The composition of water-based mud samples.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7886",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Photodynamic Therapy - From Basic Science to Clinical Research",title:"Photodynamic Therapy",subtitle:"From Basic Science to Clinical Research",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Today, in the face of resistant microorganisms, aggressive cancers unresponsive to conventional treatments, and the COVID-19 pandemic, the need for advanced and innovative protocols for combating and treating disease is paramount. This book presents basic concepts of photodynamic therapy along with data from clinical research on its use in treating oncologic and other diseases. It also presents innovative strategies in photodynamic therapy, including information on polymer nanoparticles. This book was prepared with great care and by many valuable hands so that we can expand the dissemination of Photodynamic Therapy, as well as motivate for new research.",isbn:"978-1-83968-061-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-060-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-068-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77705",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"photodynamic-therapy-from-basic-science-to-clinical-research",numberOfPages:242,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"d7ef096c2bcf9efbda76d7631ce1e3ac",bookSignature:"Natalia Mayumi Inada, Hilde Harb Buzzá, Kate Cristina Blanco and Lucas Danilo Dias",publishedDate:"May 5th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7886.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5105,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:13,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:19,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 1st 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 20th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 9th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 7th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"90788",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia Mayumi",middleName:null,surname:"Inada",slug:"natalia-mayumi-inada",fullName:"Natalia Mayumi Inada",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90788/images/system/90788.jpg",biography:'Natalia M. Inada earned a Ph.D. in Medical Pathophysiology from the State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil, in 2006). She is currently a research scientist at the University of São Paulo (USP), São Carlos Institute of Physics, Brazil, leading the Microbial Control and Cell Culture Labs at the Biophotonics Group. She works in multicenter clinical projects such as the “CerCa Solutions for Diagnosis and Treatment of Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia” and \\"Photodynamic Therapy Brazil for Non-melanoma Skin Cancer.” Dr. Inada’s research focuses on improving photodynamic therapy with nanodelivery systems, and the treatment of infectious diseases. She has published numerous scientific papers and book chapters, and was awarded for her work many times, including the Mercosur Prize for Science and Technology (2016), the PDT Clinical Trial Excellence (2017), and Poster of Merit (2019) by the International Photodynamic Association.',institutionString:"University of Sao Paulo",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"312001",title:"Dr.",name:"Hilde Harb",middleName:null,surname:"Buzzá",slug:"hilde-harb-buzza",fullName:"Hilde Harb Buzzá",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/312001/images/system/312001.png",biography:"Dr. Hilde Harb Buzza is currently a postdoctoral fellow at the Institute of Physics of São Carlos (IFSC), University of São Paulo (USP), Brazil, studying light application in life science. She graduated with a degree in Physical and Biomolecular Sciences and obtained her Ph.D. in Applied Physics from IFSC. She has experience in the field of photodynamic and photothermal therapies for tumor treatments and infections caused by bacteria and fungi, with studies from the lab to clinical trials. She has worked with the application of nanotechnology in biophotonics and has contributed to teaching and scientific dissemination activities.",institutionString:"University of Sao Paulo",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"189115",title:"Dr.",name:"Kate Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Blanco",slug:"kate-cristina-blanco",fullName:"Kate Cristina Blanco",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/189115/images/system/189115.jpg",biography:"Kate Blanco is a postdoctoral researcher at the São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo (USP), Brazil, and has been working at the Optics and Photonics Research Center of the São Paulo Research Foundation (Fapesp). She has a degree in Biomedicine and a doctorate in Microbiology from Universidade Estadual Paulista (Unesp), Brazil. She specializes in industrial fermentation and the production of health products and processes, infections, and microbial control of food using optical techniques.",institutionString:"University of Sao Paulo",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},coeditorThree:{id:"312880",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucas Danilo",middleName:null,surname:"Dias",slug:"lucas-danilo-dias",fullName:"Lucas Danilo Dias",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/312880/images/system/312880.jpg",biography:"Lucas D. Dias received his Ph.D. in Chemistry at the University of Coimbra, Portugal, and is currently a postdoctoral research fellow at the University of São Paulo (USP), Brazil. His current research interests are in the fields of medicine and catalysis, namely, mechanisms in photodynamic therapy, synthesis of photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy, design and synthesis of photocatalysts, and synthesis of homogeneous and immobilized catalysts based on tetrapyrrolic macrocycles for the activation of small molecules (O2, CO and CO2). Dr. Dias has published thirty-two peer-reviewed papers in national/international journals, authored more than forty communications (oral and posters) in national/international scientific meetings, and is the inventor of one patent.",institutionString:"University of Sao Paulo",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"222",title:"Biophysics",slug:"physics-biophysics"}],chapters:[{id:"73712",title:"Electron Transfer-Supported Photodynamic Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94220",slug:"electron-transfer-supported-photodynamic-therapy",totalDownloads:583,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a less-invasive treatment of cancer and precancerous lesions. Porphyrin derivatives have been used and studied as the photosensitizers for PDT. In general, the biomacromolecules oxidation by singlet oxygen, which is produced through energy transfer from the photoexcited photosensitizers to oxygen molecules, is an important mechanism of PDT. However, the traditional PDT effect may be restricted, because tumors are in a hypoxic condition and in certain cases, PDT enhances hypoxia via vascular damage. To solve this problem, the electron transfer-mediated oxidation of biomolecules has been proposed as the PDT mechanism. Specifically, porphyrin phosphorus(V) complexes demonstrate relatively strong photooxidative activity in protein damage through electron transfer. Furthermore, other photosensitizers, e.g., cationic free-base porphyrins, can oxidize biomolecules through electron transfer. The electron transfer-supported PDT may play the important roles in hypoxia cancer therapy. Furthermore, the electron transfer-supported mechanism may contribute to antimicrobial PDT. In this chapter, recent topics about the biomolecules photooxidation by electron transfer-supported mechanism are reviewed.",signatures:"Kazutaka Hirakawa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73712",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73712",authors:[{id:"97768",title:"Dr.",name:"Kazutaka",surname:"Hirakawa",slug:"kazutaka-hirakawa",fullName:"Kazutaka Hirakawa"}],corrections:null},{id:"73603",title:"Can PDT Alter the Glycosylation of the Tumor Cell Membrane?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94172",slug:"can-pdt-alter-the-glycosylation-of-the-tumor-cell-membrane-",totalDownloads:361,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) is a cancer treatment that used the interaction of a photosensitizing drug and a light source. PDT can lead to changes in the expression of various cellular elements, compromising cell adhesion, and cytoskeleton integrity in cells undergoing treatment. However, the pathways of cellular alterations caused by this treatment are little known. Alterations in expression in surface glycoproteins and glycolipids are significant features in malignant tumor transformation and are strongly associated with tumor cell adhesion, invasion, and metastasis. This study evaluated photodynamic therapy effects on indirect distribution surface glycoproteins in human laryngeal carcinoma HEp-2 cell line surface, using Click-iT™ Metabolic Glycoprotein Labeling Reagent. Aluminum Phthalocyanine Tetrasulfonate (AlPcS4) was administrated at 5 μM/mL, followed by one hour of the incubation period for its accumulation in the tumor cells. After this time, cultures were irradiated with LED (light-emitting diode) dispositive (BioPdi/IRRAD-LED) λ = 660 nm. Evaluation of glycoproteins was performed by flow cytometry. Knowledge of the cellular alterations caused by the treatment will allow obtaining tools for the potentiation or optimization and personalization of the anticancer treatment. This therapy has a low cost and better efficacy, when applied early, about radiotherapy chemotherapy.",signatures:"Bruno Henrique Godoi, Juliana Ferreira Strixino, Newton Soares da Silva and Cristina Pacheco Soares",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73603",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73603",authors:[{id:"68406",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",surname:"Pacheco-Soares",slug:"cristina-pacheco-soares",fullName:"Cristina Pacheco-Soares"},{id:"77510",title:"Dr.",name:"Newton",surname:"Soares Da Silva",slug:"newton-soares-da-silva",fullName:"Newton Soares Da Silva"},{id:"327391",title:"MSc.",name:"Bruno",surname:"Henrique Godoi",slug:"bruno-henrique-godoi",fullName:"Bruno Henrique Godoi"},{id:"327392",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliana",surname:"Ferreira Strixino",slug:"juliana-ferreira-strixino",fullName:"Juliana Ferreira Strixino"}],corrections:null},{id:"74051",title:"Sonodynamic and Photodynamics Used as a Combined Therapy in the Treatment of Malignant Neoplasms: Facts and Open Questions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94600",slug:"sonodynamic-and-photodynamics-used-as-a-combined-therapy-in-the-treatment-of-malignant-neoplasms-fac",totalDownloads:309,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Photodynamic therapy (PDT) used in combination with sonodynamic therapy (SDT) is a new approach that aims to increase the effectiveness of tumor treatment when compared to the effect of each independent therapy. PDT is based on stimulating sensitizers with photons, while the most accepted theory for SDT is that sensitizers are stimulated by the sonoluminescence phenomenon. However, after the excitation of the sensitizer, both therapies follow a common path, leading to the generation of free radicals and inducing cell death. One of the positive aspects of this combination is the augmentation of anti-tumor activity with fewer side effects, since cell death may be induced using lower sensitizer concentrations or less exposure to ultrasound or light. Another benefit of combining PDT and SDT, especially with the use of low-frequency ultrasound is the induction of sonophoresis. For instance, on the skin, it may facilitate the absorption of the sensitizer. However, research involving both PDT and SDT exhibit many variants, including differences in irradiation sources and their intensities, among others. These aspects contribute to a lack of standardization, leading to result variations, hindering assessment on the real contribution that these combined therapies can offer in tumor treatment. Thus, further research in the pre-clinical and clinical areas are crucial.",signatures:"Heber Lopes de Mello, Luiz Anastacio Alves, Evellyn Araujo Dias, Sabrina de Sá Pereira Magalhães, Vinicius Cotta-de-Almeida and Rodrigo da Cunha Bisaggio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74051",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74051",authors:[{id:"76663",title:"Prof.",name:"Luiz A.",surname:"Alves",slug:"luiz-a.-alves",fullName:"Luiz A. Alves"},{id:"328302",title:"BSc.",name:"Heber",surname:"Lopes de Mello",slug:"heber-lopes-de-mello",fullName:"Heber Lopes de Mello"},{id:"335156",title:"Ms.",name:"Evellyn",surname:"Araujo Dias",slug:"evellyn-araujo-dias",fullName:"Evellyn Araujo Dias"},{id:"335157",title:"Ms.",name:"Sabrina",surname:"De Sá Pereira Magalhães",slug:"sabrina-de-sa-pereira-magalhaes",fullName:"Sabrina De Sá Pereira Magalhães"},{id:"335158",title:"Prof.",name:"Vinicius",surname:"Cotta De Almeida",slug:"vinicius-cotta-de-almeida",fullName:"Vinicius Cotta De Almeida"},{id:"335161",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodrigo",surname:"Bisaggio",slug:"rodrigo-bisaggio",fullName:"Rodrigo Bisaggio"}],corrections:null},{id:"75652",title:"Clinical Usage of Photodynamic Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95473",slug:"clinical-usage-of-photodynamic-therapy",totalDownloads:241,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter will provide a brief overview of the fundamentals of photodynamic therapy with an emphasis on its use in a clinical setting. Beginning with the history and fundamental science underlying photodynamic therapy and delving into clinical uses. There will be a primary focus on understanding the use of photodynamic therapy under currently approved clinical indications along with their limitations. There are a number of approved therapeutic indications for photodynamic therapy, but there are important limitations and contraindications when applying this therapy. Photodynamic therapy, as applied to the clinical treatment of cancer will be the primary focus with further emphasis on endoluminal and specifically endobronchial cancer as the primary case study.",signatures:"Niral M. Patel and Ali I. Musani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75652",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75652",authors:[{id:"328885",title:"M.D.",name:"Niral M.",surname:"Patel",slug:"niral-m.-patel",fullName:"Niral M. Patel"},{id:"329032",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali I.",surname:"Musani",slug:"ali-i.-musani",fullName:"Ali I. Musani"}],corrections:null},{id:"73612",title:"Anatomically Adjustable Device for Large-Area Photodynamic Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93917",slug:"anatomically-adjustable-device-for-large-area-photodynamic-therapy",totalDownloads:386,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The illumination system composed of LEDs is an anatomically adjustable device of high intensity that can be applied in different areas of the body. It can be applied in health care, as in the dermatological and esthetic treatments. The device improved the treatment of pathological diseases (e.g. actinic keratosis) since disseminated lesions were reached in a single application, thus reducing the time of the procedure and ensuring homogeneous light distribution. It was compared with a smaller and non-adjustable illumination device and evaluated in the treatment of actinic keratosis. The results showed its versatile application and a uniform adjustment to body curvatures.",signatures:"Alessandra Keiko Lima Fujita, Daniel José Chianfrome, Vinicius Sigari Moreira, Anderson Luiz Zanchin, Priscila Fernanda Campos de Menezes and Vanderlei Salvador Bagnato",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73612",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73612",authors:[{id:"36412",title:"Dr.",name:"Priscila",surname:"Menezes",slug:"priscila-menezes",fullName:"Priscila Menezes"},{id:"72297",title:"Prof.",name:"Vanderlei Salvador",surname:"Bagnato",slug:"vanderlei-salvador-bagnato",fullName:"Vanderlei Salvador Bagnato"},{id:"220461",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandra",surname:"Fujita",slug:"alessandra-fujita",fullName:"Alessandra Fujita"},{id:"326980",title:"BSc.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Chianfrone",slug:"daniel-chianfrone",fullName:"Daniel Chianfrone"},{id:"326982",title:"Mr.",name:"Vinicius",surname:"Moreira",slug:"vinicius-moreira",fullName:"Vinicius Moreira"},{id:"326985",title:"BSc.",name:"Anderson",surname:"Zanchin",slug:"anderson-zanchin",fullName:"Anderson Zanchin"}],corrections:null},{id:"73785",title:"Application of Photodynamic Therapy in the Treatment of Osteonecrosis of the Jaw",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94257",slug:"application-of-photodynamic-therapy-in-the-treatment-of-osteonecrosis-of-the-jaw",totalDownloads:424,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Osteonecrosis as term represents the death of bone tissue in the body and causes of necrosis can be different. Medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaws (MRONJ) is nowadays known as an inability of the alveolar bone to respond to a local trauma and it can result in severe local and systemic complications. In the etiology of medication-related osteonecrosis there are antiangiogenic and antiresorptive agents which have great effect on alveolar bone, producing an imbalance between resorption (osteoclastic activity) and deposition (osteoblastic activity). The exact mechanisms of development are not todays completely resolved. It is thought that it is a result from combination of medication interactions, microbiological contamination of the area and local tissue trauma. Typical signs and symptoms are painful mucosal lesions, swelling, exposed necrotic bone in the jaws, discomfort and dysesthesias. There is currently no gold standard or clearly defined treatment protocol for the disease itself. Process of treatment is demanding and main goal is to eliminate pain, control infection of soft and hard tissue and minimize progression of osteonecrosis. Besides the conventional surgical treatment, photodynamic therapy can be a viable supportive tool of initial and advanced stages of osteonecrosis and may contribute to improvements of patient′s quality of life.",signatures:"Marko Vuletić, Božana Lončar Brzak, Igor Smojver, Luka Marković, Mato Sušić and Dragana Gabrić",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73785",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73785",authors:[{id:"26946",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragana",surname:"Gabrić",slug:"dragana-gabric",fullName:"Dragana Gabrić"},{id:"33435",title:"Dr.",name:"Mato",surname:"Sušić",slug:"mato-susic",fullName:"Mato Sušić"},{id:"327713",title:"Dr.",name:"Luka",surname:"Marković",slug:"luka-markovic",fullName:"Luka Marković"},{id:"327741",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Marko",surname:"Vuletić",slug:"marko-vuletic",fullName:"Marko Vuletić"},{id:"331861",title:"Dr.",name:"Božana",surname:"Lončar Brzak",slug:"bozana-loncar-brzak",fullName:"Božana Lončar Brzak"},{id:"331862",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",surname:"Smojver",slug:"igor-smojver",fullName:"Igor Smojver"}],corrections:null},{id:"73812",title:"Strategies to Improve Drug Delivery in Topical PDT",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94374",slug:"strategies-to-improve-drug-delivery-in-topical-pdt",totalDownloads:275,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Topical photodynamic therapy (PDT) has been applied to treat premalignant and malignant lesions such as actinic keratosis and non-melanoma skin cancer. A limiting factor of the technique is cream permeation and studies using chemical and physical approaches to overcome it have increased over the years. This chapter is going to explore the main techniques described in the literature used to improve the cream permeation or the photosensitizer (PS) distribution concerning homogeneity. Outcomes-based on animal studies and clinical trials comparing different delivery techniques are going to be presented, highlighting the aspects of invasiveness, costs, harmfulness, and effectiveness of those methods.",signatures:"Michelle Barreto Requena, Mirian Denise Stringasci, José Dirceu Vollet-Filho and Vanderlei Salvador Bagnato",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73812",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73812",authors:[{id:"326883",title:"Dr.",name:"Michelle Barreto",surname:"Requena",slug:"michelle-barreto-requena",fullName:"Michelle Barreto Requena"},{id:"329826",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirian Denise",surname:"Stringasci",slug:"mirian-denise-stringasci",fullName:"Mirian Denise Stringasci"},{id:"329827",title:"Dr.",name:"José Dirceu",surname:"Vollet-Filho",slug:"jose-dirceu-vollet-filho",fullName:"José Dirceu Vollet-Filho"}],corrections:null},{id:"75016",title:"Photodynamic Treatment of Staphylococcus aureus Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95455",slug:"photodynamic-treatment-of-em-staphylococcus-aureus-em-infections",totalDownloads:368,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Introduction: Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive coconut that causes various life-threatening infections and, in turn, represents a major producer of healthcare-associated infections. This pathogen is highly resistant to antibiotics, which has made it difficult to eradicate in recent decades. Photodynamic therapy is a promising approach to address the notable shortage of antibiotic options against multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. This therapy combines the use of a photosensitizing agent, light, and oxygen to eradicate pathogenic microorganisms. The purpose of this study is to provide relevant bibliographic information about the application of photodynamic therapy as an alternative antimicrobial therapy for Staphylococcus aureus infections. Methods: This review was achieved through a bibliographic search in various databases and the analysis of relevant publications on the subject. Results: A large body of evidence demonstrates the efficacy of photodynamic therapy in eliminating biofilm- or biofilm-producing strains of Staphylococcus aureus, as well as antibiotic-resistant strains. Conclusion: We conclude that photodynamic therapy against Staphylococcus aureus is a recommended antibacterial therapy that may complement antibiotic treatment.",signatures:"Christian Erick Palavecino, Camila Pérez and Tania Zuñiga",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75016",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75016",authors:[{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino"},{id:"334020",title:"BSc.",name:"Camila",surname:"Perez",slug:"camila-perez",fullName:"Camila Perez"},{id:"334021",title:"BSc.",name:"Tania",surname:"Zuñiga",slug:"tania-zuniga",fullName:"Tania Zuñiga"}],corrections:null},{id:"73605",title:"Cell Death after Photodynamic Therapy Treatment in Unicellular Protozoan Parasite Tritrichomonas foetus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94140",slug:"cell-death-after-photodynamic-therapy-treatment-in-unicellular-protozoan-parasite-em-tritrichomonas-",totalDownloads:321,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Programmed cell death in T. foetus does not seem to make sense at first sight; however, different mechanisms of cellular death in this unicellular organism have been observed. This review summarizes the available data related to programmed cell death already published for the cattle parasite T. foetus and attempts to clarify some crucial points to understand this mechanism found in non-mitochondriates parasites, as well as assist in future research. Important results with different treatments showed that the T. foetus can choose among different pathways how to initiate cell death. Thus, a major challenge for cellular death research remains the identification of the molecular cell death machinery of this protist, such as caspases pathway, nuclear abnormalities, morphology cell changes, cellular death in this parasite and the prospects in the future research. Although, the possibility of the existence of different pathways to cell death in trichomonads is discussed and a model for possible executioners pathways during T. foetus cell death is proposed.",signatures:"Newton Soares da Silva, Aline Margraf Ferreira, Carolina Weigert Galvão, Rafael Mazer Etto and Cristina Pacheco Soares",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73605",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73605",authors:[{id:"68406",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",surname:"Pacheco-Soares",slug:"cristina-pacheco-soares",fullName:"Cristina Pacheco-Soares"},{id:"77510",title:"Dr.",name:"Newton",surname:"Soares Da Silva",slug:"newton-soares-da-silva",fullName:"Newton Soares Da Silva"},{id:"295340",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael M.",surname:"Etto",slug:"rafael-m.-etto",fullName:"Rafael M. Etto"},{id:"295341",title:"Dr.",name:"Carolina W.",surname:"Galvão",slug:"carolina-w.-galvao",fullName:"Carolina W. Galvão"},{id:"327925",title:"Dr.",name:"Aline",surname:"Margraf-Ferreira",slug:"aline-margraf-ferreira",fullName:"Aline Margraf-Ferreira"}],corrections:null},{id:"73813",title:"Evaluation of the Antimicrobial Efficacy of Different Types of Photodynamic Therapy on the Main Pathogenic Bacteria of Peri-Implantitis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94268",slug:"evaluation-of-the-antimicrobial-efficacy-of-different-types-of-photodynamic-therapy-on-the-main-path",totalDownloads:445,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Every year, with the increasing number of dental implants placed, there is an increase in the incidence of peri-implantitis. The treatment of peri-implantitis is very complex and among other things includes mechanical and chemical decontamination of the implant surfaces, which is very challenging and often not predictable due to the surface properties of the implants. Photodynamic therapy recently has emerged as a potential treatment alternative or adjuvant treatment to peri-implantitis. Its potential to decontaminate implant surfaces without damaging the surface and the implants surrounding tissues has generated much interest in the scientific community. The possibilities of photodynamic therapy in treatment of peri-implantitis are opening new challenges in establishing optimal conditions for the clinical application of aPDT. Due to its non-invasiveness and ease of use this method can be effective when applied alone or as an adjunct therapy to conventional methods for treating peri-implantitis.",signatures:"Dragana Gabrić, Ana Budimir, Ivona Bago, Luka Marković, Verica Pavlić and Bleron Azizi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73813",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73813",authors:[{id:"26946",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragana",surname:"Gabrić",slug:"dragana-gabric",fullName:"Dragana Gabrić"},{id:"327713",title:"Dr.",name:"Luka",surname:"Marković",slug:"luka-markovic",fullName:"Luka Marković"},{id:"162745",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivona",surname:"Bago",slug:"ivona-bago",fullName:"Ivona Bago"},{id:"327711",title:"Dr.",name:"Bleron",surname:"Azizi",slug:"bleron-azizi",fullName:"Bleron Azizi"},{id:"327712",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana",surname:"Budimir",slug:"ana-budimir",fullName:"Ana Budimir"},{id:"327716",title:"Prof.",name:"Verica",surname:"Pavlić",slug:"verica-pavlic",fullName:"Verica Pavlić"}],corrections:null},{id:"74812",title:"Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy of the Respiratory Tract: From the Proof of Principles to Clinical Application",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95602",slug:"antimicrobial-photodynamic-therapy-of-the-respiratory-tract-from-the-proof-of-principles-to-clinical",totalDownloads:344,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and its relevant health consequences have been explicitly framed as a shared global problem and are estimated to be one of the largest causes of death worldwide by 2050. Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) proposes an alternative treatment for localized infections in response to AMR’s ever-growing problem. This technique combines molecular oxygen, a non-toxic photoactivatable photosensitizer (PS), and light of appropriate wavelength, leading to the formation of cytotoxic reactive oxygen species. Besides the ability to inactivate resistant pathogens via a non-selective approach (multiple targets), a relevant advantage of aPDT resides in the fact that no evidence of microorganism resistance has ever been reported to it. In this chapter, we address some efforts to use this technology to kill bacteria in the respiratory tract, from in vitro to clinical applications. We put forward three focuses: pharyngotonsillitis, pneumonia, and preventing secondary infections during the use of a photosensitizer-functionalized endotracheal tube. The results here presented offer a foundation for what may become a much larger clinical approach to treat respiratory tract infections.",signatures:"Natalia M. Inada, Lucas D. Dias, Kate C. Blanco, Giulia Kassab, Hilde H. Buzzá and Vanderlei S. Bagnato",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74812",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74812",authors:[{id:"90788",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia Mayumi",surname:"Inada",slug:"natalia-mayumi-inada",fullName:"Natalia Mayumi Inada"},{id:"312001",title:"Dr.",name:"Hilde Harb",surname:"Buzzá",slug:"hilde-harb-buzza",fullName:"Hilde Harb Buzzá"},{id:"189115",title:"Dr.",name:"Kate Cristina",surname:"Blanco",slug:"kate-cristina-blanco",fullName:"Kate Cristina Blanco"},{id:"312880",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucas Danilo",surname:"Dias",slug:"lucas-danilo-dias",fullName:"Lucas Danilo Dias"},{id:"72297",title:"Prof.",name:"Vanderlei Salvador",surname:"Bagnato",slug:"vanderlei-salvador-bagnato",fullName:"Vanderlei Salvador Bagnato"},{id:"312000",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Giulia",surname:"Kassab",slug:"giulia-kassab",fullName:"Giulia Kassab"}],corrections:null},{id:"73761",title:"Nanomaterials for Enhanced Photodynamic Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94255",slug:"nanomaterials-for-enhanced-photodynamic-therapy",totalDownloads:478,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Photodynamic therapy is a non-invasive option for eliminating superficial tumors and to control infections. However, despite some protocols are already approved for the clinic, PDT applications could be much broader if some of its main hindrances were overcome. For instance, the most efficient photosensitizers are hydrophobic, so if one injects them intravenously they tend to aggregate and to be internalized by phagocytes in the blood, impairing the delivery to the target site. In addition, visible light has a limited penetration in tissues, therefore the main applications of PDT are limited to superficial tumors unless an invasive procedure is used for the light to reach deeper sites. Another setback is the hypoxia that commonly happens in tumors, hindering the full potential of PDT as it depends on a constant oxygen supply. In this chapter the reader will find some strategies based on Nanotechnology to overcome these and other obstacles for PDT to reach its full clinical potential, i.e. hypoxia-reverting protocols, X-ray-driven PDT, Cherenkov radiation-driven PDT, and active tumor-targeting.",signatures:"Lucas F. de Freitas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73761",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73761",authors:[{id:"326753",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucas",surname:"de Freitas",slug:"lucas-de-freitas",fullName:"Lucas de Freitas"}],corrections:null},{id:"73893",title:"Synergic Influence of Parameters Involved in the Polymeric Nanoparticle Preparation on the Efficacy of Photodynamic Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94176",slug:"synergic-influence-of-parameters-involved-in-the-polymeric-nanoparticle-preparation-on-the-efficacy-",totalDownloads:576,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The challenge was always great for lipophilic photosensitizer use in the photodynamic therapy (PDT) for treatment of internal body diseases. Photosensitizer metabolism in liver, incompatibility of the molecules in the gastric acid, aggregation in the bloodstream, opsonization of molecules and phagocyting process hamper the application of the free lipophilic photosensitizer in disease treatment using PDT. This problem has been partially resolved using the drug delivery system to encapsulate the photosensitizer. Many studies have been reported using polymeric nanoparticles to encapsulate the lipophilic photosensitizer showing excellent results for PDT, but few nanoparticulate formulations are available at the pharmacies. The absence of deep knowledge about the influence of synergic effect of parameters used in the nanoparticle preparation on its properties, the photobleaching process of encapsulated photosensitizer and the molecule aggregation into the nanoparticle can decrease the photodynamic efficacy for the lipophilic photosensitizer. Our research group has studied the influence of many parameters on the nanoparticulate properties of several encapsulated phthalocyanines and porphyrin using factorial design, evaluating the free and encapsulated compound aggregation, efficacy to reduce the viability of cancer cells, the photooxidation of the biomolecules and the influence of photobleaching. This work shows the most important results to be consider in the optimization of the polymeric nanoparticle.",signatures:"Barbara Silva Figueiredo, Julyana Noval de Souza Ferreira, Vannyla Viktória Viana Vasconcelos, Priscila Ponate de Souza, Rafaela Vergna De Angeli and André Romero da Silva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73893",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73893",authors:[{id:"327892",title:"Ph.D.",name:"André",surname:"Da Silva",slug:"andre-da-silva",fullName:"André Da Silva"},{id:"328172",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Barbara Silva",surname:"Figueiredo",slug:"barbara-silva-figueiredo",fullName:"Barbara Silva Figueiredo"},{id:"328173",title:"Mrs.",name:"Vannyla",surname:"Vasconcelos",slug:"vannyla-vasconcelos",fullName:"Vannyla Vasconcelos"},{id:"328174",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Julyana",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"julyana-ferreira",fullName:"Julyana Ferreira"},{id:"328176",title:"Ms.",name:"Priscila Ponate De",surname:"Souza",slug:"priscila-ponate-de-souza",fullName:"Priscila Ponate De Souza"},{id:"328177",title:"Ms.",name:"Rafaela Vergna",surname:"De Angeli",slug:"rafaela-vergna-de-angeli",fullName:"Rafaela Vergna De Angeli"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Leen",slug:"gabriel-leen",email:"Gabriel.Leen@ul.ie",position:null,institution:null},{id:"269579",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Fintan",middleName:null,surname:"McGuinness",fullName:"Fintan McGuinness",slug:"fintan-mcguinness",email:"Fintan.McGuinness@ul.ie",position:null,institution:null},{id:"269580",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerard",middleName:null,surname:"Dooly",fullName:"Gerard Dooly",slug:"gerard-dooly",email:"Gerard.Dooly@ul.ie",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"8271",title:"Applications of Optical Fibers for Sensing",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of Optical Fibers for Sensing",slug:"applications-of-optical-fibers-for-sensing",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",bookSignature:"Christian Cuadrado-Laborde",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8271.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"220902",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Cuadrado-Laborde",slug:"christian-cuadrado-laborde",fullName:"Christian 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\r\n\tCytokeratins are the most diverse and, arguably least understood components of the cytoskeleton. Comprising the intermediate filaments of epithelial cells, cytokeratins have roles in tissue integrity, in signaling, attachment to a substrate, and providing scaffolding to cytoplasmic organelles including, presumably, the nucleus. Essentially insoluble filamentous structures, these assemblies disappear during mitosis, to re-assemble immediately afterward. Beyond the confines of epithelial cells, keratins provide the bulk material to the epidermal stratum corneum, hair, nails and other rigid elements of the integument. Cytokeratins are obligate heteropolymers, consisting of equal amounts of Type I, acidic, and Type II neutral to basic proteins. In mammals, the Type I keratin genes are clustered in a single chromosomal region, and so are the Type II keratin genes. Different cytokeratins are characteristic molecular marker for specific epithelia, e.g., epidermis, cornea, tongue, hair etc. Mutations in keratin genes have dominant inheritance, in accordance with their obligate polymerization, and can cause severe disorders. Lately, first successes in correcting the mutant phenotype have been achieved using DNA-targeted therapies. Recent progress in studies of these fascinating proteins warrants a recap at this moment, which this volume aims to provide.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"5b6f7c428ae46faa9e16125459bedbff",bookSignature:"Dr. Miroslav Blumenberg",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9775.jpg",keywords:"Cytoplasm, Cytokeratin-associated Proteins, Signal Transduction, Actin, Tubulin, Integrins, Extracellular Matrix, Disruptions and Diseases, Promoters, Transcription Factors, Tissue Specificity, Keratinopathies",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 8th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 6th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 5th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 23rd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 24th 2021",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Blumenberg pioneered the use of DNA microarrays in skin biology. His H-index of 35 is a clear indicator of his merit and impact as a researcher. He serves on editorial boards of BMC Genomics, Acta Dermatovenerologica APA, and World Journal of Biological Chemistry and holds three patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"56676",title:"Petroleum Extraction Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70360",slug:"petroleum-extraction-engineering",body:'\nFor more than a century, oil is well known as a good primary energy source competing coal, natural gas, nuclear energy and renewables in various regions and fields of the energy sector. According to the last statistical reports, oil is dominant fuel in America and Africa, whereas natural gas dominates in Europe and Eurasia and coal in the Asia Pacific. The use of oil and gas in the Middle East reach 98% of total energy consumption in this region.
\nOil is the world’s leading fuel (accounting for 32.9% of global energy consumption) with the 10-year average rate of growth of 1.9%. However, the rate of growth recorded in 2015 (1.0%) is slightly lower and similar to the rate recorded in 2014 (+1.1%) (\nFigure 1\n) [1].
\nPrimary world energy consumption, million tonnes of oil equivalent [
Oil, originated from ancient fossilized organic materials, is considered as nonrenewable primary energy source with limited amounts. There are two indicators used to represent remaining oil reserves—proved oil reserves and reserves-to-production ratio. Proved oil reserves is amount of oil that geological information indicates with reasonable certainty can be recovered to the future under existing economic and operating conditions, whereas reserves-to-production ratio represents the length of time that those remaining reserves would last if production were to continue at the previous year’s rate [1].
\nConstant growth of proved oil reserves from 1126.2 thousand million barrels in 1995 until 1697.6 thousand million barrels in 2015 is presented in \nFigure 2\n. Nearly half of proven oil reserves are located in the Middle East.
\nDistribution of proved oil reserves: 1995, 2005 and 2015, percentage [
According to the last statistical overview, oil reserves increased by 24% over the past decade and meet 50.7 years of global production. On a regional basis, South and Central American reserves have the highest oil reserves-to-production ratios—117 years and Asia Pacific have the lowest reserves-to-production ratios—14.05 years.
\nIn various regions all over the world, oil is found in the geological structures that form oil reservoirs. According to the depth of the oil reservoir, they are classified as follows: shallow, 30–800 m; medium, 800–2000 m; deep, 2000–5000 m and over deep, more than 5000 m. This classification is constantly changing as advances in drilling equipment with opportunity to achieve greater depth. However, irrespective of the depth of the oil reservoir, the main principle of oil extraction stays the same and is based on the life cycle of the oil field (\nFigure 3\n).
\nLife cycle of the oil and gas field.
There are five stages of oil and gas fields’ life cycle: exploration, appraisal, development, production and abandonment.
\n\n
After successful drilling exploration wells, the
The
The
When the oil and gas production is no longer cost-effective, wells are plugged and
Thereinafter, we will be focusing on the third step of the life cycle of the oil field—development of the well.
\nDuring the first phase of the development of the well, a rotary drilling rig is installed to bore a hole in the ground and reach the oil reservoir. The main rotary drilling rig components are derrick or mast, power and prime movers, hoisting equipment, rotating component, circulating system, tubular and tubular handling equipment and bit.
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Hoisting equipment of the drilling rig.
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Rotating equipment of the drilling rig.
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Circulation system of the drilling rig.
The principal components of the drilling fluid circulation system are as follows:
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Tubular handling equipment is made of the following equipments:
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Roller cone bits with milled tooth or tungsten carbide insert (TCI) could have 2–6 cone-shaped steel devices that are free to turn as the bit rotates.
Fixed cutter bits could be drill bit or core bit. The first one could be polycrystalline diamond compact bit (PDC-bit), surface set diamond bit and impregnated diamond bit. It consists of bit bodies and cutting elements integrated with the bit bodies and do not have moving parts.
Hybrid bits combine both rolling cutter and fixed cutter elements.
If the drill bit needs to be changed, the whole string of pipe must be raised to the surface.
\nModern drilling fluids (muds) are complex heterogeneous fluids (water based, oil based) and are complex mixtures of more than 200 minerals and chemicals. It is used in a drilling operation and circulates from the surface, down the drill string, through the bit and back to the surface via the annulus. The original use of the drilling fluids was to remove cuttings continuously. Progress in drilling engineering demanded more sophistication from the drilling mud. In order to enhance the usage of drilling fluids, numerous additives were introduced and a simple fluid became a complicated mixture of liquids, solids and chemicals. As the drilling fluids evolved, their design changed to have common characteristic features that aid in safe, economic and satisfactory completion of a well. In addition, drilling fluids are also now required to perform following functions:
Clean the rock formation beneath the bit for rock cuttings.
Remove cutting from the well.
Control formation pressures while drilling and maintain wellbore stability.
Suspend and release cuttings.
Seal permeable formations to prevent excessive mud loss.
Minimize reservoir damage by using reservoir drill-in fluid.
Cool, lubricate and clean the bit and drilling assembly.
Transmit hydraulic energy to downhole assembly.
Ensure adequate formation evaluation.
Control corrosion.
Facilitate downhole measurement (measurement while drilling, logging while drilling).
Facilitate cementing and completion.
Minimize impact on the environment.
However, excessive use of oil-based drilling fluids may harm the environment and it is important to develop more environmentally friendly drilling fluids. In this respect, water-based drilling fluids are more acceptable. As well known, bentonite is widely applied in the water-based drilling fluids, which could enhance the clean properties and form a thin filter with low permeability. The functions of bentonite are to make the fluids more viscous and reduce the loss of fluids.
\nThere are four types of drilling fluids (\nFigure 7\n):
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Classification of the drilling fluids.
Advantages
Low cost
High rate of penetration
Good cuttings removal
Good geoscientific investigations
The pressure in the cutting area increases with increasing hydrostatic pressure of drilling fluid.
Disadvantages
Low borehole stability [5]
Insufficient cutting transport efficiency
Insufficient lubricating properties
Drilling fluid loss.
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Advantages
Excellent lubricating properties (reduce drilling torque and drag)
Good temperature stability
Favorable to borehole stability
High rate of penetration
Will not hydrate clays
Long bit life
Low reservoir damage
Low drilling fluid loss
Salt not dissolved
Corrosion resistance
Can be reused.
Disadvantages
High initial cost
Electric log difficulty
Viscosity varies with temperature
Environmental issue
Difficult to keep the rig clean while drilling
Difficult to identify gas kick
Messy working environment
Fire hazards.
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Advantages
Favorable to borehole stability
High rate of penetration
Good wellbore stability
Good control of drilling fluid properties
Good cutting transport efficiency and removal
Good filtration properties.
Disadvantages
Complex system with high solid content
Geoscientific investigations difficulty.
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Advantages
High rate of penetration
Low reservoir damage
Good bit performance
Low drilling fluid loss
Low water consumption
Low air quality requirements for foam drilling
Low hydrostatic pressure
Good cleaning of the borehole.
Disadvantages
There are restrictions on the possible lithological structures
Drilling could be limited by the length of the horizontal section of the well
Possibility of fire
Possible additional costs to rent equipment
Gas costs
Gas and foam utilization issues
Aerated fluids require specialized equipment for the injections
Aerated fluids and foam have potential corrosion problems and the need to use additional inhibitor
The quality of the foam changes in exchange pressure
The foam is a complicated system and may require computer modeling of foam movement in the borehole.
Various materials may be added at the surface to change or modify the characteristics of the mud:
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Most of these additives have distinct properties that help in countering specific challenges encountered during the drilling process as well as in accomplishing the drilling work with efficiency and precision [7]. However, to select the proper fluid, it is necessary to calculate the cost of the fluid, understand the environmental impact of using the fluid and to know the impact of the fluid on production from the pay zone.
\nThe complex drilling fluids represent 15–18% of the total cost of petroleum well drilling. Lost circulation is major problem in the drilling operations and is defined as the loss of drilling fluid through the pores or fissures in the rock formations to be drilled, sometimes referred to as “thief zones.” It occurs when hydrostatic pressure of fluid column in the wellbore is higher than the formation pressure and is defined as the loss of drilling fluid into the formation. Lost circulation influences directly effect the non-productive time, a drilling operation that includes the cost of time and all services that support the drilling operation. It is usually accompanied by wellbore stability problems, which can result in stuck pipe and even the loss of the well [8, 9, 10].
\nThe fluid loss of circulation is most commonly responsible for 10–20% of the total cost of a productive or an exploration well. Well bore costs, in turn, represent 35–50% of the total capital costs of a geothermal typical project; therefore, about 3.5–10% of the total costs can be attributed to the loss of circulation [11].
\nThe physical simulator of flow in the formation (SFF) device allows determining the mud loss to the formation. It consists of a fluid storage tank with mixer, well-simulated pipe with formation packing system, pump, temperature and pressure-measuring device and so on.
\nAn experimental procedure was developed with the purpose of studying effects of additives and loss circulation material on mud loss to the formation. The mud sample that was prepared and mixed in the separate storage tank transferred into the stand’s storage tank (1) (\nFigure 8\n). Formation packing system was filled with the formation that was tested against the drilling mud. Then, the formation packing system connected to the well-simulated pipe (5). The hollow cable from the pump (3) is connected to the compressor to make the pump run at desired pressure. After the pump has been turned on, the drilling mud started to circulate from the storage tank through the well-simulated pipe. The process runs for 30 minutes and when it is finished it is possible to measure the fluid penetration rate.
\nKinematic scheme of the physical simulator of flow in the formation: 1—fluid storage tank with mixer; 2—heater; 3—pump; 4—valve; 5—well-simulated pipe with formation packing system; 6—pressure measuring device; 7—temperature measuring device and 8—pressure regulator.
The visualization of the physical simulator of flow in the formation is shown in \nFigure 9\n.
\nVisualization of physical simulator of flow in the formation.
Combating loss by the proper use of reinforcement materials of wells, well strengthening and loss circulation materials is fundamental for a successful drilling [12, 13, 14]. In \nFigure 10\n, simulation results (Flow 3D) show the influence of the loss circulation materials on the drilling process. In case of the water drilling, the drilling fluid losses are significant, whereas in case of the loss circulation materials, rate of penetration considerably decreases.
\nComparison of the fluid loss and rate of the penetration by pure water and the water-based fluid drilling: a—water; b—drilling fluid.
Industries use coke, attapulgite, nutshells, mica flakes, cellulose nanoparticles and other materials to mitigate the loss of circulation [15]. The use of such materials increases the cost of drilling, but by using the materials such as cotton, sawdust and used oil would employ the same purpose in most cost-effective and eco-friendly way.
\nVarious materials such as cotton waste, used oil, saw dust etc. are commonly employed as fluids loss control agent. The evaluation of the rate of penetration of various mud samples to the formation proposes an effective way to minimize the mud loss by forming a static filter cake on the walls by changing the components of the water-based drilling fluid.
\nIt is important to evaluate the amount of drilling fluid loss to the formation and to overcome it by forming a static filter cake on the borehole walls by changing the components of the water-based drilling fluid [16, 17].
\nFormation porosity directly affects the mud loss, if the pore size of the formation is high, it means that the formation pore size do have much space to retain any fluid or small particle which passes through it [18]. During the experiment, the density of the formation was 1.606 g·cm−3. The pH of the formation was 8.73 and is alkaline, so it will not play a vital on altering any significant property of the drilling mud. Humidity does not play a major role in mud loss, but it has to be measured to determine the filtration property of the sand. Humidity of formation was 4.26%.
\nBase mud sample, containing only water and bentonite clay, was prepared by adding 720 g of bentonite to 12 liters of water to obtain a bentonite mass fraction of 5.66% and a bentonite-to-water ratio of 6% (\nFigure 11\n).
\nPrepared mud sample.
The bentonite-to-water ratio was maintained constant for all subsequent mud samples used in this research.
\nAll mud samples were prepared at ambient conditions (at 17°C or 62.6°F). Respectively, their density and rheological properties were measured. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was used to adjust the pH of mud samples to ensure that each sample has same pH value of 10.85. Potassium chloride (KCl) was used as a clayish rock swelling inhibitor because the loam formation used during the research has clay content and was constant for all mud samples. Sodium carbonate (NaOH) was used to regulate the calcium concentration in the drilling mud.
\nMud samples with varying additive concentrations and loss circulation materials such as saw dust, waste cotton and used oil were prepared as it is shown in \nTable 1\n.
\nMud samples | \nMass of water | \nMass of bentonite | \nMass of Na2CO3\n | \nMass of NaOH | \nMass of saw dust | \nMass of waste cotton | \nMass of used oil | \n|
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Kg | \ng | \ng | \ng | \ng | \ng | \ng | \n||
Bentonite | \nB1 | \n12 | \n720 | \n60 | \n14.4 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
Sawdust | \nS1 | \n68 | \n17.2 | \n232 | \n0 | \n0 | \n||
S2 | \n70.5 | \n19 | \n397 | \n0 | \n0 | \n|||
S3 | \n74.2 | \n20.5 | \n522 | \n0 | \n0 | \n|||
Cotton | \nC1 | \n61 | \n17.8 | \n0 | \n25 | \n0 | \n||
C2 | \n63.2 | \n18.05 | \n0 | \n50 | \n0 | \n|||
C3 | \n66.6 | \n18.60 | \n0 | \n75 | \n0 | \n|||
Used oil | \nO1 | \n60 | \n23.4 | \n0 | \n0 | \n135 | \n||
O2 | \n63.7 | \n24.2 | \n0 | \n0 | \n269 | \n|||
O3 | \n66.6 | \n24.8 | \n0 | \n0 | \n404 | \n
The composition of water-based mud samples.
The water-based mud samples presented in \nTable 1\n are named according to the loss circulation materials added to it. For instance, the mud sample with sawdust is named from S1 to S3 according to the weight of the material present in it. The sawdust was added from 232 to 522 g in three mud samples and cotton is added from 25 to 75 g in C1–C3. The used oil was added in milliliter and their relative weight of oil was calculated and presented in g. The used oil was added from 135 to 404 g to O1 to O3 mud samples.
\nIn this experiment, rheological properties of drilling mud additives were studied (\nTable 2\n). Mud samples with a varying concentration of additives were prepared; their properties were studied and compared.
\nMud samples | \nMud density | \nPlastic viscosity | \nYield point | \n10-sec gel strength | \n|
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lb/gal | \ncP | \nlb/100 ft2\n | \nlb/100 ft2\n | \n||
Bentonite | \nB1 | \n9.260 | \n18 | \n18 | \n4 | \n
Sawdust | \nS1 | \n9.290 | \n23 | \n25 | \n6 | \n
S2 | \n9.290 | \n24 | \n28 | \n7 | \n|
S3 | \n9.296 | \n26 | \n31 | \n9 | \n|
Cotton | \nC1 | \n10.26 | \n29 | \n33 | \n16 | \n
C2 | \n10.43 | \n35 | \n35 | \n24 | \n|
C3 | \n10.68 | \n37 | \n43 | \n31 | \n|
Used oil | \nO1 | \n9.280 | \n20 | \n21 | \n5 | \n
O2 | \n9.280 | \n21 | \n24 | \n6 | \n|
O3 | \n9.296 | \n22 | \n26 | \n8 | \n
Variation of the muds’ rheological properties by using additives.
The
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The rate of penetration of all mud samples is represented in \nFigure 12\n.
\nRate of penetration of all mud samples in formation.
\n\nFigure 12\n consolidates all the result obtained from the experimental work. In the case of sawdust mud sample, the weight percentage of sawdust added were ranging from 1 to 3%, and in the case of used oil, it is 1, 1.5, 2%, but in the case of cotton, it is just 0.2, 0.4, 0.6% because the cotton make the mud more viscous and heavily dense, which makes it hard for the pump to deliver the same pump rate as it was done with sawdust and used oil mud samples. From \nFigure 12\n, it is evident that the mud samples with additives can be used as loss circulation material during oil well drilling.
\nIn this work, it is evident that the prepared and tested mud samples work well with the unconsolidated coarse-grained formation in terms of mud loss.
\nThe concentration of loss circulation material is vital to control the rheological properties of drilling mud. Significant changes in mud density, plastic viscosity, yield point and gel strength were noted to correspond to changes in the concentration of mud loss circulation material.
\nWaster-based mud with cotton as loss circulation material gave a remarkably higher value of density, yield point, gel strength and plastic viscosity when used at lesser concentration than sawdust and used oil. Moreover, water-based mud samples with cotton having the least penetration rate. The lack of loss circulation material could result in significant mud loss.
\nCell culture or Chicken embryo fibroblast cell culture is a fundamental laboratory technique that widely used in virology, vaccinology, molecular biology, microbiology as well as in biotechnology field. In this
General concept of cell culture is the propagation of cells or fibroblast or living tissues in a defined media that conducive their growth. Shortly, a growth of cell artificially known as cell culture. CEF (Chicken Embryo Fibroblast) cell culture is the culture of fibroblast cells obtained from embryo. Embryonated eggs commonly used in the production of bulk antigens, vaccines and other biochemical. SPF (Specific Pathogen Free) eggs obtained from SPF (Specific Pathogen Free) chicken flocks which have been intensively monitored for infectious agents and have not been vaccinated; or, where justified (e.g. for production of some inactivated vaccines) and in line with the marketing authorization, from healthy chicken flocks. For the propagation of virus laboratory personnel or researcher should have to choose specific route of inoculation of the SPF egg based on the study microorganisms (virus) that is being propagated [4].
Baby Hamster Kidney cells (BHK-21) are generally used in life science research work and the biopharmaceutical industry. Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, baby hamster kidney (BHK) cells, mouse myeloma cells comprising NS0 and SP2/0, hybridomas, and human cell lines (HEK293, HT-1080) are the very commonly used mammalian cell lines at large scale [5]. Among these cell lines, BHK-21 has found applications at large scale in veterinary viral vaccines against foot and mouth disease (FMD) and rabies virus, as well as heterologous protein production (Factor VIII) [6]. The BHK-21 cell line was established in 1961 from the kidneys of 5 Syrian hamsters from litter number 21. Since this time, this cell line has been considered as a research facility standard for the development of countless viruses and the study of numerous biological processes. Baby hamster kidney (BHK) cells are one of many different vertebrate cell types used for the propagation of viruses by infection and transfection [7]. Generally obtained from BHK cells can vary widely if not obtained from the ATCC. For the production of animal products (vaccine) baby hamster kidney (BHK) cells are generally used, the most important of which is the production of a vaccine against FMD and rabies. Also, BHK was used in the production of recombinant proteins, such as blood coagulation factor VIII for the extraction of DNA from Pseudorabies virus and production of capture antigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) when diagnosing Japanese Encephalitis (JE) [8, 9, 10]. BHK-21 cells were grown and propagated in modified minimum essential media (MEM) by adding a set of proteins including Lactalbumin (2.50 g/l), yeast extract (1.00 g/l), peptone (2.50 g/l), New Zealand casein (1.00 g/l); Glutamine (0.50 g/l) and 2% sodium bicarbonate were also added to the culture medium. Also, 5–10% of the serum treated with polyethylene glycol 6000 was added to modified MEM. Penicillin G and streptomycin was added at the rate of 100 IU to control microbial load. After keeping the BHK cells in a liquid nitrogen tank and passing them through the preparation steps, the cells were transferred to CCF for subsequent cultivation. The flasks were kept in incubators at an operating temperature of 36°C or 36.5°C or 37°C and 5% carbon dioxide. Maintaining the starting pH of the culture ranged from 7.1 to 7.2 or 7.4 while carbon dioxide was used to control the pH. Common morphology of some cells are
Cell culture or CEF cell culture is crucial laboratory work. During cell culture laboratory personnel or researchers have to maintain chronological workflow step by step. By maintaining the following steps cell culture should be done very smoothly. For CEF cell culture, SPF eggs were collected from authentic sources with a legal document. Then incubate for the recommended date. Afterward-
Personal hygiene and safety management
Sterilization and disinfection
Arrangement of instrument and appliances as well as power supply
Biosafety cabinet (BSC) management
Management of essential ingredients and chemicals like Media, FBS, Trypsin, Phosphate Buffer Saline (PBS), Tincture of iodine, Antibiotics, etc.
Management of Pipettes, Burette, Tips, Waste disposal box, Aspirator, Tissue
Chopping, washing embryo, and filtering (for CEF cell culture)
Centrifugation
Cell suspension and stock management
Cell count and splitting of the cell
CCF, Media, and incubator management
Cell line development
Cell observation, harvest
Cell count, subculture, infection, and bulk antigen production
Culture medium is a composition of nutrients and selected buffer that helps to grow an organism naturally. Media can be designed based on variety of cell, types of cells because it is necessary for cell survival, proliferations and growth. The influence of cell culture technology creates inevitable progress in molecular biology research. This technique widely utilized in different fields like the assessment of toxicity and efficacy of new drugs, development of various biopharmaceutical products and vaccines, and used in reproductive technology. No one probably would argue against the claim that a culture medium is the foremost essential measure in cell culture technique. Selection of suitable media for research goal is essential. Sometimes researchers should modify a properties or composition of medium in order to their experiment. There are mainly two types of media used by researcher such as natural media and synthetic media [3, 11, 12].
pH plays a vital role in cell culture. The cell growth rate is decline associated with Fluctuations in pH level. That’s why routine monitoring is essential. For the cells is 7 the optimal pH, and decline or increase in pH can hinder the growth of cells. More decrease in pH level (usually in between 6.0–6.5), can stop the growth rate of the cells, and cells are start losing viability at low pH level. That’s why pH level should be maintained and monitored carefully for individual cell line. If pH level fall rate is less than 0.1 units/day, that indicates the cell condition is good and no need to hurry to change the culture medium immediately. If it is 0.4 units/day (pH drop rate), that indicates the culture medium need to be changed quickly [13]. Alkali (like- NaOH, KOH) or acid (HCl) solution helps to control pH level in culture medium. Besides, NaHCO3 (sodium bicarbonate) or natural buffer solution, and addition (need base) of CO2 gas to the bioreactor also helps to maintain optimum pH level in culture medium. Generally, pH electrode (silver chloride electrochemical-type) used within the bioreactor [14]. For the proliferation of cell in culture medium an optimum, stable as well as balanced pH is essential. Depending upon cell type and culturing process pH level may vary and specific. Generally, 5–10% CO2 required to grown cells using buffered media that contain NaHCO3 (sodium bicarbonate) and where maintained the range of pH 7.2 to 7.4 [15]. CO2 incubator, optimum pH level, ideal temperature, optimum moisture condition, sterile and clean working environment are essential to maintain and complete an experiment. In the cell culture medium, the carbonate buffer helps to hold constant pH and take parts in releasing CO2 gas in the CO2 incubator. Color of the culture medium depending and changing with the pH level of culture medium. Color indicates altering the medium and CO2 levels [3]. Commonly, 4–10% of CO2 is practiced in the cell culture technique. By maintaining HCO3−concentration and CO2 tension in culture medium one can easily achieved optimum pH and osmolality [16]. By observing the color of the media can easily identify the pH condition like- Phenol red to yellow/ orange color indicates too acidic where pH 6.8 (bellow), Red to pink color indicates pH above 7.0 to 7.7 which is normal, and bright fuchsia color indicates pH 8.0 to 8.2 (too alkaline).
Generally, cell culture need 37°C for incubation called control temperature. Proliferation and multiplication of cells are significantly decreased at more than 40°C, like 41°C or 42°C temperature, and increased temperature may also cause high apoptotic rate of CEF cells. Cell viability, apoptosis, proliferation, and oxidative status of cells in culture medium can be altered with high temperature. ROS (reactive oxygen species) formation increased with increasing Temperature (Proportionally) [17]. During the transportation must be care full about temperature. Besides regular or routine inspection is recommended for better results. In cell culture technique one of the most challenging issues is to grow cell, that’s why an ideal temperature play a vital role in cell culture along with good supplementation of nutrients. For the cell division the optimum temperature should be vary on cell type that assist to maintain growth rate. Generally, at optimal temperature metabolic function of cell is optimum as well as good that helps to increase their size, and proliferation rate [18]. Temperature requirement varies based on cell type like-
A device in which microbial culture or cell culture is grown and maintained with customized temperature, humidity (relative humidity 95%), oxygen, CO2 level, and other conditions. For virus cultivation, cell culture as well as cell infection, vaccine development incubation is a very much crucial and fundamental issue. The incubator is an essential instrument in cell biology research, Microbiology, Biotechnology, Molecular biology research. On the other hand, an egg incubator is one of the most important for embryonated egg production in the laboratory and large scale. BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) incubator is popular in this regard. There are so many necessary points always bear in mind to maintain good incubation. Firstly, cleaning inside, cabinets, outside and handle that helpful to eradicate cross-contamination, also helps to hold a good quality of cell, media, SPF (Specific Pathogen Free) eggs, and other chemicals or ingredients. Logbook maintenance is another vital issue to maintain high-quality research work. Through logbooks, laboratory personnel can easily identify any issue related to the incubator. A dedicated power supply essential to maintain cell quality, growth, metabolism as well as important to maintain cell physiology. CO2 level and the supply are very much essential to maintain moisture and pH (normal range is 7.2 to 7.4). Generally, 5% CO2 with 37°C is used to maintain the cell. Eventually, inventory management will helpful for GMP (Good Manufacturing Practice) and proper cell culture as well as laboratory work.
Cryopreservation is the method in which intact living cells are conserved as intact in liquid nitrogen at cryogenic temperatures. On the other hand, in cryopreservation system using low temperature helps to protect living cells structurally intact. Freezing system keeps the living cells frequently for a long time (often for years). Freezing temperature ceased their typical metabolic activity that’s why cells are protected from damage caused by long time preservation, and chemical reactivity. Gently handle cells because cell may be damaged and will get stress during the freeze–thaw process. Optimal cryopreservation of cells relies on proper freezing and thawing methods. A successful cryopreservation method calculating based on recovery rate of cells (frozen) from low temperature, percentage of alive cells, and rate of cells that function as normal after thawed [19]. Basically, for cryopreservation harvest the cells in exponential growth. Then gentle centrifugation done at 125 × g for 10 minutes. After that check and scree the media. The procedure starts with taking freezing medium (GM-which warm at room temperature for 30 minutes) that containing a cryoprotectant such as Dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO) (e.g. 5–10% v/v DMSO), fetal bovine serum (FBS) (10–20% v/v) and at high cell density (1–5 × 106/ml) and sometimes added knock-out serum replacer (KoSR; 20% v/v final), bovine serum albumin (5% final) or human serum albumin. From some recent research [20, 21, 22] it is said that freezing rate has great impact on viability of cryopreserved cells. It is suggested that cells be slowly cooled (like 2°C, −20°C, −80°C for at least 24 hours and finally preserved in liquid nitrogen at −196°C) that gives better surviving rate of cell in the cryopreservation process. Record logs must maintain during all the steps. From the final cryovial (that contain cell at −196°C) remove one vial and restore the cells in culture medium to determine cell viability and sterility. Recovery rate of cryopreserved cells depends on the types of cultured cell. Some cell needs several days, some shows low viability on the day of culture, in some cases cell produce debris, some cells are shows normal viability after 24 hours’ post-thaw. Before retrieving of cryopreserved cells clean the biosafety cabinet, prepare the CCF, media, FBS and arrange all the instruments and appliances (sterile). Then wash the cryovial with 70% ethanol and place it in a water bath for 2 to 5 min at 37°C to melt. Transfer the thawed cell in a tube and gentle centrifugation (10 minutes at 125 × g) needs to discard (supernatant) cryoprotectant in the meanwhile collect the cell pellet and suspend the cells in 1 mL or 2 mL of complete growth medium (GM) then proceed for cell count and subculture in new CCF for 24 hours’ observation. In the process of cryopreservation, significant rate of cell survival and maintenance of cell integrity (structural and morphological) can be achieved by using cryoprotective agents (CPAs). Excipient is an ingredient added intentionally to the drug substance which should not have pharmacological properties in the quantity used. Commercially available CPAs namely Dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO) is commonly used as CPA. Factors behind the success of cell survival [23] are: (a) Type and concentration of cryoprotectants (an additive, such as glycerol or dimethyl sulphoxide, that can protect cells against freezing injury). (b) Cell density in cryopreservation solution at the time of freezing. (c) Cooling and thawing rates of cell suspension. (d) Dilution rate of thawed cell suspension. The main advantages [24] of cryopreservation are easily found original cell lines from the safety stocks, preserve the cells for year after year and lastly smoothly perform continuous research or experiments.
Correctly thawing of cells is crucial to recover quickly, yielding the highest viability and functionality possible. Some cryoprotectants (e.g. DMSO) has toxic effect on cells, due to the possibility of toxicity cells should be thawed rapidly and not allowed to remain in the freezing medium no longer than required time. Firstly, retrieve the cryovial containing the frozen cells from liquid nitrogen (−80°C or − 196°C freezer) and immediately place it into a 37°C water bath (for 1 to 2 min) or place immediately in a pre-equilibrated thermo-conductive rack or tube module resting on dry ice to minimize cell warming/thawing. Rapidly thaw the cells (< 1 minute) by carefully swirling the cryovial in the 37°C water bath up to there is a little bit of ice left within the cryovial. Then place the cryovial into a BSC. Gently wipe the outside of the cryovial with 70% IPA (Isopropyl Alcohol) prior to open the cryovial screw. Carefully add (dropwise) required amount of pre-warmed GM into the tube (centrifuge) that containing recently thawed cells. Place the cell suspension in centrifuge machine for centrifugation and set 200 × g for 5–10 minutes (it may vary based on cell type). Inspect the transparency of supernatant and visibility of a pellet at the bottom after completing the centrifugation. Discard the supernatant aseptically without breaking the pellet. Softly resuspend the cells by gently pipetting with GM and prepare required concentration, then transfer the cell suspension into the CCF, and place it in the suggested culture environment. Inspect the cells using an inverted microscope for morphology. Examine an aliquot of cells for the ability to exclude trypan blue. If cells pass both inspections, they are ready for culture [25].
Subculture of cell commonly known as passaging of cells and the ratio of subculture is 1:2. The main concept of passaging: cells are split into half in each subculture. Continuous cell lines should will be passaged with higher split ratio due to their higher replication rate. Usually the number of times the cells have been subcultured into a new CCF known as passage number. In the case of diploid cell cultures, the number cell passage is partially equal to the number of population doubling level (PDL) since the culture was begun. On the other hand, PDL of continuous cell lines is not fixed like diploid cell culture. Mostly the PDL is an estimation or prediction. PDL may ups and down with cell stress and cell death (due to necrosis, apoptosis). Loss of proliferation capacity of cell, contamination of culture medium may also responsible. A common formula for the calculation of population doubling level: PDL = 3.32 (log Xe – log Xb) + S; where Xb is the cell number at the beginning of the incubation time, Xe is the cell number at the end of the incubation time, S is the starting PDL. Another common formula used to calculate the population doubling level is [26]: Log (
Trypsin is an enzyme that is used to remove adherence proteins from a cell surface. Generally, trypsin-based disaggregation so-called trypsinization. Disaggregation of cells from the CCF commonly crude trypsin used, the effect of raw (crude) trypsin can easily be neutralized by commercially available serum (FBS) or trypsin inhibitor. On the other hand, pure trypsin is also used in the cell degradation process which is less toxic and very specific in action [27]. Commonly 0.05% trypsin used in laboratory work. Sometimes trypsinization causes cell damage and sometimes may not effective for some cells thus other dissociation agents (enzyme) are recommended for the dissociation of cells. Warm and cold trypsinization are the two common approaches. An extensively used method is warm trypsinization. In which cells are washed with basal salt solution and then add warm trypsin (37°C) adequately and stirred properly. The supernatant dissociated, the cells are dispersing in the medium. In the case of cold trypsinization, cellular damage is reduced, resulting in a high yield of viable cells also improved survival rate. For cold trypsinization cells are maintained in ice after washing with media or salt then treated with cold trypsin for 6–24 h. After that remove and discard the trypsin and incubate the CCF at 37°C (for 20–30 min). Dispersion of cells may start and fully dispersed cells counted using hemocytometer then dispersing in a medium for further use. The easiest way of trypsinization is a). Discard the media from CCF b). Wash the cell surface with PBS (4 ml for 75 cm2 CCF) c). Take trypsin (Room temperature) d). Rinse monolayer of cell with trypsin–EDTA (2 to 4 ml for 75 cm2 CCF) e). Stay for 2 minutes then discard trypsin and Incubate the CCF at 37°C for 5 minutes f). Tapping the CCF and collect the cells by scrapper stored in a tube g). Spin down the cells, resuspended by adding the growth medium or fresh medium, and Count the cells h). Split into a new flask and Incubate at 37°C.
CCF denotes a Cell Culture Flask. It is also known as a tissue culture flask. CCF is important for culturing of cells, transportation of cells, and media. There are a lot of different volumes of CCF used for research work. Commonly, used flask volume are 25 cm2, 75 cm2, 175 cm2, 225 cm2, 300 cm2. Commonly 75 cm2 CCF preferable for laboratory work. Cell contamination generally appeared during cell culture laboratory. Proper knowledge of CCF handling can minimize cross-contamination, which improves the quality and physiology of the cell. Rough handling of CCF during media transfer, passaging, scrapping will be responsible for the different vital issues. Mycoplasma contamination is one of them. Prompt and Improper pipetting during cell harvest and split from CCF may cause stressful conditions on cells and resulting in cell death. Scrapping of the cell for subculture or infection or cell count gently handles the CCF, corkscrew. Mild flame spark on corkscrew (CCF) by flame gun or gas burner helpful to safe the cell and flask environment. Covering the cork with Paraflim very much essential to save the cell. IPA (Isopropyl Alcohol) spray must be done before and after handling of CCF. After application of IPA, then CCF, media, FBS (Fetal Bovine Serum), tips, flame gun, trypsin other materials, and appliances allow entering into BCS (Biosafety Cabinet) for further processing. Some points should be bear in mind regarding CCF such as, is CCF allow pipettes, tissue scrapper, tissue spatula properly? Is CCF has marked on both sides? Is there any leakage? Is there any crake on cork? Is the bag of CCF tightly pack? Is the CCF clean (inside)? These points might be helpful for cell culture.
The cell suspension is nothing but suspension culture. It’s another type of cell culture where a small amount/volume of cells is permitted to grow in growth media forming suspension called cell suspension. If the cells are derived from other cultures or homogenized tissue, then use suspension culture. Both suspension culture and adherent culture are the same.
Cell counting was performed using a hemocytometer (Neubauer improved counting chamber, Precicolor HBG, Germany) or MacMaster slide and Trypan blue exclusion every 24 h (1,1 mixture of 0.2% Trypan blue in normal saline solution and sample). After placing the stock cell suspension on the hemocytometer and place a coverslip on it. Count cell of 4 (16 × 4) site, then the average of 4 sites of hemocytometer and count the total cell as = Average (number of the cell) × 10,000 × 2. Cell culture flask such as 25 cm2 contain 5 to 10 ml culture media, 75 cm2 contain 10 to 30 ml culture media, and 175 cm2 contain 40 to 150 ml culture media. One (1) cm2 need 90,000 cells likewise 75 cm2 need 75 × 90000/5 = 13,50,000 cells minimum. Viable cells are considered as unstained ones and while stained cells are considered as dead under the inverted microscope. Cell counts are important for monitoring cell health and proliferation rate, assessing immortalization or transformation, seeding cells for subsequent experiments, transfection or infection, and preparing for cell based assays. Cell counts must be accurate, consistent, and fast, particularly for quantitative measurements of cellular responses. Cell infection is required for virus propagation, bulk antigen production. MOI rate is very much essential in cell infection. There are three types of MOI commonly used in the laboratory such as 1 MOI, 0.1 MOI, 0.001 MOI where 1 MOI means one (1) virus can infect one (1) cell. 0.1 MOI denotes 10 cells infected by one (1) virus and one virus can infect 100 cells in 0.001 MOI. Generally, practice 0.1 MOI means one virus is enough to infect 10 cells.
Plaque forming units (pfu) is an assessing of the total number of infectious virus particles. It is ascertained by a plaque-forming assay. In the field of virology study, a plaque-forming unit (PFU) is a measurement of the number of particles capable of forming plaques per unit volume i.e. virus particles. It is a functional measurement rather than a measurement of the absolute quantity of particles: viral particles that are defective or which fail to infect their target cell will not produce a plaque and thus will not be counted. For instance, a solution of virus with a concentration of 1,000 PFU/μl indicates that 1 μl of the solution contains enough virus particles to produce 1000 infectious plaques in a monolayer cell, but no inference can be made about the relationship of pfu to the number of virus particles.
ELD50- Embryo Lethal Dosage. ELD50 unit is the amount of virus that will kill 50 percent of inoculated eggs.
EID50- Embryo Infective Dosage. EID50 unit is the amount of virus that will infect 50 percent of inoculated eggs.
Multiplicity of infection (MOI) is the average number of virus particles infecting each cell. MOI is related to pfu by the following formula: Multiplicity of infection (moi) = Plaque forming units (pfu) of virus used for infection/number of cells. For example, if 2x106 cells is infected by 50 ml of the virus with a titer of 108 pfu/ml. The moi will be 0.05*108/2*106 = 2.5. The fraction of cells that are not infected is P(0) = 1 - e−moi. To ensure 99% of cells are infected requires moi > 4.6. Assume the conditions used for plaque assay and TCID assay do not alter the expression of infectious virus. TCID50/ml and pfu/ml are related by pfu/ml = 0.7 * TCID50. As a working estimate, one can use pfu/ml = 0.5 * TCID50 [28].
CCID50: Cell culture infectious dose which will infect 50% of the cell.
TCID50 is the tissue culture infectious dose that will infect 50% if the cell monolayers are challenged with the defined inoculum. Two methods commonly used to calculate TCID50 (can also be used to calculate other types of 50% endpoint such EC50, IC50, and LD50) are a). Spearman-Karber [29] b). Reed-Muench method.
Plaque-based assays are the standard method used to determine virus concentration in terms of infectious dose. Viral plaque assays determine the number of plaque-forming units (pfu) in a virus sample, which is one measure of virus quantity. This assay is based on a microbiological method conducted in Petri dishes or multi-well plates like 6 well or 24 well etc. Specifically, a confluent monolayer of host cells is infected with the virus at varying dilutions and covered with a semi-solid medium, such as agar or carboxymethyl cellulose, to prevent the virus infection from spreading indiscriminately. A viral plaque is formed when a virus infects a cell within the fixed cell monolayer [30]. Virus quantification involves counting the number of viruses in a specific volume to determine the virus concentration. In research and development (R&D) based commercial and academic laboratories, the production of viral vaccines, recombinant proteins using viral vectors, viral antigens and clone screening, multiplicity of infection (MOI) optimization, and adaptation of methods to cell culture all require virus quantification. For quantification of virus incubated after infection at 37°C in a 5% CO2 incubator at 6, 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, and 72 h post-inoculation (hpi) based on the requirement to visualize plaques in wells [31, 32]. To quantify virus there are a lot of other methods used such as Focus forming assay (FFA), Endpoint dilution assay, Protein assays, Hemagglutination assay (HA), Bicinchoninic acid assay, Single radial immunodiffusion assay, Transmission electron microscopy (TEM).
Knowledge of splitting, media, trypsinization, cell handling is essential to harvest cells. Firstly, remove and discard the media from CCF. For 75 cm2 CCF, mild PBS wash is required before the application of warm trypsin or trypsinization process. Add trypsin (2–4 ml/75 cm2) then incubate as like trypsinization process. When detached cells appear then add 2–5 ml growth media (GM) to inactivate trypsin. Gently pipette to disperse the medium to ensure recovery of >95% of cells. Sometimes commercial trypsin inhibitor is added. Carefully centrifuge the collected cell suspension at 300–1000 X g for 5–10 min. Discard the supernatant and add GM at the required amount for the preparation of cell count. Split the cells after counting or go for further processes that need. There is a lot of problems that may be appeared like detachment difficulty of cells from culture flasks, cell adherence difficulty, insufficient attachment of cells, low viability of cells, clumping after detachment, damage of cell membrane, and cell death. The possible solutions to the above problems will be careful during the following such as a). Check the quality, date, and concentration of trypsin before use b). Be careful during antibiotic application if any c). Splitting, media replacement required before harvesting if cells are in stress d). Avoid vigorous pipetting and long centrifugation.
Routine cell and tissue culture according to good cell culture practice (GCCP) [33] should not require the use of antibiotics as they can never be relied on as a substitute for effective aseptic techniques. However, its use is still widespread e.g., OECD TG 432 [34] due to established routine procedures in many laboratories. Antibiotics are agents that may arrest or disrupt fundamental aspects of cell biology, and, while they are effective against prokaryotic cells (i.e. Bacteria), they are also capable of causing toxic effects in animal cells. Not surprisingly, antifungal agents, being directed at higher order, eukaryotic microorganisms, are likely to be more toxic to animal cell cultures. In addition, antibiotics often make it more difficult to detect microbial contamination. These obvious contraindications, the use of antibiotics in cell and tissue culture should be focused in two areas: a) Protection of materials at high risk of contamination such as tissues, organs, and primary cultures in cases where sterility cannot be guaranteed, and b) The positive selection of recombinant cell clones based on the expression of antibiotic resistance genes [33]. If antibiotics are needed, a justification for the use of antibiotics in the procedure is suggested.
Good laboratory setup is essential for cell culture as well as good laboratory practice is also essential for better and smooth work. The following discussion and points are very much important for a cell culture laboratory and are also supported by Maneesha et al. [35] and Coecke et al. [36].
Location and ideal layout with the purpose-built facility is the first priority. Room data sheet (RDS) in which available all the data of every facility, specification of the room define its location, a number of doors, windows, pass box, ventilator, light, air conditioner, fire alarm like everything present on that room permanently. Specification of instruments must be available at the working area that helps the laboratory personnel to operate it. Standard operating procedure (SOP) helps to do research/ laboratory work in a defined way to get a better outcome. Define the area of a room with a specific class and biosafety level by the standard of ISO, GMP. Define or specify works of laboratory personnel with defined working areas according to CDC, NIH-USA also beneficial for a good outcome. There are four biosafety levels based on hazard or pathogenicity or virulence of microorganism and toxicity of agents. The basic biosafety level known as biosafety level 1 (BSL-1). In this level generally very common research work done with easy protection. Normally in BSL-1 working with those organisms or agents which are not harmful to healthy person. In biosafety level 2 (BSL-2) working with those organisms or agents which is known as moderate-risk agents, and known as a potential threat to human resulting produce disease (by ingestion or through percutaneous or mucous membrane exposure) of varying severity. Generally, cell culture should be performed at BSL-2 laboratory. Sometimes the biosafety level depends on the type of cell line and working style. In biosafety level-3 (BSL-3) working with that agents which have the capability to transmit through air (aerosol transmission). BSL-3 agents may be indigenous or exotic, having potential threat to human, may cause serious health issue, and may be potentially lethal. Biosafety level-4 (BSL-4) deals with exotic agents that create life-threatening disease of an individual through infectious aerosols and for which no treatment is available. These organisms or exotic agents are restricted to high containment laboratories. The easily accessible facility of the emergency shower should be available in the laboratory area. Access control in laboratories should be helpful to maintain unwanted occurrences. A separate logbook is very much helpful for liquid nitrogen and CO2 management. Ventilation and pressure control like negative and positive pressure controlled area must be defined, HEPA filtered providing positive pressure to clean areas, is recommended where space and resources allow. Electricity room (uninterrupted power supply (UPS) units should be provided for essential equipment (class II cabinets, incubators, air filtration) and to allow cell culture procedures to be completed. Accountability for all the staff will provide a smooth working environment. Documentation, Training (Fumigation, 5 s, SOP, etc.) and Monitoring of staffs, Emergency service provider contract with the third party are essential for good laboratory management. Before receive and entering all the reagents, chemicals, and supplier’s documents must be checked by maintaining a logbook. For the management of inventory and documents should be established hard copy or electronic form that stored the information of materials, cells, suppliers, overall all the possible information. Staff safety is a vital issue. The primary concerns regarding safe management of liquid nitrogen storage are frostbite burns from skin contact with liquid nitrogen and asphyxiation due to exposure to low oxygen levels when nitrogen gas is released from vessels. Finally, all service personnel entering the laboratory should receive instruction in special laboratory hazards and any necessary procedures for working in clean areas e.g. gowning, hand disinfection. All the person needs to use a separate biohazard bag/bin to ensure safe hazard management. Like- Infectious non-sharp waste (incineration/deep burial)-Yellow bag; Plastics and sharps (chemical treatment/autoclaving/shredding/microwaving)- Blue bag; Infectious non-sharp waste (chemical treatment/autoclaving/microwaving)-Red bag; Incineration ash and solid chemical wastes (secure landfill)- Black bag.
During cell culture, laboratory personnel and researcher should follow up the cell routinely. Splitting of the cell depends on cell doubling number, cell type, pH level, media, and so many cell culture-related issues. There is a lot of challenge situation faced by laboratory workers. The most common problems that cause major issues in the laboratory may also ruin the running works are misidentification of cell line, Contamination of culture and media, Rough handling, Poor cell growth, Poor cell attachment, Improper trypsinization during harvesting, Improper cell count, Improper split ratio during the passage, Clumping of cell, Cell death. Incubation time, temperature, and CO2 level also have a great impact on cell culture as well as on subculture.
The routine follow-up of cell morphology is necessary. To maintain a good cell line routinely change of the medium is essential for the both proliferating or non-proliferating cells. The culture medium should be changed repeatedly in the case of proliferating cells compared to the non-proliferating one. The rate of cell growth, cell morphology and metabolism of cell indicates the urgency and time interval of medium change. For example, HeLa cells are rapidly growing transformed cells, in the case of HeLa cell the culture medium should be changed twice within 7 days, whereas for slowly growing non-transformed cells (like IMR-90 cells) the culture medium may be changed once in a week. Continuous cell lines, Chicken embryo fibroblast cell (CEFC), Embryonic cells and transformed cells develop quickly that’s why these cells need rapid sub-culture and altering the culture medium. While normal cells are grow slowly. Generally altering the medium depends on pH level. Immediately change whole medium when the pH level appeared 7.0, cells are stop proliferating at pH 6.5, and the cells may lose their durability and viability when the pH level drop in between 6.5 to 6.0. The drop rate of pH is commonly estimated for each and individual cell line with a selected culture medium. If the drop rate of pH is less than 0.1 units/day, that indicates no harm and no need to hurry to change the culture medium immediately. When the drop rate of pH is 0.4 units/day, that indicates the culture medium need to be changed immediately [13]. A laboratory person or a researcher can easily maintain cells by maintaining SOP of cell handling and culture procedure, by counting passaging time because 10–30% density of cell is standard but at 80–90% density cell should be split as well as cell count may be helpful in this regard. Must pay attention to media quality, color, clarity, foul smell results from infection of the cell. Cell health and cell concentration, appearance observed regular interval by bright field microscope with 20–60x magnification may help to maintain cells and eradicate clumping, detachment, apoptosis. Quality control (QC) documents, Certificate of Analysis (COA), Cell transportation SOP are crucial to maintaining cells. Logbook entry for all the daily activities like pH level daily basis, media condition, temperature, CO2 level, assigned peoples information, cell condition, passage number, all the information about the cell very much essential to maintain cell for either small or large scale work.
Mycoplasma contamination is a serious and widespread problem in cell culture. Mycoplasma is often passed from culture to culture and from lab to lab. Mycoplasma can ruin whole research if data collected from mycoplasma-infected cells or cultures. Among all the contaminants (biological) in the laboratory mycoplasma have the capability to spread rapidly and causes detrimental effect on cells because of their detection rate is very low as well as their serious impact on cell lines. In spite of the fact that mycoplasmas are actually microscopic organisms (like bacteria) but they have some particular characteristics that make them identical. Mycoplasmas can easily survive and multiply at high densities without producing any noticeable signs. They are very harmful to any cell culture. Mycoplasmas can easily alter the host cells’ metabolism and morphology, cause chromosomal aberrations and damage of cell that provoke cytopathic effects. Mycoplasma ought to be tested at least once a month is recommended in laboratory and research work. Two different testing methods, such as DAPI staining and PCR are helpful but a commercially available mycoplasma kit is also recommended for the detection [37]. A routine screening process might be helpful to eradicate mycoplasma contamination from the lab. The following points are essential to prevent mycoplasma issues [38]. a). Wearing personal protective equipment (PPE) during cell culture that includes a dedicated, clean lab coat and gloves b). Checking the COA, QC pass of cells’ origins c). Ensure proper sterilization d). Always clean the working area e). To avoid cross-contamination work with only one cell at a time f). Always ensure covering the media bottles and CCF. Do not use the hood for storage and work always within biosafety cabinet g). Should be cautious in the use of antibiotics because it is reported that antibiotics have no impact on mycoplasmas h). Maintain logs for record-keeping that help to identify possible contamination sources if needed i). SOP develop for routine mycoplasma screening.
A large scale of virus production is known as bulk antigen production. A Proper culture of the cell, passaging, infection of cell-based on required MOI by a specific virus, harvesting, filtration of the virus, QC test, and COA gives the final confirmation regarding the virus and the process. After formulation, dosing should be done with the help of bulk antigen that helps to develop proposed vaccine candidate based on reference manual, and guidelines.
CEF cell culture is widely used by researchers in the biopharmaceutical industry and veterinary vaccine production. The following steps should be maintaining chronologically to develop primary cell culture from the chicken embryo.
SPF eggs are incubated and collect the embryonated egg at 8–11 days (need base).
Cleaning the outside of egg by tincture of iodine, Cracking the egg into BSC.
Collect the embryo by forceps, place it into a sterile Petri dish, and chopping the body parts (embryo) with scissors.
Cut off head, wings, legs, remove the visceral parts and wash (PBS) rest of the body in Petri dish until clean the blood.
Chopping the clean body with scissors and gently pipette and aspirate by syringe.
Collect the suspension into a sterile falcon tube and perform mild centrifugation at 300 rpm for 5 min.
Add 0.25% trypsin EDTA to suspend the pellet by gentle pipetting (Recommendation: for 12 embryos add 10 ml trypsin and 10 ml PBS for suspension).
Centrifuge the suspension at 600 to 1000 rpm for 5 to 10 min (at 37°C).
Collect the supernatant into a new sterile falcon tube and filter it with double layer sterile gauze and collect it into a new tube and add 10 to 15 ml GM into it for 12 embryos. Generally, add GM two times (1:2) of collected cell/fluid.
Wash it by centrifugation at 10,000 rpm, 25°C for 10 min, and discard the supernatant. Then add GM to reconstitute and gently pipette. Repeat this step 2 times and collect the pellet (Suspected that 12 embryos produce 2 ml pellet).
Add 13 ml GM with the collected pellet (2 ml) and gently mix 15 ml cell suspension consider as a stock cell suspension.
Count the cell based on the stock with the help of a hemocytometer then split the incorporation of the cell with growth media that contain 10% FBS based on CCF measurement.
Observe the cell distribution within the CCF under an inverted microscope.
Place the CCF into a CO2 incubator at 5% level, pH 7.2 to 7.4, 37°C for overnight. Then observe the cell morphology under a microscope.
Nowadays application of cell culture is exceptionally essential in life science and medical science. Cell culture technique is an excellent tool its applications are [1, 39, 40] as a). Production of pharmaceutical biochemicals b). Embryological study (CEF cell culture) c). Recombinant biomaterials (rDNA) and vaccine manufacturing, testing of the drug, drug sensitivity, and cytotoxicity of cell d). Production of human and animal vaccines (primary chicken fibroblast cells e). Manufacturing of immunotherapy f). Production of different enzymes, hormones (synthetic), immunobiological (like monoclonal antibodies, interleukins, lymphokines), and anticancer agents g). Cell culture is an excellent way to teach cell biology study h). Production of agricultural products like milk, (cultured) meat, fragrances i). In the microbiological study (Virus propagation, virology) j). Genetic engineers and biotechnologist are utilizing it within their field of research k). The aging, toxic compound study, cell morphology, cell physiology, and the study of mutagenesis cell culture have great impact.
There are a lot of measures that should be taken to handle cells smoothly. Smooth and gentle handling of the cell gives better outcomes. An SOP must be defined clearly in the handling procedure of a cell. Clean area, BSL, pressure control of the cell culture room, personal hygiene, general laboratory management, gowning, skilled manpower can play a vital role in this regard. Generally, cell incubate at 36–37°C in a 5% CO2 sometimes CO2 level 4–10%, and time required based on cell types, research methodology. For the short preservation (few hours <2 hours) of the cell need normal freezing and for about day-long preservation required −20°C with growth media or cryoprotectant agent. Cryopreservation is required for the yearlong storage of cells. The temperature logbook is an essential document in the lab. Any fluctuation, problems in power supply, user entry of fridge/ cold room, and incubator are inevitably helpful to handle and maintain cells. Besides lock, access control or password system in laboratory, incubator, and fridge might be helpful in this regard. Resulting in easily identify the problems if any. Vigorous pipetting during cell harvesting, splitting cause cell damage sometimes causes cell death. A few toxic and harmful substances are eluted from the microfilters during sterilization. That’s why practicing the sterile technique strictly and selecting cultural instruments carefully. It is recommended that washing all the instruments with the culture medium immediately before performing cell culture. Nevertheless, other types of contamination happened from plastic instruments or trace elements, even in water that affects the cells in culture [11]. Viruses, bacteria, mycoplasma, and endotoxins contamination may appear due to rough handling and haphazard performance. Strict environmental control is necessary to check cross-contamination in cell culture [41].
Quality control (QC) is known as maintaining the quality and authenticity of anything related to the research or laboratory work like cell, media, PBS, Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), or RT-PCR report. That’s why the QC department, as well as personnel are important. Every life science researcher ought to know and aware of the current Good Manufacturing Practice (cGMP), QC process and system. QC, GMP, and cGMP have the same objectives and more or less same activities. In GMP and cGMP all are the followings clearly defined- Rules, regulations, and guidelines; good implementation; all aspects of the product’s lifecycle and manufacturing process; product development and raw materials selection to the final production process; testing; storage, and shipment. The worlds policy maker organizations like FDA, Medicines & Healthcare Regulatory Agency (MHRA), WHO, European Union (EUDRALEX)-UK, approved all the guidelines of cGMP. Recently GMP is prescribed as “cGMP”. The “c” stands for “current” as a reminder that all the techniques, systems, all the processes must be kept up-to-date to consent to the most recent regulations. [42]. cGMP guidelines ensure excellent quality at each step of work. It acts as a safeguard for the quality, purity, strength and identity of cells and related products. This guideline helps to construct a consolidated quality control and management system, helps to hold raw materials quality, helps to develop good SOPs, helps to a build a system of product quality investigation and deviation measurement, and take part in the building of reference laboratories for testing. The necessity of cGMPs are always keep in mind because it is very much important to establish QC. Numerous pharmaceutical companies are executing modern and comprehensive quality control systems and risk management system as a result they hold their quality above the average standards [43]. Quality control (QC) is employed in the GMP framework. Using a broad array of analytical techniques, the QA (Quality assurance) team will identify and quantify all the factors deemed critical for any specific product. Biological products require extensive analysis for characterization. There are some cations related to QC [44] such as-
identity (confirms correct material);
quantity (confirms dose parameter);
purity (confirms material has correct purity);
impurity (confirms product safety);
potency (confirms activity);
sterility including adventitious agents (confirms material is sterile).
Culturing techniques for CEF cells or BHK-21 or others is always challenging. The followings are the most important points by maintaining these points researchers or laboratory personnel easily can overcome any possible challenges. The points that need to pay attention such as a). Lab requirement is in the first, set up all the required materials, chemicals, instruments before the work or research b). Novice personnel should be avoided c). Skilled manpower and staff should be appointed for the work and as a trainer for new one d). Interpretation of work daily e). Establish a strong QC department f). Store all the true data and metadata because it is important to identify problems and also help to design a research g). Calibration of pH meter regular basis is mandatory and pH level follow up because cell health depends on it h). Need to take necessary precautions during culture media preparation i). Maintain and check the required CO2 percentage based on cell j). Incubation time and temperature vary from cell to cell and it may be vary based on research work k). Transportation process, medium, time, precautions should be describing in transportation SOP l). Pay attention during thawing of the cell because it causes stress on the cell resulting cell might be death m). More careful and be cautious during preservation of cells, changing of media, passaging, trypsinization, harvesting of cells, mycoplasma contamination, and antibiotics treatment (for bacterial contamination) because these are the fundamental steps in cell culture technology. A non-technical or unskilled or novice personnel can easily ruin all the effective work at a time during the above points. That’s why need to be more cautious about this n). Certificate of Analysis (COA) is essential for all the work like media preparation, pH level check, cell morphology, cell count, splitting, transportation, cell purchase or sell, and so on. It reduces the risk O). Based on international reference lab or manual SOP should be developed, SOP of how to prepare a good SOP and working guideline can minimize problems and it will take part to handle challenges. Current Good Manufacturing Practice (cGMP), Documentation of lab work, Training facility both for researchers and staff, Validation of work, calibration of instruments regularly can eradicate the problems and smoothly handle all the challenges.
Knowing the difference between a laboratory logbook and a laboratory notebook is very much effective to proceed with laboratory work. Logbook keeps details, usually in a tabulated format on handling and use of equipment, users, time of use, the purpose of use, and watched comments in case any. Other than, the research facility notebook or diary contains whole experimental details (for investigation and analysis), all the readings, results of any calculation, eventually all the supplementary data (graphs, spectra, or chromatograms) preserved in note book. Every research facility action related to the utilization of testing equipment, laboratory environmental records (temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, and exposure to light), weighing balance logs (analytical balance is the foremost used device in any research facility), material consumption, chemicals, details of suppliers and supplies are conserved as a proof record. Depending on the work nature vary the types of logbooks. Both notebooks and logs play a vital role in decision making or identify the problems or take part to fix the false result. During an audit, a logbook helps to convince the auditor because it provides evidence-based data. Periodically maintenance, operated by trained staff, calibration, and servicing of instruments increase the shelf life of the instrument, and these logs are stored as a proof document for safe work. Standard operating procedures (SOPs) based work has the same impact on research. On the other hand, training is significant for the advancement of the skills and knowledge of laboratory staff. In a training log the topic of training, date and time, name of trainer and trainees, effectiveness, and also the performance of individuals is reserved [34, 45]. Does every detail clarify in SOP like how to operate an instrument, test, or a machine? How will be eligible to perform? How to monitor (lab, work, test, etc.) and keep the record? How to calibrate and when? Who certifies and how? How to use chemicals? In a word SOP is fundamental. It is an ideal practice to have procedures for maintaining and controlling laboratory stocks which are clearly defined in specific SOP.
In recent years’ importance and the application of cell culture cannot explain in a word. Cell culture technology is an extensively accepted technique in the field of molecular biology study and life science research. Due to high feasibility, cell culture practices highly demandable in biopharmaceutical works. This document summarizes the theoretical background, basic concepts regarding cell culture (animal cells, BHK-21, CEF cell culture). The above discussion gives an ideal concept to understand the whole process of cell culture technique, its applications and it helps to build constructive problem-solving confidence related to cell culture along with inspiration. Conclusively, it is said that all the steps regarding cell culture give a fundamental idea of cell culture.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
Self-funded. This chapter did not receive any grant from funding agencies.
ATCC | American Type Culture Collection |
BHK | Baby Hamster Kidney |
BME | Basal Medium |
BOD | Biological Oxygen Demand |
BSC | Biosafety Cabinet |
BSL | Biosafety Level |
CCF | Cell Culture Flask |
CCID50 | Cell Culture Infectious Dose 50 |
CDC | Center for Disease Control and Prevention |
CEF | Chicken Embryo Fibroblast |
cGMP | Current Good Manufacturing Practice |
CHO | Chinese Hamster Ovary |
COA | Certificate of Analysis |
CPAs | Cryoprotective Agents |
DAPI | 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole |
DMEM | Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle’s Medium |
DMSO | Dimethyl Sulphoxide |
DT | Doubling Time (Population) |
EC50 | Effective Concentration |
EDTA | Ethylenediaminetetraacetic Acid |
EID50 | Embryo Infective Dosage |
ELD50 | Embryo Lethal Dosage |
ELISA | Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay |
EMEM | Eagle’s Minimum Essential Medium |
FBS | Fetal Bovine Serum |
FDA | Food and Drug Administration |
FFA | Focus forming Assay |
FMD | Foot and Mouth Disease |
GCCP | Good Cell Culture Practice |
GM | Growth Media |
GMP | Good Manufacturing Practice |
HA | Hemagglutination Assay |
hpi | hours post-inoculation |
IC50 | Concentration of an Inhibitor |
IMDM | Iscove’s Modified Dulbecco’s Medium |
IPA | Isopropyl Alcohol |
ISO | International Organization for Standardization |
LD50 | Lethal Dose 50 |
MHRA | Medicines & Healthcare Regulatory Agency |
MOI | Multiplicity of Infection |
NIH | National Institute of Health, USA |
OECD TG | Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development Test Guide Line |
PBS | Phosphate Buffer Saline |
PCR | Polymerase Chain Reaction |
PDL | Population Doubling Level |
PFU | Plaque-Forming Unit |
PPE | Personal Protective Equipment |
QA | Quality Assurance |
QC | Quality Control |
R&D | Research and Development |
rDNA | Recombinant Deoxyribonucleic Acid |
RDS | Room Data Sheet |
ROS | Reactive Oxygen Species |
rpm | Rotation Per Minute |
RT-PCR | Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction |
SOP | Standard Operating Procedures |
SPF | Specific Pathogen Free |
TCID50 | Tissue Culture Infectious Dose 50 |
TEM | Transmission Electron Microscopy |
UPS | Uninterrupted Power Supply |
WHO | World Health Organization |
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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S. Lisar, Rouhollah Motafakkerazad, Mosharraf M. Hossain and Ismail M. M. Rahman",authors:[{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman"}]},{id:"53211",doi:"10.5772/66416",title:"Biofloc Technology (BFT): A Tool for Water Quality Management in Aquaculture",slug:"biofloc-technology-bft-a-tool-for-water-quality-management-in-aquaculture",totalDownloads:16872,totalCrossrefCites:61,totalDimensionsCites:142,abstract:"Biofloc technology (BFT) is considered the new “blue revolution” in aquaculture. Such technique is based on in situ microorganism production which plays three major roles: (i) maintenance of water quality, by the uptake of nitrogen compounds generating in situ microbial protein; (ii) nutrition, increasing culture feasibility by reducing feed conversion ratio (FCR) and a decrease of feed costs; and (iii) competition with pathogens. The aggregates (bioflocs) are a rich protein-lipid natural source of food available in situ 24 hours per day due to a complex interaction between organic matter, physical substrate, and large range of microorganisms. This natural productivity plays an important role recycling nutrients and maintaining the water quality. The present chapter will discuss some insights of the role of microorganisms in BFT, main water quality parameters, the importance of the correct carbon-to-nitrogen ratio in the culture media, its calculations, and different types, as well as metagenomics of microorganisms and future perspectives.",book:{id:"5355",slug:"water-quality",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality"},signatures:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho Emerenciano, Luis Rafael Martínez-\nCórdova, Marcel Martínez-Porchas and Anselmo Miranda-Baeza",authors:[{id:"146126",title:"Dr.",name:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho",middleName:null,surname:"Emerenciano",slug:"mauricio-gustavo-coelho-emerenciano",fullName:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho Emerenciano"},{id:"186970",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Porchas",slug:"marcel-martinez-porchas",fullName:"Marcel Martínez-Porchas"},{id:"186971",title:"Prof.",name:"Anselmo",middleName:null,surname:"Miranda-Baeza",slug:"anselmo-miranda-baeza",fullName:"Anselmo Miranda-Baeza"},{id:"195101",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Córdoba",slug:"luis-rafael-martinez-cordoba",fullName:"Luis Rafael Martínez-Córdoba"}]},{id:"62247",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77315",title:"Application of Biosorption for Removal of Heavy Metals from Wastewater",slug:"application-of-biosorption-for-removal-of-heavy-metals-from-wastewater",totalDownloads:7569,totalCrossrefCites:71,totalDimensionsCites:136,abstract:"Fresh water accounts for 3% of water resources on the Earth. Human and industrial activities produce and discharge wastes containing heavy metals into the water resources making them unavailable and threatening human health and the ecosystem. Conventional methods for the removal of metal ions such as chemical precipitation and membrane filtration are extremely expensive when treating large amounts of water, inefficient at low concentrations of metal (incomplete metal removal) and generate large quantities of sludge and other toxic products that require careful disposal. Biosorption and bioaccumulation are ecofriendly alternatives. These alternative methods have advantages over conventional methods. Abundant natural materials like microbial biomass, agro-wastes, and industrial byproducts have been suggested as potential biosorbents for heavy metal removal due to the presence of metal-binding functional groups. Biosorption is influenced by various process parameters such as pH, temperature, initial concentration of the metal ions, biosorbent dose, and speed of agitation. Also, the biomass can be modified by physical and chemical treatment before use. The process can be made economical by regenerating and reusing the biosorbent after removing the heavy metals. Various bioreactors can be used in biosorption for the removal of metal ions from large volumes of water or effluents. The recent developments and the future scope for biosorption as a wastewater treatment option are discussed.",book:{id:"6137",slug:"biosorption",title:"Biosorption",fullTitle:"Biosorption"},signatures:"Sri Lakshmi Ramya Krishna Kanamarlapudi, Vinay Kumar\nChintalpudi and Sudhamani Muddada",authors:[{id:"238433",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudhamani",middleName:null,surname:"Muddada",slug:"sudhamani-muddada",fullName:"Sudhamani Muddada"},{id:"244937",title:"Mrs.",name:"S L Ramyakrishna",middleName:null,surname:"Kanamarlapudi",slug:"s-l-ramyakrishna-kanamarlapudi",fullName:"S L Ramyakrishna Kanamarlapudi"},{id:"244938",title:"Mr.",name:"Vinay Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Chintalpudi",slug:"vinay-kumar-chintalpudi",fullName:"Vinay Kumar Chintalpudi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"69568",title:"Water Quality Parameters",slug:"water-quality-parameters",totalDownloads:9865,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:"Since the industrial revolution in the late eighteenth century, the world has discovered new sources of pollution nearly every day. So, air and water can potentially become polluted everywhere. Little is known about changes in pollution rates. The increase in water-related diseases provides a real assessment of the degree of pollution in the environment. This chapter summarizes water quality parameters from an ecological perspective not only for humans but also for other living things. According to its quality, water can be classified into four types. Those four water quality types are discussed through an extensive review of their important common attributes including physical, chemical, and biological parameters. These water quality parameters are reviewed in terms of definition, sources, impacts, effects, and measuring methods.",book:{id:"7718",slug:"water-quality-science-assessments-and-policy",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality - Science, Assessments and Policy"},signatures:"Nayla Hassan Omer",authors:null},{id:"58138",title:"Water Pollution: Effects, Prevention, and Climatic Impact",slug:"water-pollution-effects-prevention-and-climatic-impact",totalDownloads:21483,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:"The stress on our water environment as a result of increased industrialization, which aids urbanization, is becoming very high thus reducing the availability of clean water. Polluted water is of great concern to the aquatic organism, plants, humans, and climate and indeed alters the ecosystem. The preservation of our water environment, which is embedded in sustainable development, must be well driven by all sectors. While effective wastewater treatment has the tendency of salvaging the water environment, integration of environmental policies into the actor firms core objectives coupled with continuous periodical enlightenment on the present and future consequences of environmental/water pollution will greatly assist in conserving the water environment.",book:{id:"6157",slug:"water-challenges-of-an-urbanizing-world",title:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World",fullTitle:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World"},signatures:"Inyinbor Adejumoke A., Adebesin Babatunde O., Oluyori Abimbola\nP., Adelani-Akande Tabitha A., Dada Adewumi O. and Oreofe Toyin\nA.",authors:[{id:"101570",title:"MSc.",name:"Babatunde Olufemi",middleName:null,surname:"Adebesin",slug:"babatunde-olufemi-adebesin",fullName:"Babatunde Olufemi Adebesin"},{id:"187738",title:"Dr.",name:"Adejumoke",middleName:"Abosede",surname:"Inyinbor",slug:"adejumoke-inyinbor",fullName:"Adejumoke Inyinbor"},{id:"188818",title:"Dr.",name:"Abimbola",middleName:null,surname:"Oluyori",slug:"abimbola-oluyori",fullName:"Abimbola Oluyori"},{id:"188819",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tabitha",middleName:null,surname:"Adelani-Akande",slug:"tabitha-adelani-akande",fullName:"Tabitha Adelani-Akande"},{id:"208501",title:"Dr.",name:"Adewumi",middleName:null,surname:"Dada",slug:"adewumi-dada",fullName:"Adewumi Dada"},{id:"208502",title:"Ms.",name:"Toyin",middleName:null,surname:"Oreofe",slug:"toyin-oreofe",fullName:"Toyin Oreofe"}]},{id:"45422",title:"Urban Waterfront Regenerations",slug:"urban-waterfront-regenerations",totalDownloads:14e3,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"3560",slug:"advances-in-landscape-architecture",title:"Advances in Landscape Architecture",fullTitle:"Advances in Landscape Architecture"},signatures:"Umut Pekin Timur",authors:[{id:"165480",title:"Dr.",name:"Umut",middleName:null,surname:"Pekin Timur",slug:"umut-pekin-timur",fullName:"Umut Pekin Timur"}]},{id:"24941",title:"Tsunami in Makran Region and Its Effect on the Persian Gulf",slug:"tsunami-in-makran-region-and-its-effect-on-the-persian-gulf",totalDownloads:7354,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"406",slug:"tsunami-a-growing-disaster",title:"Tsunami",fullTitle:"Tsunami - A Growing Disaster"},signatures:"Mohammad Mokhtari",authors:[{id:"52451",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mokhtari",slug:"mohammad-mokhtari",fullName:"Mohammad Mokhtari"}]},{id:"66307",title:"Bio-hydrogen and Methane Production from Lignocellulosic Materials",slug:"bio-hydrogen-and-methane-production-from-lignocellulosic-materials",totalDownloads:2931,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"This chapter covers the information on bio-hydrogen and methane production from lignocellulosic materials. Pretreatment methods of lignocellulosic materials and the factors affecting bio-hydrogen production, both dark- and photo-fermentation, and methane production are addressed. Last but not least, the processes for bio-hydrogen and methane production from lignocellulosic materials are discussed.",book:{id:"7608",slug:"biomass-for-bioenergy-recent-trends-and-future-challenges",title:"Biomass for Bioenergy",fullTitle:"Biomass for Bioenergy - Recent Trends and Future Challenges"},signatures:"Apilak Salakkam, Pensri Plangklang, Sureewan Sittijunda, Mallika Boonmee Kongkeitkajorn, Siriporn Lunprom and Alissara Reungsang",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"12",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82316",title:"Stakeholder Integration and Participatory Processes as Part of an Ecosystem-Based and Integrated Natural Hazard Risk Management",slug:"stakeholder-integration-and-participatory-processes-as-part-of-an-ecosystem-based-and-integrated-nat",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99516",abstract:"Participatory processes have been receiving growing attention in recent decades, especially in the environmental field. There is no unique way for designing and managing a participatory process: different types of integrating stakeholders and communities have been applied, encompassing different scopes. Participatory processes become necessary when addressing complex environmental challenges, which require flexible and transparent approaches embracing diverse knowledge and values. Integrated risk management, including Ecosystem-based solutions for Disaster Risk Reduction (Eco-DRR), is one example of such a challenge, being a joint responsibility of public institutions at different levels of public management and of the private sector. The project GreenRisk4ALPs is an example of how including local experts can be translated into practice. A stakeholder network analysis was carried out, which provided the basis to select the stakeholders involved in the subsequent participatory processes and to identify conflicts and interests related to Eco-DRR. Building upon this analysis, Rapid Risk management Appraisal workshops were carried out in different study areas to jointly analyze the strengths and weaknesses related to current risk management practices. Overall, the involvement of stakeholders from the beginning allowed to respond to their needs contributing to the improvement of risk management strategies in the Alpine Region.",book:{id:"10812",title:"Protective forests as Ecosystem-based solution for Disaster Risk Reduction (ECO-DRR)",coverURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/cover.jpg"},signatures:"Silvia Cocuccioni, Matthias Plörer and Michael Kirchner"},{id:"81027",title:"Evaluating Waste-to-Energy Technologies as a Waste Management Solution for Uganda",slug:"evaluating-waste-to-energy-technologies-as-a-waste-management-solution-for-uganda",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101904",abstract:"Currently, the world generates 2.01 billion tonnes of waste annually and this is expected to increase to 3.401 billion tonnes of waste by 2050. The continual generation of waste is at the forefront of combating climate change because the waste generated is associated with GHG emissions among other environmental concern. Literature reports that developing countries are lagging the developed countries in waste management and yet these regions are expected to account for most waste generated by 2050. This chapter focuses on the application of Waste-to-Energy (WTE) Techniques in Uganda (developing country) as a way of managing waste, and recommends policies that the Government of Uganda could adopt from the UK to successfully implement these initiatives. The WTE technologies analysed are landfill gas recovery, anaerobic digestion, incineration, pyrolysis, and gasification. The chapter also reviews the current solid waste situation in Uganda with a comparative analysis of the technologies. Since Uganda is a low-income country, it is advised that the country enters Public-Private Partnerships where the developers build and own the technologies. The assessment is informed by literature and personal judgement. Recommendations are made to the GOU on how best to support stakeholders of WTE initiatives further areas of study are highlighted.",book:{id:"11083",title:"Hazardous Waste Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11083.jpg"},signatures:"Charlene Nagawa"},{id:"82297",title:"The Climate Change-Agriculture Nexus in Drylands of Ethiopia",slug:"the-climate-change-agriculture-nexus-in-drylands-of-ethiopia",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103905",abstract:"The objective of this chapter is to review the impacts of climate change on dryland agriculture and its possible solutions. Climate change poses significant challenges on dryland agriculture in Ethiopia. In turn, agriculture (malpractice) has contributed to climate change by emitting GHGs such as CO2, CH4 and N2O. Globally, agriculture’s contribution takes 14% of CO2, 47% of CH4 and 84% of N2O. Agriculture contributes to 80% of total Ethiopia’s GHGs emission: CH4, N2O and CO2, respectively, contributed to 72, 15 and 14% to aggregated emission. To soothe the impacts of climate change, countries should act now differently together to stabilize the fractions of GHGs in the atmosphere at a level that would also stabilize the climate system. Adopting climate-compatible agricultural development strategies can enable to reduce agricultural GHGs emissions or sequestration enhanced while maintaining and even increasing food supply. It is understood that combating desertification, land degradation and mitigating the effects of drought are the basis for accelerated sustainable development, poverty reduction and ensuring food security in Ethiopia. Climate-smart dryland agriculture can maintain livestock and crop productivity, reduces GHGs emission, lessens the impact of climate change and reduces the trade-offs among agricultural development to fulfill food security, climate change and ecosystem degradation.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Zenebe Mekonnen"},{id:"82124",title:"Assessment of Diversity, Growth Characteristics and Aboveground Biomass of Tree Species in Selected Urban Green Areas of Osogbo, Osun State",slug:"assessment-of-diversity-growth-characteristics-and-aboveground-biomass-of-tree-species-in-selected-u",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104982",abstract:"This study assessed the abundance and diversity of trees, estimated the growth characteristics and determined the aboveground biomass of the trees within three selected green areas, namely Riparian Corridor was abbreviated as Riparian corridor (RC), Industrial sites (IS), and Residential sites (RS) in Osogbo, Southwestern Nigeria. Species Diversity Index, Relative Dominance, and Importance Value Index of trees were also estimated. Trees\\' diversity and ranking were determined using the R statistical package. A total number of 124 tree stems were enumerated and (RC), (IS), and (RS) had 49, 38, and 37 tree stems belonging to 27, 18 and 20 species respectively. Albizia zygia (Mimosaceae) was the most abundant species in both RC and IS, while Milicia excelsa (Moraceae) was the most abundant in the RS. Growth variables were recorded as 1.18 m2, 5.01 m2, and 11.06 m2 (basal area), and 13.49 m3, 64.03 m3 and 122.39 m3 (volume) for RC, IS, and RS, respectively. The highest mean aboveground biomass was recorded in the RS (28325.20±7639.57 Kg C ha−1). There was no significant difference (P≥ 0.01) between the aboveground biomass of RC and IS but a significant difference (P≥ 0.01) existed between the aboveground biomass of RC and RS. There is a continuous transition of the urban forest.",book:{id:"11457",title:"Forest Degradation Under Global Change",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11457.jpg"},signatures:"Omolara Aremu, Olusola O. Adetoro and Olusegun Awotoye"},{id:"81999",title:"Climate Change, Rural Livelihoods, and Human Well-Being: Experiences from Kenya",slug:"climate-change-rural-livelihoods-and-human-well-being-experiences-from-kenya",totalDownloads:17,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104965",abstract:"Over the next few decades, climate change is set to fuel the existing degradation of ecosystems across Africa, leading to dramatic consequences for poor rural populations that depend largely on agriculture and fishing for their livelihoods. This chapter draws on the findings of a study that explored how climate change affects the livelihoods and ultimately the well-being of farming and fishing households in a remote rural area in Kenya and discusses the coping strategies adopted by these communities. Understanding how climate change impacts people’s livelihoods is important as a precursor to assist communities to adapt to and cope with the adverse effects of climate change. The results pointed to relatively wide utilization of traditional knowledge in coping strategies. Conversely, robust modern technologies for forecasting weather patterns remain under-utilized among the target population. The chapter concludes with recommendations to capitalize on and strengthen the existing coping strategies of the affected communities.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"André J. Pelser and Rujeko Samanthia Chimukuche"},{id:"81863",title:"Exploiting the Attributes of Biocontrol Agent (Neochetina bruchi) as a Potential Ecosystem Engineer’s",slug:"exploiting-the-attributes-of-biocontrol-agent-neochetina-bruchi-as-a-potential-ecosystem-engineer-s",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104775",abstract:"The biodiversity of lakes is continuously declining and diverse communities are being substituted by monoculture of invasive Eichhornia crassipes, resulting in a slew of environmental cascade effects. The ability of the Neochetina bruchi to self-perpetuate is a desirable aspect of biological control since it decreases the population to a reasonable level, making the approach more sustainable. N. bruchi is often referred to as “ecological engineers” because of the number of services it provides to the environment and enables herbicide application to be substantially reduced. Despite the presence of highly effective weevils against this weed, its effect on water hyacinth in association with the nutrients present in sites, is likely to vary with levels of disturbance caused by natural and anthropogenic factors. Understanding the aspects that determine the performance of these eco-engineers as valuable management tools will help to guide future endeavors. Our objective is to better comprehend their utility and limitations, along with critical knowledge gaps, to further enhance future applications.",book:{id:"10763",title:"Biodiversity of Ecosystems",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10763.jpg"},signatures:"Prerna Gupta and Sadhna Tamot"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:35},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:16,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:4,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"38",type:"subseries",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713"},editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",slug:"meng-chuan-ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",slug:"olga-anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. 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