWh.
4.2 Meteorology data of Patyari Kaltan (Thali)
The solar resource information used for the selected village was found from the NASA Surface Meteorology. Access was made to NASA database to assess solar irradiance in the remote rural Jammu region [13]. The most important step before using a solar photovoltaic device is to define solar power potential in a given region [3, 4, 5]. The solar irradiance records for the regions selected were provided in Table 4. Figure 3 shows the daily Radiation and clearness in Patyari Katlan (Thali). Outcome of the investigation show that Patyari Kaltan received the average annual solar irradiation is 4.134 kWh / m2 [3].
Horizontal surface all sky insolation occurrence (kWh/m2/day)
January
0.424
0.929
2.213
February
0.479
0.561
3.135
March
0.447
1.065
3.788
April
0.490
0.964
4.885
May
0.468
0.829
5.199
June
0.478
0.568
5.501
July
0.510
0.000
5.754
August
0.525
0.475
5.435
September
0.639
1.777
5.707
October
0.550
1.506
3.892
November
0.310
0.532
1.744
December
0.494
1.868
2.361
Average
0.485
0.923
4.134
Table 4.
The average of monthly daily isolation incident on horizontal surface in Patyari Kaltan (thali) [3, 4].
Figure 3.
Daily radiation and clearness in Patyari Katlan (thali) [3, 4, 5].
4.3 Design calculation
4.3.1 Energy balance considerations
To choose the appropriate size for the day and night time loads for the solar panel or battery storage. We describe a state of energy balance when full power from the solar system (ESA) is enough to charge the battery (Eb) and the energy needed to charge electricity including system losses (EL) as shown in Figure 1, i.e. without any power source from the backup.
ESA=Eb+ELE1
Assuming that the night time load is solely provided by the storage batteries with an overall efficiency factor K1 as shown in Equation (2):
EB=EN/K1whereK1=ηD.FU.ηR.ηL.ηBE2
ηD being the solar array diode efficiency, FU the solar array utilization factor, ηR the regulator efficiency, ηL the line loss factor and ηB the battery WHr efficiency.
4.3.2 Balance of system components
As described above, the Power System consists of a variety of balances, apart from solar panes, of device components such as (a) mounting frames of the array module, frame support and foundations; (b) circuits, load and electricity management devices, wire interconnections, etc., etc.
There are also extra expenses for the test and inspection module, system sizing, and packaging repair installation and checkout, etc. For the construction of the PEPS, account must be taken of the amount of all these costs lumped as BOS cost. The complexity of the difference between the cost of the storage batteries and the battery power in Ahr is a significant factor in the extremely nonlinear performance of energy generation costs / peak W.
4.4 Design requirements
The module is made of solid wire or solid ribbons by attaching one cell on another. The ties may be rigid or fluid to control motion within the series, which can be caused by thermal expansions and other forces. All links should ensure the lowest resistance possible and the least possible distortion of PV output. The designer is also trying to make this relation shorter and to reduce the cross sections against increased resistance. The output from an array is connected to a manager called a bus.
4.4.1 Placing of cells
It is essential to place cells in the array and in the cell form. As the distance between the cells increases, the overall performance of the panel determined by the voltage per unit area falls. Big cells do not always improve the performance of packaging (i.e. the need for a maximum cell to panel area ratio). In building a module with desirable electric properties, cell size is an essential element. Strom from a cell varies according to the cell size, with constant voltage. Many small cells should be plugged into series for large voltage. Round cells that were halved and put in a panel in an offset pattern are used to move more of them in a unit area. This increases the cell’s packaging density. Square or hexagonal cells may also be expanded. Cells are put as near or as close as possible and cannot contact so energy is cut short. There must be additional space between the cells for thermal expansion.
4.4.1.1 Array support
More is needed to create the electrical resource needs Specific solar cells can be just as delicate groups of them. The retrofitting and disassembly should be able to be held in every module. Array must be capable of resisting moderate loads, mechanical and temperature shifts pressures. The translucent cover for a module is part of the support. The cover is primarily used to shield the PV module from situations including oxygen, moisture, dust and rain.
4.4.1.2 Size of array
Solar cell size can vary from approximately 1 mm to more than 100 mm. For most standard silicone cells, the thickness range is 0.2 to 0.4 mm. For the collection of the array size we established a very basic semi empirical rule as per the Equation (3)
Pph=LH+LHd/CrBbx100/XE3
Where Pph is the full watts array. X is the estimated annual maximum equipment time a day and is the average annual watt hour a day per poor flat hour of the PV module. L is the watts load rating, and H is the working hours a day. d is the number of storage days required. Cr is the time for charging recovery and Bb is the battery watt-hour efficiency. The value of X depends explicitly on the overall insolation of the panel on the installation site. The value of X can be calculated as shown in Figure 4.
X=EXm/12;WithXm=ηovIm/ηmE4
Where ηov is the overall device performance, Im is the average sleeping surface insolation of the area, ηm is the efficiency of the module. Performance is the product of the efficiency of the module and the balance of device efficiency including efficiency of power conditioning, efficiency coefficients of temperature etc.
4.4.1.3 Solar panels
For terrestrial applications the majority of silicone solar cells have a round diameter of 5 cm and a diameter of 0.3-0.5 mm. The trend is to massive diameters. A 5-cm diameter cell with a surface area of approximately 20-cm has a capacity of 0.2 W with 0.45 volts during full sun and at room temperature. A variety of cells need to be mounted into a panel for higher power or higher voltage. Two cells are wired in parallel, for example, for double power at constant voltage. It can provide any amount of power at the desired voltage by joining numerous cells in parallel and series.
4.4.1.4 Battery storage
Electric storage battery is the easiest way to stored a smaller moderate scale. Solar cells generate a battery charging direct current. When needed the stored energy can then be supplied to the local load as electricity. A battery is an independent cell mixture. A cell is the elementary mixture of materials and electrolytes that form the essential energy storer electromechanical. A block box into which electrical energy is collected, electromechanically stored and then recuperated as electrical power can also be thought of as a battery. Primary batteries are non-rechargeable while secondary batteries are still able to be recharged. So secondary batteries also have a major interest in solar electricity. Sub-examples of secondary batteries include lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, iron-air, nickel-hydrogen, zinc-air etc.
Energy efficiency of a battery is defined as shown in Equation (5).
ηenergy=∫I1E1dt/∫I2E2dtE5
where I1 = battery discharging current for a period 0 to t1.
I2 = battery charging current for a period 0 to t2.
E1 = Battery discharging terminal voltage.
E2 = Battery discharging terminal voltage.
Cycle life is the amount of times that the battery can be charged and unloaded, and this can differ considerably with discharge depths. Deep discharge tends to a short life cycle.
4.5 Design calculation
No. of panels required, NS = per day demand/Rating of 1 panel (w).
= 69552w/325w.
NS = 214.0.
20 ft.^2 = 1.858 m2 (Area of 1 panel).
Area required = Area of 1 panel*No. of Panels.
= 1.858m2*214.
= 397.612 m2.
Total load per day in kwh = 1083.432 kwh.
Using 12 V, 17 Amp hour lead acid battery.
Total Capacity (CB) = Total load kwh/Voltage of single battery.
=1083.432kwh/12 V.
=90.286 KAhr.
Number of lead acid batteries, NB = CB /Rating of single battery Ahr.
=90.286 KAhr / 17 Ahr.
NB = 5310.9 or 5311 (approx).
Use charge controller of 12 V, 20 Amp is used.
Rating of charge controller in Ampere’s = Total load (w)/12 V.
=69552 W/12 V.
=5796 Ampere.
12 Volt, 20 Ampere Charge Controller (NC) needed can be measured as:
NC = Rating of charge controller (Amp)/20 amp.
NC = 5796 Amp/20 Amp.
NC = 289.8 or 290 (approx).
Total load per day in watt = 69552 W.
Load per day in kw = 69552/1000.
=69.552 kw or 70 kw (approximately).
For 70 KW load, 70 KW of Inverter is needed.
Cost per watt = Rs 22.
Price of solar panel, C = overall load (watt) * price per watt.
C = 69552 W*Rs 22.
C = Rs 1530144.
Price of batteries = NB* Cost of one battery.
=5311 * Rs1900.
=Rs 10090900.
Price of charge controller = NC * price of one charge controller.
= 290 * Rs 798.
= Rs 231420.
Price of 70 KW inverter = overall load in KW * price per KW.
= 70* Rs 72065.
= Rs 5044550.
Total Cost = Price of solar panel + Price of charge controller + Price of Inverter + Price of battery.
=1530144 + 10090900 + 231420 + 5044550.
=Rs 16897014.
To take the cost of cabling, junction box etc. into account, 20 percent of the overall cost is applied to get the whole cost of the project.
= 20% * Rs16897014.
= 20/100 * 16897014.
=Rs 3379402.8.
Therefore the total expenditure of the project Ct,
Ct = 16897014 + 3379402.8.
Ct = Rs 20276416.8.
When we buy the electricity from the energy grid, otherwise we have to pay.
= overall demand * Price of one unit.
= 1083.432 Kwh * Rs 3.
=Rs 3250.296.
Overall cost of energy which is purchased from utility grid/year is.
Dt = Rs 3250.296*365.
Dt = Rs 1186358.04/year.
4.5.1 Pay back period
Payback period = Project costs / Annual cash inflow
Ct – N Dt = 0
Or N = Ct/Dt
Where Ct = Rs 20276416.8
Dt = Rs 1186358.04/year
thus
N = Rs 20276416.8/Rs 1186358.04
N = 17.09
Project costs for the project can be recovered in 17 or 18 months (1 year 6 months).
5. Results and discussion
Solar power is a huge source of electricity that can be used directly, generating other reservoirs of power: biomass, wind, hydroelectric power and wave power. While there are major differences in latitude and seasons, most Earth’s area receives ample solar energy to enable low-grade heating of water and houses. Simple mirrors can focus solar energy enough at low latitudes to cook and even drive steam turbines. In certain semiconducting materials the energy of light switches electrons. This photovoltaic effect is able to produce vast amounts of electricity. However, the current low effectiveness of solar photovoltaic cells requires a great deal of energy. The only renewable way to substitute existing global electricity supplies from non-renewable sources is the immediate use of solar energy, at the cost of land areas of at least half a million km2.
The Roof top solution is supported by the design methodology for installing solar panels in Patyari Kaltan (Thali). The incorporation of the panels into the roof of the building is the strategy used. This solution is given when it replaces the traditional roof and permits the filtering of natural sunlight. It serves as roof for structural and weather requirements with structural support, stability, protection from damage such as chemical or mechanical damage, fire-fighting protection, sun, wind and moisture protection, heat absorption and heat conservation, light diffusion control etc. It acts as a power generator in addition to those functionalities by fulfilling a portion of the building’s electrical load specifications. Due to the highly flexible design of the solar cells and the storage cells, individual roof capacity can be used for specific loads – top PEPS for the same energy need as the previously described loads. The mean Horizontal insolation surface incident is 4.134 KWh / m2 / day and the clarity index estimate has been found to be 0.485.It is closely related to the solar radiation itself, but isolation gives you a more accurate way to calculate the radiation on an energy-relevant single object, rather than just taking a sunlight measurement itself. The clearness index is a calculation of the proportion of solar radiation emitted to the Earth’s surface through the atmosphere. Research shows that the payback period for the solar project of the selected village is 1 year 6 months. It shows that the cost for installing the whole project can be recovered within 18 months which means solar project can be benifical for the Patyari Kaltan village.
6. Conclusion
The study shows that the village has significant solar power capacity and is ideal for producing electricity. The cost of building the project can be recovered in 1 year 6 months. To calculate solar irradiance in the remote rural Jammu area, the NASA database was accessed, which reveals that solar irradiation obtained by Patyari Kaltan is 4,134 kWh / m2. To meet up the demand 100% at all the time during the year, 214 solar panels of 325 watt is needed. The future work on this project is to check the feasibility and sensitivity of the PV hybrid system using HOMER software.This methodology is further extended to other parts of the country to utilize the available renewable energy resources and to meet the increasing load demand.
\n',keywords:"Fossil fuels, Solar PV system, Remote regions, Economic feasibility, Off grid",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/77483.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/77483.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77483",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77483",totalDownloads:229,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"October 9th 2020",dateReviewed:"June 9th 2021",datePrePublished:"July 9th 2021",datePublished:"September 22nd 2021",dateFinished:"July 9th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Renewable sources of energy and related technologies are essential to the generation of energy worldwide. The photovoltaic (PV) is one of the renewable power technologies that support household electricity use. No prior research has studied the sustainability of the off-grid energy generation system in Jammu, India despite the potential of solar photovoltaics and significant amounts of global sun radiation in an area. The present work shown in the chapter is to calculate the residential load of the Patyari Kaltan situated in district Samba of Jammu by energy auditing. The NASA Surface Meteorology is used for the solar resource informationof selected village. The primary sources of electricity generation are fossil fuels. Recently, the energy demand and availability deficit has worsened due to the huge population and fossil fuels cannot fulfill huge energy requirement. Meanwhile they have negative impacts on the environment as well. Therefore, renewable energy offers suitable energy way out to the residents living in remote areas and in the areas near to Borders. In this paper the main aim is to examine the feasibility of solar-battery hybrid energy system to fulfill electrical demand of a residential area in a rural region in Jammu. The research shows that the cost of construction of the project can be repaid or recovered within 1 year 6 months. To accomplish the target, 214 solar panels of 325 watt are estimated to satisfy the demand 100 percent at all times. The findings of this modeling reveal that the off-grid PV system is both technical and economically viable for power generation; they may serve as a model for the successful development of the system for practical use. Furthermore, the model can promote assistance mechanisms for players in the renewable industry to introduce a PV system in residential buildings.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/77483",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/77483",signatures:"Harpreet Kaur Channi",book:{id:"9924",type:"book",title:"Solar Cells",subtitle:"Theory, Materials and Recent Advances",fullTitle:"Solar Cells - Theory, Materials and Recent Advances",slug:"solar-cells-theory-materials-and-recent-advances",publishedDate:"September 22nd 2021",bookSignature:"Ahmed Mourtada Elseman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9924.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83881-017-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-016-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-024-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"221890",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed Mourtada",middleName:null,surname:"Elseman",slug:"ahmed-mourtada-elseman",fullName:"Ahmed Mourtada Elseman"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"295895",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Harpreet",middleName:null,surname:"Kaur Channi",fullName:"Harpreet Kaur Channi",slug:"harpreet-kaur-channi",email:"harpreetchanni@yahoo.in",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Chandigarh University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Background",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Problem formulation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Site selection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 Meteorology data of Patyari Kaltan (Thali)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3 Design calculation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"4.3.1 Energy balance considerations",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"4.3.2 Balance of system components",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.4 Design requirements",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"4.4.1 Placing of cells",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_4",title:"4.4.1.1 Array support",level:"4"},{id:"sec_10_4",title:"4.4.1.2 Size of array",level:"4"},{id:"sec_11_4",title:"4.4.1.3 Solar panels",level:"4"},{id:"sec_12_4",title:"4.4.1.4 Battery storage",level:"4"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.5 Design calculation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"4.5.1 Pay back period",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18",title:"5. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'kishor Verma, Jai, and Raja Sekhar Dondapati. "Techno-economic sizing analysis of solar PV system for Domestic Refrigerators." Energy Procedia 109 (2017): 286-292.'},{id:"B2",body:'Al Garni, Hassan, and Anjali Awasthi. "Techno-economic feasibility analysis of a solar PV grid-connected system with different tracking using HOMER software." In 2017 IEEE International Conference on Smart Energy Grid Engineering (SEGE), pp. 217-222. IEEE, 2017.'},{id:"B3",body:'https://power.larc.nasa.gov/text/definitions.html (accessed on 12.02.2020)'},{id:"B4",body:'https://power.larc.nasa.gov/common/php/POWER_ParametersEnergy.php (accessed on 12.02.2020)'},{id:"B5",body:'http://village.org.in/Patyari-Katlan (accessed on 12.2.2020)'},{id:"B6",body:'Pandey, Antima, Arif Iqbal, Akhilesh Kumar Mishra, and Mohammed Aslam Husain. 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My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. 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Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. 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For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization"},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. 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The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",annualVolume:11966,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices",scope:"
\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"
\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
",annualVolume:11968,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorialBoard:[{id:"220987",title:"Dr.",name:"António",middleName:"Onofre",surname:"Soares",fullName:"António Soares",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNtzQAG/Profile_Picture_1644499672340",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Azores",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
",annualVolume:11969,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",institutionString:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"216491",title:"Dr.",name:"Charalampos",middleName:null,surname:"Skoulikaris",fullName:"Charalampos Skoulikaris",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRMsbQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-04-21T09:31:55.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"300124",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Shahady",fullName:"Thomas Shahady",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002kuIgmQAE/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:32:10.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lynchburg College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/63555",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"63555"},fullPath:"/profiles/63555",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()