Health risks that may influence student achievement.
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IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
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\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
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\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
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\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
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\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
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\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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However, research evidence reveals a significant relationship between academic achievement and the health status of students. Health problems such as vision and oral health problems, asthma, teen pregnancy, malnutrition, obesity, chronic stress and inattention and hyperactivity disorders and risk-taking behaviour such as aggression and violence, unsafe sexual activity, unhealthy eating, physical inactivity and substance use are associated with low scholastic performance [1]. Considering that health problems have a significant influence on the overall performance of students, there is a need to look at the various health determinants and how they affect students. Identifying health factors that impact student performance is essential because of the relationship between health and academic performance. This chapter therefore will analyse the complex relationship that exists between the various health problems and academic achievement.
To understand the relationship between health and academic achievement, it is worthwhile to understand the concept of health. Most school-based health intervention strategies have been informed by a limited perspective of health as a concept. Health intervention strategies have tended to focus on the so-called ‘pathogenic’ approach by emphasising on the treatment of diseases. This is evidenced by a proliferation of school-based clinics that focus mainly on treating diseases. However, the World Health Organisation (WHO) asserted that health is not merely the absence of diseases, but a complete state of well-being. To this effect, various theories and models have been postulated in trying to define health as a complex concept. One interesting theory is the theory of Salutogenesis postulated by Antonovsky in 1917 and later advanced by Lindstrom in 2010. The theory hypothesises that health is a continuum that focuses on the relationship between health, stress and coping [2]. The theory comprehends health holistically; that is, health is more than the absence of illness. This chapter looks at the concept of health from this broad view in establishing the link between the various aspects of health and scholastic performance.
The World Health Organisation in 1986 asserted health is created and lived by people within the settings of their everyday life; where they learn, work, play and love. This argument was also raised during the Bangkok Charter for Health Promotion where the setting-based approach to health promotion was advocated [3]. Therefore, schools need to come up with health intervention strategies and provide healthy environments for students. School health services, which comprise components such as health services, health education, healthy environment, physical activity programmes, counselling, psychology, social services, nutrition services, improving employee well-being and family-society involvement approaches, are said to contribute to the academic performance of students in various ways [4]. In this regard, the Institute of Medicine concluded that there is a need to ‘
The search was done in three stages. Firstly, the researchers did an intuitive search on the Internet using keywords that include student health, academic achievement, health interventions, health promotion, universities and colleges. The search was done via the Health InterNetwork Access to Research Initiative (HINARI), PubMed, Scopus, MEDLINE and Google Scholar. The authors also did a manual search on specific peer-reviewed medical journals that focus on health promotion (Journal of School Health, Journal of American College Health, Health Promotion International, Journal of Health Communication and Health Education Research). Secondly, grey literature was identified by searching websites and organisations currently engaged in health promotion efforts such as the World Health Organisation, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Jed Foundation and Education Development Centre, the National Centre for the Dissemination of Disability Research, National Alliance on Mental Illness and the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention’s College and the Washington-based Institute of Medicine. Lastly, the author reviewed reference lists within individual publications to ensure an exhaustive search. The articles were evaluated for their methodological rigour and quality of evidence, and authority.
Health is arguably one of society’s most important values and has been prioritised as one of the key objectives of the sustainable development goals. Many people have regarded health as one of the most precious values in life. Health therefore should be protected and enhanced as much as possible. Achieving health is important because when people are healthy, their families, communities and countries benefit. Society should make the health of especially young people a priority because they are the future workers and leaders. There is need for an understanding of the various factors that influence health when addressing health concerns of society. However, health is a complex and elusive concept, and there has not been an absolute consensus on the definitions of health. It is one is the concepts which has often been taken for granted. One of the reasons why health is difficult to define is that it permeates different disciplines (e.g., medical sociology, health psychology and medical demography) and it is imbued with political, medical, social, economic and spiritual components.
Health is an old-age concept that has been evolving over time. The concept of health first appeared in Old English literature as
However, the definition that was proposed by WHO in 1947 has come under a lot of criticism due to several reasons; chief among them being that health cannot be considered to be a state due to its dynamic nature, for instance, a person’s health can change at any moment in time. A person can suddenly develop a headache at any time and they can heal a few minutes later. The definition also does not address the spiritual aspect of health. The spiritual aspect is also an important component of health because it incorporates five dimensions of health that are values and beliefs, sense of fulfilment, wholeness in life, human spiritual interaction and God or some form of controlling power. Another criticism stems from the fact that the issue of
There have been modifications on the original definition that was proposed by WHO in 1948. WHO made some modifications on the definition during its first International Conference on Health Promotion held in Ottawa, Canada, in 1986, which saw the drafting of the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion. WHO redefined health from a broader perspective:
This is a more helpful definition which resonates with recent theories that attempt to define health. One of the most interesting theories that offer helpful solutions in defining health is the theory of Salutogenesis that has been also evolving over time. The theory was postulated by Antonovsky in 1987 and later advanced by Lindström in 2010. The term Salutogenesis was coined by Antonovsky to describe health as a holistic concept. It posits that health is a continuum that focuses on the relationship between health, stress and coping. The theory comprehends health holistically; that is, health is more than the absence of illness. In the health promotion context, the term Salutogenesis is used to describe approaches which focus on factors that support human health and well-being, rather than those that focus on factors that cause disease. Fundamentally, the theory forms the opposite to the hitherto dominating concept of pathogenesis, which examines the causes of illness. The theory emphasises that quality of life or well-being is determined by various factors such as cure, protection, disease prevention, health education and health promotion. Lindstrom used the
The World Health Organisation proposes three dimensions of health, which are mental, physical and social health (see Figure 1). This view of health has been adopted by many professional organisations. For example, the American Occupational Therapy Association (AOTA) defines health as:
Dimensions of health.
It is interesting to note that the issue of well-being or wellness features a lot in the proposed definitions of health. It seems there is now more emphasis on wellness than health. However, the difference between health and wellness has not been adequately clarified in literature. In fact, the terms health and wellness have been viewed as near synonymous and have been used interchangeably in most instances. It is therefore important to provide clarity on the relationship between these concepts, especially considering the increasing popularity and use of the term wellness in designing school-based health interventions. Most school-based health promotion initiatives today often prefer to use the term wellness instead of health, hence the popularity of the term ‘wellness centres’ in schools and universities.
Wellness can be defined as a lifestyle that promotes health. This entails that for one to achieve total well-being, they have to lead a lifestyle that promotes physical, mental and social health. The Pacific Northwest Foundation believes that wellness is much more than just a state of physical health and it encompasses emotional stability, clear thinking, the ability to love, create, embrace change, exercise intuition and experience a continuing sense of spirituality [11]. This entails that health is an active process of becoming aware of and making choices towards a more successful existence. These choices mean that individuals have considered a variety of options and select those that seem to be in their best interest. Academic achievement and general success in life is therefore determined by each individual to be their personal collection of accomplishments for their life.
Wellness is multidimensional. A popular model adopted by many university, corporate and public health programmes encompasses various dimensions that include social, occupational, spiritual, physical, intellectual and emotional. The National Wellness Institute recognises eight ‘dimensions’, or essential life areas which collectively comprise the wellness (well-being) of all human beings. The eight dimensions of wellness proposed by The National Wellness Institute are:
spiritual,
emotional,
intellectual,
physical,
cultural,
occupational,
social,
environmental and
precepts for wellness [12].
Some dimensions of health can be measurable at a specific point in time. For example, blood pressure, depression and sugar levels can be measured at specific intervals to determine someone’s health. However, an unhealthy individual can achieve well-being. For example, someone with HIV, chronic cancer or diabetes can be well if they practise a healthy lifestyle. Conversely, an individual does not have to be well to be healthy. For example, an HIV-free individual can engage in unhealthy lifestyle such as smoking or excessive alcohol intake.
The issue of wellness is emphasised in the definition by WHO and in the Salutogenesis theory. Therefore, it is clear that wellness is an emerging concept within the health promotion context and it is an important attribute of health. It is also clear that the concept of health has been evolving over time. Previously, there has been a medical dichotomy separating health from illness, and health was seen from a traditional pathogenic approach. This view saw health as the absence of diseases or other infirmities. The World Health Organisation attempted to change this line of thinking by proposing that health is a complete state of well-being. However, as discussed previously in this chapter, this definition was also criticised, and as a result, WHO came up with a broader definition that has been authenticated by theory. This broader view of health from the definition proposed by WHO and the Salutogenesis theory by Antonovsky and Lindstrom will be helpful in determining the various health dimensions that affect students’ academic achievement. As mentioned earlier on, it seems learning institutions are using a narrow approach in promoting health among student. Most schools especially in the developed world do not have comprehensive health promotion strategies and they tend to employ the ‘pathogenic’ approach which is more reactive than proactive. This is characterised by the presence of student clinics for the treatment of diseases, injuries and other forms of ailments. As discussed later in this chapter, there is a need to come up with school-based interventions that address the overall health and wellness of students. Moreover, these interventions should be more proactive in addressing students’ health needs.
Academic achievement, also referred as academic performance, is the outcome of education, the extent to which a student, teacher or institution has achieved their educational goals. Academic achievement represents performance outcomes that indicate the extent to which a person has accomplished specific goals that were the focus of activities in instructional environments that include schools, colleges and universities. School systems mostly define cognitive goals that either apply across multiple subject areas such as critical thinking or include the acquisition of knowledge and understanding in a specific intellectual domain such as numeracy, literacy, science or history, among others. Academic achievement, therefore, should be considered to be a multifaceted construct covering multiple domains of learning [13].
Academic achievement is commonly measured by examinations or continuous assessment. There is, however, no general agreement on how it is best tested or which aspects are most important. Some of the yardsticks that have been used to measure academic achievement include procedural knowledge such as skills or declarative knowledge such as facts. Among the many criteria that indicate academic achievement, there are very general indicators such as knowledge acquired in an educational system, more curricular-based criteria such as grades or performance on an educational achievement test, and cumulative indicators of academic achievement such as educational degrees and certificates.
Individual differences in academic performance have been linked to differences in intelligence and personality. Students with higher mental ability as demonstrated by IQ tests and those who are higher in conscientiousness (linked to effort and achievement motivation) tend to achieve highly in academic settings. Although the primary goal of educational institutions is to achieve higher standards in terms of academic performance, research shows that academic achievement is influenced by multiple factors. Factors such as learning environments, parent’s academic socialisation and extra-curricular activities have a positive relationship with academic performance. Health has been seen as one of the key factors that influence academic performance. The importance of health on academic achievement was emphasised by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) by stating that ‘CDC recognizes that the academic success of … youth is strongly linked with their health. In turn, academic success is an excellent indicator for the overall well-being of youth, and is a primary predictor and determinant of adult health outcomes’ [14].
Research evidence reveals that students with poor health have a higher probability of school failure, grade retention and dropout. Previous studies found that the health services provided at school can alleviate the problem of absenteeism, late-coming and undisciplined student behaviour, and increase graduation rate. However, the relationship between student health and academic success is complex because health is a broad concept which is complex to define. Previous research has found some significant relationship between specific attributes of health and academic achievement. For example, previous research found an association between nutrition and physical activity with higher academic performance [15]. Overweight and hypertension are associated with decreased cognitive function, and overweight is associated with poorer school performance [16]. In contrast, higher levels of physical activity have been associated with better cognitive function, such as enhanced concentration and memory [17]. Results of a randomised control trial carried out in 2011 demonstrated that overweight students randomised to a 13-week exercise program exhibited dose-response benefits of exercise on executive function and mathematics achievement as well as preliminary evidence of enhanced brain activity measured via functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) [18].
In a longitudinal study carried out in the United States of America, the findings revealed that after accounting for family characteristics, adolescents with poorer general health were found to be less likely than healthier students to graduate from high school on time and attend college or post-secondary education [19]. The California’s state education system published an extensive report linking academic achievement and health [20]. A study by researchers at the University of Washington found that Washington state schools with a lower prevalence of substance abuse also had higher scores on the Washington Assessment of Student Learning (WASL) [21].
This association between health and academic achievement was illustrated in more detail in a study that was carried out among our own Washington youth in 2009. The study examined the relationship using data collected from Washington state students who took the Healthy Youth Survey. The survey took place in classrooms and had questions about a variety of health factors and academic indicators, such as what grades the student usually gets in school. Students were classified as being at ‘academic risk’ if they said they usually get Cs, Ds or Fs in school. The study identified 13 key physical and mental health risk factors that were available in the Healthy Youth Survey and somewhat common among students (see Table 1). The results showed that the percentage of the students at academic risk was greater for students who reported having any of the 13 health risk factors in comparison to students without the health risks (see Figure 1). For example, about 22% of non-smoking students were at academic risk, but more than twice as many (57%) of students who smoke were at risk. About 20% of students who ate breakfast were at academic risk, but 34% of students who did
Health risks that may influence student achievement.
Modern-day students who are involved in school and other extra-curricular activities experience a toll on their physical and mental health. Having a mental illness is a difficult thing to deal with, especially as a teen. Mental health disorders can affect social interactions, inability to screen out environmental stimuli (sounds, sights or smells which may be distracting to the student), inability to concentrate, lack of stamina, handling time pressures and multiple tasks, handling negative feedback and the response to change. Mental illness therefore has a great impact on academic achievement. It does not only affect emotional health but it is known to influence many domains of students’ lives, including their social interactions and educational achievements. Mental illness can be linked to poor attendance, particularly frequent absences for vague, non-specific physical health problems. It has also caused difficulties with academic work such as social integration, adjustment to school, behaviour regulation, attention and concentration [23]. In a 2004 study, approximately 83% of students with emotional and behavioural disorders scored below the mean of the control group in reading, writing and math [24]. Box 1 reveals a summary of results compiled by the National Centre for Mental Health Checkups. The results show that mental illness affects attendance, perceived competence and concentration [25].
Effects of mental illness on academic achievement.
A study by the Washington State Healthy Youth Survey carried out in 2006 found that the more health risks students had, the more likely it was that they also were at academic risk. The rate of increase in academic risk was very consistent; with each extra health risk added a similar difference, whether going from one to two risks or seven to eight risks (see Figure 2). Fewer than 10% of students with no health risk factors reported being at academic risk (having mostly Cs, Ds or Fs). About half of students with six health risk factors, and two-thirds or more of students with at least nine health risk factors were at academic risk [26].
Number of risk factors and academic achievement.
The World Health Organisation observes that health is created and lived by people within the settings of their everyday life, where they learn, work, play and love. The Bangkok Charter for Health Promotion advocates setting-based approaches to health promotion. Schools therefore play a critical role in promoting the health and safety of young people and helping them establish lifelong healthy behaviours. School health programmes can play a vital role in reducing the prevalence of health risk behaviours among young people and have a positive effect on academic performance. Schools can be a context where children can learn and practise positive health behaviours within a health-promoting environment. In a May 2012 report,
Clearly, there are many possibilities for school-based health interventions. School staff and partners may gravitate towards classroom-based or individual-based health education because it is the traditional way to reach students at school. However, policies, procedures and ‘environments’ that promote healthy behaviours are also critical components for improving student health policy interventions (including changes in the school environment) can influence day-to-day norms of the school that will ultimately contribute toward behaviour change [27]. Examples of policies that may be implemented include the use of signpost to restrict smoking in some designated areas, restricting the availability of certain food products that are considered unhealthy and offering incentives to students to encourage them to lead healthy lifestyles.
Prevention is better than cure. Information has played a critical role in disease prevention and the cost of information-based solutions is much less compared to the cost of treating patients. Information is a useful resource in catalysing behaviour change among school children. Disseminating health information can improve knowledge transfer from health professionals to the student population, and helps them to maintain and improve their health. Schools can introduce health intervention strategies aimed increasing awareness on a number of health issues that include food and nutrition, sexual and reproductive health, alcohol and drug abuse, depression and anxiety, physical exercise among other key health topics. Schools should use a variety of media and channels to disseminate health information, including posters, websites, nurses and social media.
Health education programmes can help students develop the knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours needed to adopt healthy behaviours. Educational interventions can also enhance knowledge and help-seeking among college students. Fitness and wellness courses have been seen as agents of change for modifying unhealthy lifestyles among college students. There is evidence that well-taught fitness and wellness classes have the potential to positively affect the attitudes and behaviours of the students that enrol in them. Educational modules are an important tool for health information dissemination and behaviour change. Conceptually based wellness courses, which are also referred to as lecture laboratories, have been designed to promote physical education and wellness among college students. The courses are an alternative to the traditional skill-based physical education courses. The courses consist of lectures and laboratory experiments. The lecture part of the course is designed to promote learning of conceptual information related to fitness and wellness and health behaviour change theory as well as learning of self-management skills that result in real-world application. The laboratory sessions are designed to provide students with hands on skills on matters related to wellness and physical exercises [28].
Supportive health services are targeted interventions or support for selected students, as well as provision of a broad range of services that can influence health. For example, school nurses and counsellors refer students who currently smoke to cessation classes or other help for quitting. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention observes that supportive services can have a high impact on individual students, but only for the selected students who would have been identified as students at risk. These services usually require relatively more staff resources to sustain. For example, individual counselling programmes for students at risk for substance abuse may effectively impact the behaviour of individual students, but may not impact the prevalence of substance abuse at the school as a whole, because they only reach a small number of students [29].
As discussed earlier on in this article, health is a complex phenomenon that is influenced by multiple factors. Therefore, stand-alone interventions that focus on specific health problems may not be effective in addressing the overall health needs of students [30]. Many health promotion bodies that include the Jed Foundation and the National Centre for the Dissemination of Disability Research have advocated for integrated health intervention strategies. As an introduction to describing integrated school health interventions, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) notes on their Website:
Schools by themselves cannot—and should not be expected to—solve the nation’s most serious health and social problems. Families, health care workers, the media, religious organizations, community organizations that serve youth, and young people themselves also must be systematically involved. However, schools could provide a critical facility in which many agencies might work together to maintain the well-being of young people [31].
Intervention programmes that include more than one approach can create synergy, and eliminate unnecessary duplication of effort and wastage of resources (human and capital). The
Research evidence reveals a complex relationship between health and academic achievement. Studies that have been carried out show a significant correlation between academic performance and health problems such as mental illness, depression and anxiety, vision and oral health problems, asthma, teen pregnancy, malnutrition, obesity, chronic stress, aggression and violence, unsafe sexual activity, unhealthy eating, physical inactivity and substance abuse. The effects of such health problems include poor retention, school failure, grade retention, school dropout, absenteeism and poor concentration. Research has also revealed that the more health risks students had, the more likely it was that they also were at academic risk. Schools and universities are in a unique position of educating students about life in general and more specifically about diseases. Schools should create enabling environments and policies that and support services promote student health individually and collectively. Comprehensive school health services, which comprise multiple interventions, are said to positively contribute to the academic performance of students.
With a length of ~2 m2 and weight of ~15% of the body mass, the skin represents a sophisticated tissues complex of the human body, being the largest and the heaviest organ [1]. Due to its optimal physicochemical characteristics, the skin is a dynamic and effective outermost barrier, defending the body against the external surroundings [2]. In addition to the role of physical protection, the skin is involved in the regulation of the body’s homeostasis, synthesis of vitamin D [3], and control of the temperature and blood pressure. Furthermore, it impedes dehydration, maintains an optimal level of moisture and body nutrients, and exhibits self-healing properties [4]. Skin is also an essential sensory organ when it connects with the environment, and the stimulation is perceived on the human body as pain, temperature, and pressure [5]. Normal skin represents a stratified epithelium that is composed of three principal layers: epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous tissue. The epidermis is made up of many cells, including melanocytes, Merkel, and Langerhans cells, but keratinocytes are the most numerous (~95%). This stratum has a thickness of 0.05–0.1 mm, and it does not contain blood vessels and sensory nerve endings [6]. Dermis represents a hard fibrous layer, due to its composition in collagen and elastic tissues. It is based on a supporting network that furnishes elasticity and toughness to the skin. Dermis exhibits a noticeable ability to absorb the water. Its thickness varies from 0.5 mm to 5 mm or more according to the skin region. Compared to the epidermis, the dermis is vascularized [7]. Hypodermis (subcutaneous tissue) represents the profound stratum of the skin, and it is made of fat cells among which are found elastin fibers, collagen, nerves, lymphatic, and blood vessels. The main roles of this layer are to store energy, to thermally insulate the body, and to defend against physical trauma [8].
Being the main organ that interacts directly with the environment, the skin is principally disturbed by external agents, such as chemicals, microorganisms, UV and electromagnetic radiations, allergens, heat, pollution, and mechanical trauma [9]. On the other hand, the skin can also suffer various modifications due to behavioral factors (smoking, alcohol, and nutrition), physiological factors (obesity), demographic factors (age and gender), and pathological factors (numerous local and systemic diseases) [10, 11]. All these mentioned factors often generate a skin injury and a delay in the healing process, so the restoration of healthy and functional skin is still a big challenge for the medical community [12] and an increasing problem worldwide [13]. Depending on the degree of the skin damage, cutaneous lesions can necessitate a long-term treatment, which involves a huge financial cost for global healthcare systems [14]. Statistics showed that the number of people with skin injuries of different etiologies worldwide is constantly growing from ~5 million in 2005, ~6 million in 2015 to about 8 million in 2018, and the total costs for their medical care are estimated to be between ~$28 billion and ~ $97 billion. Taking into account the dynamics of the factors that cause damage to the skin tissue, in the coming years, the total costs for their treatment are expected to rise [15, 16]. From all types of wounds, chronic lesions have the highest incidence in the population. Thus, in developed countries, approximately 1–2% of people will suffer a chronic lesion during their lifetime [17]. The highest increase is in the case of injuries caused by diabetes because it is estimated that in 2025 there will be at least 400 million people with diabetes globally, most cases being in South Africa, Asia, and Africa. About 15–25% of these people will develop throughout their life one of the major complications of diabetes which is the diabetic foot ulcer [18].
Most often a wound is accompanied by pain that can vary from mild to severe depending on the degree of the skin impairment. Hence, the personal life quality of the patients is considerably affected because they have to limit their daily activities, which negatively influences their physical, psychological, and social conditions [19, 20].
Optimal wound management needs physicians to comprehend the etiology of the wound, its healing time and complexity, the mechanism of injury healing, and the factors which affect the skin regeneration to make the right decision regarding the most efficient treatment for a proper cutaneous tissue restoration [21]. Since ancient times, the care of a lesion involves its cleaning and applying a patch (traditional dressing) that allows protection from the external environment, but it cannot absorb high amount of exudates and requires regular application that produces soreness when changing the patch; moreover, the common patch owns modest adhesive characteristics and cannot furnish an adequate drainage for the injury. Consequently, the wound healing process is delayed, and the quality of the patient’s life is seriously affected [22]. Nowadays, those patches have been switched with new wound dressings (modern dressings) that function as a physical and defensive barrier, swallowing the exudate and facilitating the healing process [23]. Over the last few years, modern dressings have been developed, which include hydrogels, hydrocolloids, semi-permeable films, foams, and alginates [24]. Comparing to the traditional dressings, these modern wound dressings, due to their improved structure, have a high capacity to generate a moist environment all over the skin lesion and to keep it, promoting the healing process and the reepithelialization by developing the proliferation of fibroblasts and enhancing the synthesis of collagen [25]. Moreover, they are semi-permeable and highly absorbent dressings and semi-occlusive or occlusive that stimulate the granulation tissue production and promote the epithelial cells movement from the injury margins to its center, providing an enlarged functionality [22].
Thus, this chapter highlights the main structural and functional properties of hydrogels, which are hydrophilic macromolecular networks, formed by crosslinking of diverse polymers, physically or chemically [26]. Also, this chapter presents recent studies regarding the broad applicability of hydrogels as bioactive dressings, which, after application to the wound bed and alleviate the pain, inflammation, and infection that generally follow a lesion [27]. Primary results consist of anatomical, functional, and esthetic restoration of the skin, improving the patient’s quality of life [28].
Cutaneous lesions appear while the skin tissue is broken, or the cellular stability is imperiled under the action of physical, chemical, mechanical, and thermal agents or because of genetic diseases and metabolism-linked factors [29].
In the first instance, skin injuries can be clinically partitioned into acute and chronic injuries. Acute lesions are those wounds that often heal totally, with minimal scarring, in a period between 8 and 12 weeks [30]. Mainly, acute lesions can be produced by mechanical trauma; thus, these types of lesions can be classified inside one of these eight types: abrasions (it happens when a mechanical power scratches away a limited thickness of the skin) [31], avulsions (occurs when the primary layers of the skin are cut from the underlying fascia, for example, injury produced by animal bites) [32], contusions or bruises (fist leads to a contusion), crush wounds, cuts (knife or paper can cause a cut), fish hook injuries, incised wounds (it is the result of a surgical cut inside the skin) [33], and lacerations or tears (it means a break in the skin, which can be generated by a sharp object, for example, metal, glass, or wood) [34, 35]. Also, in the category of acute wounds are found burns and chemical lesions. On the other hand, chronic wounds heal slowly, their healing time exceeds 3 months, and they often reoccur. According to the Wound Healing Society, in this category of cutaneous lesions are included: pressure, venous, and arterial insufficiency, diabetic ulcers, and also malignant wounds [17].
Furthermore, from an etiological point of view, cutaneous lesions can be categorized as follows: surgical wound, which is a mechanical lesion produced by surgical incisions, for example, to eliminate tumors [36]. Traumatic injury is an accidental and a spontaneous lesion that can vary from a small wound, such as a scraped knee, to a serious injury, such as a gunshot lesion. Abrasions, lacerations, skin tears, bites, burns, crush, and stab injury are some examples of traumatic wounds [37]. Radiation lesion is the result of radiotherapy and surgery, two treatment methods that are generally used for the therapy of cancerous tumors, lesions whose delayed healing produces physiological and psychological stress to the patient [38]. Chemical and thermal injuries (burns) are produced by a diversity of factors such as radiation exposure, electricity, corrosive chemicals, or thermal agents [39]. In these types of injuries, it is very important to know how deep the wounds are and how much of the body surface is affected, all these for good management that can lead to a decrease of wounds healing time [40]. According to World Health Organization, there are reported globally every year more than 11 million burn wounds and their medical care passes $12 billion per year [41]. A lesion becomes malignant when cancerous cells attack the epithelium, penetrate blood and lymph vessels, and invade the epidermis; mostly, this type of wound produces death and necrosis of the tissue [42]. Melanoma is metastatic skin cancer, with an increased risk of death, produced by uncontrolled growth of melanocytes that spread abnormally in neighboring tissues. This type of cancer produces severe wounds, requiring special treatment for optimum treatment [43]. Psoriasis is an autoimmune disease, characterized by erythematous-scaly lesions (crumbly white peels on irritated skin background) on the scalp, elbow, and knees, lesions to the face caused by sun exposure, and lesions at the level of the inguinal, axillary, or interfacial skin folds [44]. A pressure ulcer (pressure lesion, pressure sore, decubitus ulcer, or bedsore) is a surface of localized disturbance to the skin and hidden tissue, and it is induced by pressure, shear, or rubbing. The main risk factors that can lead to a pressure ulcer are incomplete nutrition, peripheral vascular disease [45], elderly people, obesity, diabetes, inadequate posture, pregnancy, smoking, or an increased frequency of infection (osteomyelitis) [46]. The most frequent complication of diabetes mellitus is diabetic foot ulcer, which affects 15–25% of diabetic patients. This is a condition that requires a long period for healing, or in some cases, it does not heal and can lead to infection, the major consequence being lower limb amputation [47, 48]. In close relation with diabetic foot ulcer is vascular ulcer, which is caused by disorders of the circulatory system; there are two principal types: venous ulcer (varicose ulcer) and arterial ulcer [49].
Based on contamination and postoperative infection risk, wounds can be classified in classes I, II, III, or IV. Class I or clean wound includes injuries that are infection-free, although current bacteria on the skin contaminate the injury [50]. Class II or clean-contaminated wound involves injuries, which affect the respiratory and digestive system, characterized by no loss of tissue fluid [51]. Class III or contaminated wound contains non-purulent inflammation and class IV or dirty/infected wound contains purulent inflammation [52].
According to appearance and injured tissue coloration, a wound can present necrotic tissue (characterized by a black or olive green coloration, often at pressure ulcer) [53], sloughy tissue (characterized by yellow coloration, related with excess exudates, produced during the inflammatory stage) [54], granulation tissue (characterized by red or deep pink coloration, typical for proliferative phase) [55], epithelializing tissue (characterized by pink coloration and formation of a new epidermis; it develops in migratory and proliferative phases) [56], and infected (malodorous) tissue (characterized by red coloration, hot inflamed tissue, pus formation, and unpleasant odor) [57].
An injury is classified according to complexity in simple and complex (complicated). A simple wound affects the skin tissue without any complication. On the other hand, a complex wound leads to a major tissue loss and a complicated wound involves an infected complex wound [58, 59].
Conforming to the depth of injury or number of skin layers affected, a wound can be superficial, partial thickness, or deep dermal and full thickness. A superficial wound is characterized by affecting only the epidermal skin surface, with minimum scars and a short period for healing, less than 10 days [60, 61]. A partial thickness or deep dermal wound represents a type of injury that affects the epidermis and also the inner dermal layers, containing blood vessels, sweat glands, and hair follicles; it requires between 10 and 21 days for healing, with the formation of scar and reepithelialization [62, 63]. A full thickness wound appears when hypodermis and also epidermal and dermal layers are damaged and the healing time is longer than the other two types of wounds (more than 21 days) [64, 65].
The regeneration of cutaneous lesions represents a fundamental physiological process that consists of a succession of cellular and biochemical events, which begin when a skin lesion occurs in order to reestablish the impaired tissue. The wound healing process involves more consecutive stages, but which still overlap: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, reepithelialization, and remodeling; therefore, skin tissue repair is one of the most complex processes that occur in the human body [66].
Multiple factors can delay the wound healing process, such as: different underlying physiological diseases (diabetes mellitus, human immunodeficiency virus, tumor resection, after organ transplantation, inborn genetic immunodeficiencies, burns, hypoxia, and vascular and autoimmune disease or cancer), obesity, continuous infection, stress, elderly population, sex hormones, gender, smoking, and malnutrition [67, 68]. Another cause for this delayed wound healing and epithelialization is represented by high levels of proteolytic enzymes and cytokines [69]. These factors lead to the production of a substantial amount of exudate [70], which decreases the mobility of lymphocytes and produces maceration of healthy tissue around the injury, the major problem which results being the inhibition of the wound repair process [71].
Traditionally, wound dressings have to protect lesions from physical impairment and secondary infection, to ensure thermal isolation, to be comfortable, and to be quickly changed by a new dressing, without producing any trauma on the lesion site, facilitating the dermal regeneration, playing a passive role in the evolution of the wound healing process [72]. Presently, these functions are constantly evolving. Medical healthcare systems demand for new “intelligent” products, which function not only as a protective barrier but also strongly promote the skin repair process [73]. Over the last few decades, there were developed numerous modern (advanced) wound dressings to stimulate the regeneration of cutaneous lesions, such as semi-permeable films and foams, hydrocolloids, alginates, hydrofibers, and hydrogels. These advanced products for optimal clinical management of skin wounds represent, in 2019, about $7.1 billion of the international market, and their manufacture is expected to increase to about $12.5 billion in 2022 [74]. Of all these modern products, the most competitive candidate is represented by hydrogels.
Hydrogels, also known as aquagels, are a three-dimensional (3D) and crosslinked network of polymer chains, which can absorb massive quantities of water and body fluids due to their hydrophilic functional groups (hydroxyl, carboxyl, amide, and amino), adhering to the polymeric backbone [75]. The term “hydrogel” has been invented for the first time in 1894 by van Bemmelen. Due to their 3D structure, the molecular weight goes to infinity. The fundamental feature that characterizes the molecular structure of the hydrogel is the mesh size. There are two ways to crosslink the hydrogels: physically through hydrogen bonds and chemically through covalent bonds. The main property of the hydrogel is the super-absorbent capacity of water molecules that diffuse into the hydrogel network [76].
The molecular structure of hydrogel loaded or not with a bioactive agent is illustrated in Figure 1.
Molecular structure of hydrogel: (a) without bioactive agent, and (b) with bioactive agent.
The swelling hydrogel includes three major phases:
Primary bound water—the molecules of water adhere to the hydrophilic moieties from the hydrogel structure;
Secondary bound water—the molecules of water combine with the hydrophobic moieties from the hydrogel structure;
Free water—the molecules of water totally swell into the empty spaces from the hydrogel structure.
The swelling ratio varies in accordance with polymers’ content and the density of crosslinking [77].
Hydrogels products can be classified according to different measurable parameters as detailed below:
source: natural, synthetic, or hybrid (mixture of natural and synthetic polymers);
physical aspect: film, gel, matrix, or micro−/nanoparticles (microspheres) according to the method of the polymerization used in the preparation process;
dimensions: macro−/micro−/nanogel;
polymer composition: homopolymeric, heteropolymeric, copolymeric, hybrid, composites, or interpenetrating polymer network (IPNs);
network structure: permanent (chemical or irreversible crosslinking) or non-permanent (physical or reversible crosslinking);
preparation method: copolymerization, complex coacervation, irradiation, or using enzymes;
sensitivity to stimuli: physical (pressure, sound, temperature, light, and magnetic and electric fields), chemical (pH, molecular species, solvent content, and ionic strength), or biochemical (enzymes, antigens, and ligands) stimuli;
polymer network charge: amphoteric, non-ionic, ionic (cationic and anionic), or zwitterion (polybetaines);
chains configuration: non-crystalline (amorphous), semi-crystalline, crystalline, hydrogen-bonded, or hydrocolloids;
physical properties: smart or conventional;
biodegradability: biodegradable or non-biodegradable;
sensitivity to environmental factors: temperature, electric and magnetic fields, sound, enzymes, pH, or light;
equilibrium swelling grade (SWD): low (20–50%), medium (50–90%), high (90–99.5%—these hydrogels exhibit proper biocompatibility and permeability, which make them the most suitable for use in the medical domain), or superabsorbent hydrogels (>99.5%) [78, 79, 80].
Regarding the network structure, hydrogels are mostly manufactured from crosslinking networks, so there are two major categories of hydrogels: physically and chemically crosslinked hydrogels. Physically crosslinked hydrogels have gained importance due to the fact that they are easy to produce because no crosslinking agents are used during the synthesis process; thus, these types of hydrogels are used in biomedical, pharmaceutical, and food industries. Many methods are used to generate physically crosslinked hydrogels: freeze-thawing, stereocomplex formation, ionic interaction, hydrogen bonding, maturation (heat-induced aggregation), noncovalent interaction, and thermoreversible gels [81]. Chemically crosslinked hydrogels present covalent bonds in the middle of the polymeric network that generate permanent hydrogels formation. These types of hydrogels are formed through reactions between functional groups of polymeric chains. Many methods are used to generate chemically crosslinked hydrogels: condensation reactions, polymer–polymer crosslinking, high energy irradiation, enzymatic reaction, grafting, and radical polymerization [82].
Hydrogels are of huge interest for the development of new wound dressings due to their outstanding mechanical and biochemical traits (biocompatibility, biodegradability, hydrophilicity, and the porous structure similar to the extracellular matrix) [83]. They are composed of 90 wt% water and 10 wt% different nature biopolymers. This high water content produces soothing and cooling effects, which reduce the perceived pain. Hydrogels stimulate the healing process through their moisture exchanging actions, which generate a proper microclimate between the dressing and the injury bed [74]. Depending on their composition, hydrogel-based dressings present a high power to swallow up to 1 kg of injury exudate per gram of dressing [84]. Thus, hydrogel-based dressings furnish optimal moisture on the lesion site, which has various advantages: to avoid the injury from drying out, to mitigate the pain perception, to damage the fibrin and dead tissues, and to allow the communication between target cells and growth factors [85].
Regarding the polymeric component, hydrogels can be produced from natural polymers (cellulose and its derivatives, collagen, hyaluronic acid, chitosan and its derivatives, gelatin, alginate, keratin, fibrin, pectin, elastin, dextran, chitin, and gums) and synthetic polymers (polyvinyl alcohol, polylactic acid, polyethylene oxide, polyglycolic acid, polyacrylic acid, poly ε-caprolactone, polyethylene glycol, polyacrylamide, vinyl acetate, N-vinyl-2 pyrrolidone, 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate, methoxyl polyethylene glycol, ethylene glycol diacrylate, and poloxamer) [78, 83].
Hydrogels are colorless and odorless; they also exhibit the highest capacity to absorb fluids in saline medium, a high absorbency under load, low price, proper stability, and durability during the storage and in swelling conditions, neutral pH after swelling in water, nontoxicity, and photostability [75]. Hydrogels allow an excellent mechanical safety, a suitable gases exchange (CO2 and O2), the stimulation of angiogenesis, and the absorption of local exudates; thus, epithelial cells can flourish, and the healing process accelerates to restore the skin layers with minimal scars. Also, hydrogels exhibit non-adhesive characteristics, malleability, and smoothness, so they are easy to applicate and remove without tissue impairment [86].
Moreover, the transparent structure of these dressings allows a suitable evaluation of the wound healing progress, without the dressing being removed. Therefore, hydrogel-based dressings are the first option to treat dry, necrotic lesions, superficial injuries (burns and skin tears), surgical wounds, radiation burns, sloughy and dehydrated lesions, and shallow ulcers. Depending on the hydration level required by the lesion, hydrogel dressings need to be changed every 1–3 days [87]. The schematic illustration of the action mode of a hydrogel-based dressing on cutaneous lesion for accelerating the wound healing process is illustrated in Figure 2.
The action mode of hydrogel-based dressing on cutaneous lesion for accelerating the wound healing process.
Hydrogel-based dressings are bioactive dressings, which are extensively used to cure different etiologies wounds because they furnish an optimum pH, suitable exchange of gases, proper regulation of temperature, and adequate local moisture, accelerating the fibroblasts’ proliferation and angiogenesis [88]. These dressings present biomimetic characteristics, which make them suitable vehicles for sustained release of various bioactive agents, such as plants extracts, growth factors, nucleotides, inorganic compounds, and analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anesthetic, or antimicrobial active substances, ideal for scaffolds that target the fundamental structures involved in the healing process of the injured skin. Therefore, hydrogel-based dressings can reduce, prevent, and treat the tissue maceration, pain, inflammation, and infection that usually accompany a skin lesion [87]. Recent studies regarding the development of new hydrogel dressings based on different polymers composition and bioactive agents for tissue regeneration are summarized in Table 1.
Type of lesion | Polymer composition | Bioactive agent/−s | Obtaining method/hydrogel type and properties | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Post-surgical lesion | Chitosan | Naproxen | Dissolution/thermosensitive; analgesic effect, postoperative adhesions treatment | [89] |
Polyglutamic acid/pluronic F127 | Paclitaxel | Double crosslinking/self-healing after surgical removal of melanoma, proper hemostatic effect, antibacterial activity, and mechanical properties | [90] | |
Poloxamer 407/sodium hyaluronate | Ropivacaine | Physical blending/thermosensitive; analgesic effect, efficient long-term pain alleviation | [91] | |
Radiation-induced lesion | Carbopol | Sildenafil citrate | Physical blending/notable wound contraction, minimization of skin impairment, excellent tensile strength, enhanced production of granulation tissue, mature collagen fibers, and less inflammatory infiltrates | [92] |
Alginate/hyaluronic acid/polylysine | Curcumin and epigallocatechin gallate | Crosslinking/angiogenesis stimulation, inflammation relief, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenge | [93] | |
Burns | Alginate | Vancomycin, gentamicin, or minocycline | Physical blending/infection treatment and burn depth reduction | [94] |
Chitosan | Gold nanoparticles and Aerva javanica | Crosslinking/antimicrobial and antioxidant activities | [95] | |
Keratin | Ciprofloxacin | Physical blending/antibacterial effect, collagen deposition, tissue remodeling, and macrophage recruitment | [96] | |
Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose/hydroxyapatite | Silver nanoparticles | Crosslinking/3D porous network, high antibacterial, mechanical, optical, and spectral properties, proper swelling and degradation ratio, wound closure improvement with rapid reepithelialization, and minimal scar tissues | [97] | |
Pressure ulcer | Chitosan | Genipin | Crosslinking/pH-responsive; antimicrobial, hemostatic, and mucoadhesive characteristics, wound site pH neutralization, and high swelling capacity | [98] |
Polyvinyl alcohol | Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles loaded with ciprofloxacin hydrochloride | Crosslinking (gamma radiation)/antimicrobial activity, good gel fraction, and excellent swelling ability | [99] | |
Gelatin/silk fibroin | Growth factors (adipose-derived stem cells and platelet-rich plasma) | Photocrosslinking (UV light)/optimal swelling ratio, rheological and mechanical properties, rapid reepithelialization and collagen deposition, inflammatory infiltration decrease, increased angiogenesis, and nerve regeneration | [100] | |
Venous and arterial leg ulcers | Chitosan | Gallic acid | Enzymatic crosslinking/antibacterial and antioxidant activity, inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase, myeloperoxidase, and collagenase | [101] |
Pluronic F-127 | Antisense oligodeoxynucleotides | Crosslinking/thermoreversible; anti-inflammatory effect (neutrophil cell infiltration reduction) | [102] | |
Polyvinyl alcohol/chitosan | Ibuprofen-β-cyclodextrins | Physical blending/macroporous network, optimal mechanical and morphological properties, anti-inflammatory effect, and scab formation prevention | [103] | |
Diabetic foot ulcer | Alginate | Polydeoxyribonucleotide | Crosslinking/stimulation of cell promotion and angiogenesis | [104] |
Gelatin methacryloyl | Cerium-bioactive glass | Photocrosslinkin/proper swelling ratio, cell adhesion, compressive features, antibacterial activity, granulation tissue formation, increased angiogenesis, and collagen deposition | [105] | |
Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose | Valsartan | Physical blending/antimicrobial effect, decrease of the level of the proinflammatory factors | [106] | |
Chitosan/hyaluronic acid | Insulin glargine | Crosslinking/pH-responsive; inflammatory phase reduction, enhanced collagen deposition, granulation tissue production, reepithelialization, neovascularization, and peripheral neuropathy | [107] | |
Poly(ε-caprolactone)/poly-(glutamic acid) | Ciprofloxacin | Physical blending/inhibition of superoxide free radicals and high antibacterial effect | [108] | |
Psoriatic lesion | Carbopol | Apremilast | Crosslinking/proper anti-inflammatory effect (reduction of TNF-α level) and mechanical properties | [109] |
Methotrexate | Physical blending/anti-inflammatory effect, proper viscoelastic and bioadhesive behavior | [110] | ||
Clobetasol propionate | Crosslinking/anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory properties, pseudoplastic behavior, spreadability, and mechanical properties | [111] | ||
Pluronic F-127 | Cyclosporine | Physical blending/suitable mechanical properties, viscosity, and pH, reduction of hyperplasia, and tissue impairment | [112] | |
Pluronic F-127/hyaluronic acid | Curcumin | Physical blending/optimal anti-inflammatory activity and mechanical properties | [113] |
Recent studies regarding the development of new hydrogel dressings based on different polymers composition and bioactive agents for tissue regeneration.
Cutaneous lesions care leads to a vast socioeconomic burden, with a huge impact on the patient’s quality of life. Thus, this chapter presents a brief approach of hydrogels, which are the most outstanding competitors for the development of new wound dressings from all five classes of modern (advanced) dressings. Hydrogels have attracted the attention of researchers due to their particular 3D structure similar to the extracellular matrix, which has a high capacity to absorb large amounts of water and biological fluids, and which can also retain in their network external microorganisms. These dressings assure optimal moisture at the wound site and a cooling effect, being so comfortable for the patient. Furthermore, hydrogels exhibit a self-healing power, interactive structure, biocompatibility, biodegradability, low cost, nontoxicity, bioadhesion, conductivity, elasticity, softness, swelling behavior, transparency, stimuli-responsive ability, and controlled release of various bioactive agents. As a result of the last feature, this chapter also emphasizes recent studies regarding the development of new wound dressings manufactured using different polymeric supports loaded with various therapeutic agents to stimulate the regeneration of impaired skin tissues.
This work was financially supported by “Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy Bucharest, Romania, through Contract no. CNFIS-FDI-2022-0253, funded by the Romanian Ministry of Education.
We, the authors of this paper: Mihaela Violeta Ghica, Cristina-Elena Dinu-Pîrvu, Lăcrămioara Popa, Elena-Emilia Tudoroiu, Diana-Georgiana Ionescu, and Claudia-Maria Benga, declare no conflicts of interests.
IntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
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He was elected a Yangtze River Scholars Distinguished Professor in 2013, a member of the International Statistical Institute (ISI) in 2016, a member of the board of the International Chinese Statistical Association (ICSA) in 2018, and a fellow of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics (IMS) in 2021. He received the ICSA Outstanding Service Award in 2018 and the National Science Foundation for Distinguished Young Scholars of China in 2012. He serves as a member of the editorial board of Statistics and Its Interface and Journal of Systems Science and Complexity. He is also a field editor for Communications in Mathematics and Statistics. His research interests include biostatistics, empirical likelihood, missing data analysis, variable selection, high-dimensional data analysis, Bayesian statistics, and data science. He has published more than 190 research papers and authored five books.",institutionString:"Yunnan University",institution:{name:"Yunnan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. R.",surname:"José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"antonio-jose-ribeiro-neves",fullName:"António José Ribeiro Neves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1177/images/system/1177.jpg",biography:"Prof. António J. R. Neves received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the University of Aveiro, Portugal, in 2007. Since 2002, he has been a researcher at the Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro. Since 2007, he has been an assistant professor in the Department of Electronics, Telecommunications, and Informatics, University of Aveiro. He is the director of the undergraduate course on Electrical and Computers Engineering and the vice-director of the master’s degree in Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering. He is an IEEE Senior Member and a member of several other research organizations worldwide. His main research interests are computer vision, intelligent systems, robotics, and image and video processing. He has participated in or coordinated several research projects and received more than thirty-five awards. He has 161 publications to his credit, including books, book chapters, journal articles, and conference papers. He has vast experience as a reviewer of several journals and conferences. As a professor, Dr. Neves has supervised several Ph.D. and master’s students and was involved in more than twenty-five different courses.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"11317",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Javier Gallegos-Funes",slug:"francisco-javier-gallegos-funes",fullName:"Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/11317/images/system/11317.png",biography:"Francisco J. Gallegos-Funes received his Ph.D. in Communications and Electronics from the Instituto Politécnico Nacional de México (National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico) in 2003. He is currently an associate professor in the Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Mecánica y Eléctrica (Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Higher School) at the same institute. His areas of scientific interest are signal and image processing, filtering, steganography, segmentation, pattern recognition, biomedical signal processing, sensors, and real-time applications.",institutionString:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428449",title:"Dr.",name:"Ronaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"ronaldo-ferreira",fullName:"Ronaldo Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428449/images/21449_n.png",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"417317",title:"Mrs.",name:"Chiedza",middleName:null,surname:"Elvina Mashiri",slug:"chiedza-elvina-mashiri",fullName:"Chiedza Elvina Mashiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"352140",title:"Dr.",name:"Edina",middleName:null,surname:"Chandiwana",slug:"edina-chandiwana",fullName:"Edina Chandiwana",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"342259",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Leonard",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"leonard-mushunje",fullName:"Leonard Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"347042",title:"Mr.",name:"Maxwell",middleName:null,surname:"Mashasha",slug:"maxwell-mashasha",fullName:"Maxwell Mashasha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"2941",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto J.",middleName:"Jorge",surname:"Rosales-Silva",slug:"alberto-j.-rosales-silva",fullName:"Alberto J. 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