\r\n\tThe purpose of the book is to bring together the latest knowledge about genetic diversity by presenting the studies of some of the scientists who are engaged in development of new tools and ideas used to reveal genetic diversity, often from very different perspectives. The book should prove useful to students, researchers and experts in the area of biology, medicine and agriculture.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-945-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-944-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-946-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"0b1e679fcacdec2448603a66df71ccc7",bookSignature:"Prof. Mahmut Çalışkan and Dr. Sevcan Aydin",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11643.jpg",keywords:"PCR Based Methods, Protein Based Methods, Sequencing, Conservation of Genetic Resources, Natural Variation, Molecular Markers, Genetic Manipulation in Animals, Resistance to Disease, Genetic Manipulation in Plants, Use of Microorganisms in Biotechnology, Genetic Differentiation, Gene Therapy and Gene Editing",numberOfDownloads:17,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 7th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 16th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 15th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 2nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor of genetics and molecular biology and Head of Biotechnology division at İstanbul University in Turkey whose main research areas include plant molecular genetics, microbial biotechnology and characterization and biotechnological use of halophilic archaeal strains.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Associate Professor of Biotechnology Division in Department of Biology at Istanbul University in Turkey whose main research areas include genetics, environmental biotechnology and bioengineering.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",middleName:null,surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/51528/images/system/51528.png",biography:"Mahmut Çalışkan is a Professor of Genetics and Molecular Biology in the Department of Biology, Biotechnology Division, Istanbul University, Turkey. 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The application of ICT means profound organizational challenges to government agencies especially in two crucial respects: (1) restructuring of administrative functions and processes; and (2) coordination and cooperation between different departments and different levels of government [5]. However, in many e-governments, projects are not always good stories, not only in developing countries but also in developed countries. Chadwick [6] found out that the failure of the “TechCounty,” an online citizen project in the US, was due to the institutional variables: the e-government team was free-floating rather than embedded in the county executive’s office and was therefore unable to drive change; departmental rivalry and different decision-making cultures; ambivalence on the part of elected representatives; technologically-aware leadership was lacking; and, an eagerness to avoid bad publicity. Other researchers call for the concept of transformation in using ICT, including social media for government [7]. They conclude that transformation is a complex problem to which no universal approach exists and for which different types of models can be used [7]. Managers want models that help them realize the transformation, whereas policymakers are more interested in models that help them shape the right direction and identify relevant elements [7].
\nMeanwhile, there are very limited number of research on the relationship between technology and organizational form and function. Between 1996 and 2005, only 2.8% of 1187 research published in four leading journals focused on the relationship between technology and organizational form and function [8] (Zammuto et al., 2007\x3c!-- Please note that references Zammuto et al. (2007) and Krutern (2012) are cited in text, but not provided in reference list.
Social media is one of the most popular digitalized tools that can support people to deeply participate with local government. Even though there are many ordinary tools such as public meeting, public hearing and referendum, but these kinds cannot make impact to local government as much as expectation. That mean they cannot be used to change local government more because they are always controlled by the local government.
\nThis research investigates the impact of using social media on organizational form and function of selected local governments in Indonesia, Thailand and the Philippines. What is the current level of social media use in three cities of ASEAN namely Bandung, Indonesia; Phuket, Thailand; and Iligan, Philippines? What are the challenges to the internal capabilities of Indonesian, Philippines and Thailand local government agencies in using social media and its contribution to policy making?
\nOginni [9] said that social media can transform government organization into s-government. Transformation is capability to enable organizational change, which requires the management of projects or programs to develop or integrate systems, leadership and change in culture or organizational factor. There are some transformations that will happen as follow.
\nGovernment organization is one unit of the social system and is strongly affected by it. In a social system, organizations conduct experiments that concur with our everyday experience with them [10]. According to Luhmann, organization belongs to the class of autopoietic system as a result of decisions and function, as decision premises for follow-up decisions, and is quite different from the normal textbook definition of “goal searching systems, goal realizing system, goal directed combination of capital, people, and information” [10]. Furthermore, Luhmann argued that organizations as merely consist of goals and/or means to realize them is to mistake results of organizing for organizing itself [10]. The theory of autopoiesis was developed by the two Chilean cognitive biologists Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela in the 1960s and early 1970s. The basic building block of social systems is communication. Communication consists of information, utterance and understanding, and is that which allows for a system’s self-constitution. Luhmann defines social systems as being principally boundary-maintaining systems [11]. Luhmann [12] conceives of communication as a combination of three components: (1) information; (2) utterance; and, (3) understanding, each of which Luhmann conceptualized as selection.
\nWhat are the elements of organizations? Elements of organizations are communications that communicate a selection as a selection [10]. Communication has inner structure as a selection of a set of selectable options, and it can be recognized as a decision and connected to prior decisions and thereby can contribute to the self-production of the organization [13]. Organization needs a structure to support the production of elements by elements, namely decision premises. Decision premises involves three aspects: normative points of reference providing a focus for the production of follow-up decisions; decision premises contribute to the regulation of the production of decisions by marking decisions from them; and new decision take into account existing decision premises as presuppositions [10].
\nHow do decision premises work in organization? There are eight types of decision premises namely: membership, communication pathway, decision programs, personnel, positions, planning, self-description, organization culture and cognitive routine [10]. In an organization, only members can contribute to the generation of decisions. However, using social media, citizens influence direction and outcomes of government, improve the government’s situational awareness, and may even help execute government services on a day-to-day basis [14]. In other words, citizens are members of government organization who can contribute to the generation of government decision on a day-to-day basis. Governments’ transition from Web 1.0 to Web 2.0 will require fundamental organizational and administrative changes as many of the emerging social-collaborative technologies sit uncomfortably with public sector hierarchies and decision-making processes McNutt [15].
\nLike other organization scholars, Luhmann [16] argues that organization has undecided decision premises, namely organizational culture and cognitive routine. Organizational culture as basic values woven into the fabric of the organization as well as undecided rules for decent behavior or for the attribution of blame or praise is also an example of cultural decision premises [10]. Cognitive routines are a by-product of ongoing practices in the organization’s relation to its social and non-social environments. One character of the government is a joined-up or integrated government service delivery; governments have to deal with the problem of fragmentation of government within the constitutional, legal, and jurisdictional limits [17]. Today, the most significant barriers to social media adoption are organizational, cultural, and legal: not technological [15]. Government organizations should be willing to investigate whether more playful interactions with citizens can help to engage on serious issues [18].
\nThe second type of decision premise is communication pathway, prescribing the “route” that should be followed in operations, to be counted as decision in an organization [10]. Luhmann [13] argued that communication pathway does not necessarily involve “hierarchy, but also a lateral communication one.” Luhmann’s fundamental idea was that organizations decide by themselves, which is considered as a decision [19]. This applies to decision communication as well. Personnel and position in public administration are organizational structuring variables [20]. Luhmann argues that competencies and experience are very important for decision premises. Another research recommended that government organization should implement its networking strategy by mobilizing Twitter accounts of various government institutions and promoting their cooperation instead of following Twitter accounts of citizens or networking with them [4]. In other words, Klievink and Janssen [7] proposed the integration of ICT into government organization. Integration in government can be defined as the “forming of a larger unit of government entities, temporary or permanent, for the purpose of merging processes and/or sharing information” [21]. Hence, integration extends to both process integration and information integration (sharing) [22] and pertains to the institutional dimension and in part to the high-level functional dimension [23].
\nPersonnel and position in public administration are organizational structuring variables [20]. Luhmann [19] argues that competencies and experience are very important for decision premises. Information factors consist of communications and Information and Technology [24]. Those aspects are important variables regarding the relationship between government organization and citizen used to study Arlington County. The influence of ICT use on organization transformation process in the Netherlands confirms these previous findings [7]. Fulla and Welch [25] furthermore expect that the organization can choose among five options for response to an asynchronous query: non-response, generic response, direct informational response, referred informational response, and referred action.
\nMeanwhile, the response level is dependent on the performance of the virtual team a in certain organization, the link between virtual team members more social and psychological in nature [26]. The virtual teams are run on trust rather than on control, which requires lateral communication and active involvement from each individual under a flat organizational structure, participatory management practices and novel schemes of shared responsibility [26]. The Luhmannian perspective developed here helps us to address the relatively neglected questions of how the operating and strategy routines of an organization are related to each other, and how both are related to the generation of strategic change [27]. Social systems for Luhmann are not, therefore, systems of action, structured in terms of the thoughts and behaviors of individual actors, but systems of communications in which the communications themselves determine what further communications occur. Luhmann introduces his concept of episode in the context of societal change, and it does not feature explicitly in his accounts of organizations.
\nThe insight, which again challenges the exceptionalist view, is that for the line management of an organization, strategic episodes are the routine focus of strategic practice. The other insight concerns the relationship between organizational strategy and the practices of ‘strategists’. Government organization culture in the emerging “Digital Era Governance” (DEG) and “Transformational Government” (t-gov) paradigms is such that “citizens and businesses will increasingly co-produce most individual outputs using electronic processes, leaving agencies to provide only a facilitating framework” [27] and “citizen empowerment” [28].
\nDecision programs are regulative conditions for correct or incorrect decision behavior, namely goal program and conditional program [10]. Goal programs specify goals (desired) that should be pursued, depending on the circumstances or expected side-effect, and conditional programs have a general form that allows for different levels of specification [10].
\nWhen government organization managers face the growing demand from citizens via social media, they are not producing sequential decision, producing one decision after the other, but they can produce multiple coherent decisions at the same moment in time and at different moments in time [10]. Luhmann defines those decisions as planning. However, organizations have other means of integrating decision premises, namely self-description. Self-description function is a means to bring the multitude of decision premises to a unity [10]. This means organizations are not “sequential mechanisms” producing one decision after the other, but at the same time organizations must coordinate “event-like” (via social media) character of decision, called planning [10, 16]. In each stage of policy processes, technology has an important role to play in the digital age. The policy process requires quality inputs, decision making and feedback mechanisms to be successful.
\nSocial media was widely used by the Thailand government and citizens during the flooding crises in 2001, 2011 and 2012, where more than 13.6 million people were affected. Social media became an ineffective communication tool during the crises since many rumors were left to proliferate faster than the Thai government could control [30]. Evidences shown by a study suggest that people used Facebook to request for help, criticize government, and unveil suspicious activity of the Flood Relief Operation Center (Krutern, 2012).
\nIn order to present the situations of social media use in Thailand, this chapter would like to present a lesson from one municipal to be case study. It is Phuket city municipal. According to the head of Government Administration, the Phuket city municipality has been using many types of social media such as Line, Website, Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube. The first type that got permission was a line application, namely, “PR Ted-sa-ban-na-korn-phu-ket.” The subscribers are mass media groups in Phuket. This group, including teamwork of Phuket city municipality, has often connections within the group. The group has just been founded in 2015. In this line group also provides a service for customer complaints, namely, “Srang-ban-pang-muang.” This subgroup includes heads from various public parts, members and committees from municipalities, etc.
\nThe process for customer complaints is that a customer will post a complaint(s) in Line-Srang-ban-pang-muang. Once the problem complaint is shown up in the Line-Srang-ban-pang-muang, the office staff will print out the complaint statement to report the relevant departments. The complaints and their number will be reported in a meeting every month in order to find a solution and improve service.
\nMoreover, the Phuket city municipality has been managing public relations via the website – www.phuketcity.go.th for spreading it information. In the website, customer complaints can be done as well, including discussion board for general topics. Making a complaint via this website requires that a form that appears in its particular webpage is filled by the customer who complaints. The filled form would be printed out and sent to hierarchical higher administrators to make considerations every month. Subsequently, the administrator will make a decision that which department or person should take an action or a responsibility for that complaint. The assigned department or person needs to find a solution to solve that problematic complaint.
\nFor Facebook, the Phuket city municipality created “Na-ri-sorn” as a fan page. The subscribers can give opinions, complaints, or information. Phuket city municipality has used this social media to make public relations for its activities as well. Presently, there are thousands of subscribers following Na-ri-sorn. Complaining via Facebook is not popularly used. The process is similar to other options mentioned above.
\nFor YouTube, the Phuket city municipality has uploaded TV programs of the municipality in YouTube. The Phuket city municipality has also used Twitter; however, this social media is not popular and it is during development.
\nThe office of the Phuket city municipality has information service center located in the first floor on the left. This center was established to serve “Official Information Act, B.E. 2540 (1997).” The Act stated that the center needs to provide the relevant documents such as municipal law, budget, development plan, and procurement.
\nAnother channel for the customer service center is a phone call numbering 1132 and 119. The next channel is an annually activity report. It is made every year by the Phuket city municipality to declare budgets for projects, including future plans by post a notice at customer service center, the Phuket city municipality.
\nThe last channel is Damrongtham center of Phuket city municipality where people can send a complaint to. Additionally, the Phuket city municipality has used a LED screen to spread information. The LED screen is located at the information counter service, Office of Civil Registration.
\nThe advantages of social media are to expand communication channels, increasingly exchange information between people from different groups, access to target group easier, reduce PR cost, quickly report any activities of the municipality any time, and decrease traveling cost of customers who want to make a request or complaint. Also, social media enables the Phuket city municipality to response complaints effectively.
\nPreviously, the Phuket municipality received complaints by phone call 1132 and 199 for fire cases. However, that channel had a limited response. It did not serve all people with different needs. Thus, the Phuket municipality created the website. However, it seems that it served people quite not well. Later, the municipality created a Facebook account. Each office created its own Facebook account. With Facebook, the numbers of people who follow has been increasing. Lastly, Line, a two-way communication tool has been used as part of the Phuket municipality as well. Each office has its own Line either. Line has been used for subgroups (within municipality groups) such as an executive group, head of department group, civil-servant group, etc.
\nSocial media group at community level refers to the group for people in the communities, namely, “Old Phuket Town.” This group includes executives and people in communities. Some social media may be created with a specific purpose; for example, the Line, an application, for improving environment that includes staff who have been working for environment within the group. This type of Line groups is informal and open for everyone. A formal Line group is “Sang-ban-pang-muang.” The subscribers are the members of public organizations. Line “Sang-ban-pang-muang” enables the staff to gather complaint issues and send to upper levels to find solutions. Civil defense volunteer has used social media for management, solve problems, and service the people in communities. This one helps in sending pictures. It can keep and tract completed jobs. When a problem occurs, the person who needs help can send a picture via Line to show a cause of the problem, and then the group would help solve the problem. A complaint issue becomes more critical when a relevant picture is show as strong evidence. Therefore, Line is more advantage than old phone call 1132 and 119.
\nIn the past, when number of problems or complaints increase, some problems might be missing and then the problems did not be solved. Line helps spread the problems in a formal way (step by step); however, in emergency case, Line can quickly send the problem so that the problem will be fixed as fast as possible. For example, if line pumps are broken and then someone sends this problem in Line, the officer who usually watches out in the Line would perceive. Tt is possible that this problem may be fixed within just 1 day. Compared to other types of social media, Line is most effective. About 80% of all of the complaints/problems is via Line.
\nPresently, almost 100% of the people in communities have perceived that they can contact to the Phuket municipality by using social media. To illustrate, the group of “Old Phuket Town” includes 140 members from about 200 houses located on the Tha-lang street. The Civil Defense Volunteer Group that is responsible for the society has about 180 more members. However, some people such as elders do not know how to us IT. Complaining by elders will be increase later.
\nTypically, when people complaint they have often asked for solutions to fix the problems right away, but the Phuket municipality may not able to solve them in a short time. For example, when grilles on streets get damaged, the process may take time. When electricity power becomes blackout, the municipality can only pass the information to Provincial Electricity Authority-PEA, but cannot fix the problems. The problems of using bad words in written complaints or suggestions in social media tools often occur. Arguments between pros and cons may be sent back and forth. Consequently, other readers may be misunderstood in some issues and have negative attitudes to the municipality. The Phuket municipality will fix these cases by directly talking to the people. For example, putting water pumps into old trenches or buried electric wires under grounds was result in misunderstanding of some people. They thought that it could have been a cause of flood and made the story exaggerate later as they might not know that the municipality already put another pump to let water out.
\nIn my personal view, I still agree that using Line for the municipality jobs is the right answer of the solution as it allows both pictures/images and letters, which help improve good connections. It is superior than typical phones that allows only sound. Previously, executives were afraid that using social media in organizations might have destroyed the systems or formal structures in the organization because employees might merely texting on Line or Facebook and then ignored their works. Ministry of Interior has announced to ban using social media during works. Rather, using social media in the organization makes works more effective and improves performances. This is because social media makes works faster, reduces cost of computer resource. With personal devices such as I-phone, I-pad, or other mobile phones of employees can serve using social media well.
\nOne more interesting issue is that in a real practice employees cannot sit at in front of their computers all the time. Sometimes, they have to work outside the office. Social media would be benefit for such case too. Wherever they are, their boss can give their orders.
\nUsing social media also is a good choice for the people who prefer texting to talking. In meetings, some people may feel not comfortable to speak in front of many audiences. They may feel nervous. Other people can communicate by using writing skill better than speaking skill. In such case, texting through social media would be a good alternative for them.
\nOne benefit of using social media for communication is to protect face-to-face argument. When opinions of a group are different, a conflict and fighting via words may occur. Avoiding face-to-face conflicts by arguing on social media tools would be a good choice.
\nSocial media has been used as an evaluation tool to tract works of the municipality. People can see works and projects of the municipality via social media; for example, pictures of a road with construction ongoing. People can see the process or how much their works finished.
\nSocial media may be used as a tool for census, pooling ideas, or voting. When the Phuket municipality wishes to start a new project, the municipality can ask for the communities’ opinions before starting the project to protect future possible problems. For example, “Peun-Phuket group” concerns that if the development of the communities grows too fast, it is possible to get consequence impacts. This group will discuss in various impact issues.
\nFor example, Facebook can provide statistics or percent of audience accessing as well. An advantage of social media is a new channel as communication innovation for people. Presently, it influences our society and is increasingly used. Embracing social media do not make us do more jobs; rather, it makes a complaint process and finding solutions for people easier. Solving problems for the people is our duty.
\nDevelopment of social media allows people to communicate to each other faster and broader. It is a tool that makes people come closer together. The people can directly communicate, request, or complaint to the municipality. This makes a municipality perceive information and problems that lead to planning, making policies, finding solutions. Using social media helps increase communication channels. Previously, a few channels of communications between people were available. We are like blocked from information. With social media, there is no longer or harder to block information from people. Social media application, allows both images (pictures) and messages (letters); thus, it is better than regularly complaint approach.
\nUsing social media in municipalities is not like using a communication tool. Rather, it seems to be a decision-making tool
Presently, almost all local public organizations use social media in communication between local public organizations and their people. All of them have their own websites and Facebook pages. Most of them use websites and Facebook pages to make public relationships of their completed and ongoing projects such as checking swamps and dragging canals.
\nSocial media can create the power of community. When an important issue is posted, other members come into the group to share their opinions. For example, in case of excavating a tunnel, most of group members disagree. Thus, once the issue was posted, they gave messages to resist that project. They have a harmony. The power of community comes from the power of social media. Although social media cannot be panacea to cure all problems, it is a good tool for groups to send their voices to city council members or Mayor.
\nIt may be a new thing in the context of Thai that leads to wrong usage. Sometimes, someone shares what posted without carefully thoughts. However, it is started seeing the development of using social media. Previously, people have wasted time for long meeting and traveling. But nowadays we can have a meeting in applications. Complaining in old fashion requires traveling to the organizations. People need to learn more using social media continuously.
\nFinally, using social media can drive dynamics of society to be better. Learning social media of Thai people should be supported. Social media in organizations is used not only for spreading the local government’s information to the community but also create power of communities. This is the way to develop local governance to be happened in Thai societies continuously and sustainably.
\nCitations for Ref. [29] was missing. Please provide the citation or delete the reference from the list.
Please note that most of the references were duplicatied hence duplicate reference are removed and renumbered accodingly. Kindly check.
Please provide page range for Ref. [1].
Please provide publisher location for Refs. [5, 10].
Please provide complete details for Refs. [2, 16].
Please provide publisher details for Ref. [25].
Most smart materials imitate natural biological materials, which can respond to the stimuli (like mechanical, thermal, electrical, photic, acoustic, magnetic, chemical, etc.) by changing one or multiple properties to adapt to the changing environment [1]. So far, bioinspired smart materials have become an important research direction in material science. It is difficult for a homogenous material to possess multifunction, so it generally combines the materials with the functions of perception, actuation, control, etc., together in a specific way to design a novel composite with multiple characteristics. The smart material is multilevel with different components; each component has different characteristics and microstructures, and the coupling effect exists between different components, and these components make the smart material show complicated responses to external stimuli. Generally, the adapting ability of smart material to external environment, which is similar to the activated function of biological material, can be dynamically adjusted through the transportation of substance and energy.
Magnetorheological (MR) materials can be regarded as a kind of bioinspired smart materials because their viscoelastic properties can be easily adjusted by an external magnetic field. Magnetorheological materials can be generally classified into MR fluids, MR elastomers, and MR gels according to the type of the carrier matrix and the physical state in the absence of magnetic field [2, 3, 4]. The MR fluid-based practical devices mainly include damper, buffer, clutch, artificial muscle, and so on [5]. Some application examples of MR fluid working under different modes can be found in various dampers, which take MR fluid as working medium. Besides, MR fluid has also found wide application potential in the fields of thermal conduction [6], sound transmission [7], precision machining [8], and biomedicine [9]. The applications of MR elastomer have been widely reported in the fields of adaptive tuned vibration absorber [10], impact absorber [11], active noise abatement barrier system [12], vibration isolator [13], sensor [14, 15, 16], and so on. MR elastomer mainly works by changing its modulus through magnetic field during pre-yield stage, which shows different working mechanism with MR fluid (MR fluid mainly works at post-yield stage). The examples for the application of MR gel are relatively less in comparison with MR fluid or MR elastomer, but the unique magneto-induced phenomena have attracted more and more attentions; some work concentrating on the potential applications of MR gel have been reported [17, 18, 19, 20].
Here, we will give a brief introduction to different kinds of MR materials, discuss the related experimental and theoretical work when investigating the MR mechanism, and finally propose some future prospects for these magneto-sensitive smart materials aiming at practical applications.
Magnetorheological (MR) fluid is the earliest developed magneto-sensitive smart material, which is a particulate suspension by mixing micrometer-sized ferromagnetic fillers, non-magnetic fluid, and some additives together. After applying an external magnetic field, the MR fluid will change from Newtonian-like fluid to semi-solid material quickly (within several microseconds) [21], as shown in Figure 1a [22]. The randomly dispersed magnetic fillers are rearranged to form chain-like ordered microstructure through the magnetic interaction. Moreover, the ordered degree of the microstructure is relevant with the magnetic field strength. That is, a stronger magnetic field will induce a more ordered chain-like microstructure parallel with the direction of external magnetic field (Figure 1b) [23].
The images of MR fluid without and with magnetic field [
The rheological measurements indicate that MR fluid shows Bingham fluidic behavior under magnetic field, an obvious yield stress exists, and the maximum of yield stress has exceeded 100 kPa [24]. Moreover, the apparent viscosity of MR fluid changes typically 3–4 orders of magnitude by changing the magnetic field strength, presenting a typical MR effect. However, the sedimentation problem due to the density mismatch between carrier matrix and ferromagnetic fillers become one of the bottlenecks to hinder the development of MR fluid. To solve the problems of particle sedimentation and the re-dispersion after the particle aggregation in the carrier matrix, many effective methods have been proposed. Generally, these methods can be classified into two main categories from the aspects of filler and carrier matrix.
Carbonyl iron particle is an ideal candidate to prepare MR fluid due to its low coercive force and high saturation magnetization (μ0Ms = 2.1 T). However, a serious sedimentation problem exists in the MR fluid with carbonyl iron particle. Sometimes, it has to abandon carbonyl iron particle with excellent magnetic property and choose some other magnetic material which could improve the sedimentation of MR fluid for the balance between performance and stability.
Decreasing the size of magnetic fillers is an effective method to improve the stability of MR fluids. Submicron- or nanometer-sized particle shows better stability in the non-magnetic carrier matrix in comparison with the micrometer-sized particle because of the Brownian movement and Van der Waals force. Especially, the particulate suspension totally using nanometer-sized ferromagnetic fillers as dispersed phase is named as magnetic fluids or ferrofluids [25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32]. Each ferromagnetic filler in ferrofluids includes single magnetic domain and could disperse in the carrier matrix randomly due to the Brownian movement, so the sedimentation is greatly improved. However, the ferrofluids keep their liquid-like state even under a strong magnetic field, which indicates that it is impossible for ferrofluids to have a high magneto-induced yield stress. In addition, the particle aggregation caused by the particle’s nanometer size (or the re-dispersion of particles after removing the magnetic field) is another challenge to promote the further development of ferrofluids [33]. Using the magnetic material with the shape of rod-like or fibroid is regarded as another effective method to improve the stability and MR performance of MR fluids [34].
Except for changing the size and shape of ferromagnetic fillers, the core-shell structured ferromagnetic particle, whose surface is chemically modified by various polymers, is also a good candidate. The core-shell structure not only decreases the density of the particle but also increases the static electrical repulsion between adjacent particles, so the stability and the redispersibility of MR fluid are evidently improved. Moreover, the antioxidation is improved because the surface of the particle is wrapped by polymer [35]. Figure 2 shows the SEM images of carbonyl irons wrapped by various polymers, which were mainly made by Choi’s research group at Inha University.
Pure carbonyl iron and the carbonyl iron wrapped by various polymers [
It is a new approach to balancing the stability and performance of MR fluid by dispersing the submicron- or nanometer-sized ferromagnetic fillers (such as nanotube, submicron- or nanometer-sized carbonyl iron particle, wrought monox, organic clay, clavate ferromagnetic Co-γ-Fe2O3, and CrO2) into conventional MR fluid to change the property of continuous phase (i.e., the matrix) [36, 37, 38, 39]. Both of the sedimentation rates of the dispersed phase and the MR effect are improved significantly due to the existence of ion. However, the modification to the carrier matrix, together with the modification to the dispersed particles, could only improve the sedimentation of MR fluid to some extent. To solve the particle sedimentation completely, the non-magnetic liquid matrix can be totally substituted by rubber-like polymer matrix. Thereout, a new magneto-sensitive soft material, that is, MR elastomer, appears later.
MR elastomer presents solid state even without magnetic field; it inherits the magneto-sensitive feature of MR fluids, but its working principle and application field are quite different from MR fluid. The magnetic fillers are fixed in the polymer matrix after the MR elastomer is prepared, the particles cannot move freely even exposed in a magnetic field, and no “phase transition” appears like happened in MR fluid. MR elastomer carries out the intelligent control mainly through changing its damping and modulus by magnetic field before yield [40]. The ordered chain-like (or column-like) microstructure aligned parallel to the direction of magnetic field generates if an external magnetic field is applied during the vulcanizing process of the polymer matrix. After vulcanization, the ordered microstructure can be solidified in the matrix, and the anisotropic MR elastomer is obtained.
Figure 3 shows the SEM images of MR elastomers pretreated by different magnetic fields. It is clear that chain-like structured anisotropic MR elastomer can be prepared if it is exposed under an external magnetic field during the pre-configuration process. The structure of particle chains can be further adjusted by the magnetic field. The ferromagnetic fillers aggregate more easily under a strong magnetic field, resulting in a higher degree of anisotropy of MR elastomer. Further magnetorheological characterization indicates that the MR elastomer with higher degree of anisotropy also possesses high MR effect [41]. So far, many kinds of rubber, such as natural rubber [41], silicon rubber [42], polyurethane rubber [43], cis-polybutadiene rubber [44], nitrile butadiene rubber [45], and thermoplastic elastomer blended by polypropylene and SEBS [46], have been chosen as the candidates for fabricating the MR elastomer.
The SEM images of MR elastomer pretreated by different magnetic fields [
Although the particle sedimentation is completely solved, the magneto-induced effect and MR effect constrain each other, making the requirement of engineering application not easy to be achieved. Moreover, MR elastomer loses the feature that the particulate microstructure can be easily controlled by magnetic field as like in MR fluid because the ferromagnetic fillers are fixed in the rubber matrix, which indicates that it loses the magneto-controllable flexibility. To pursue a stable MR material with a high MR effect and a strong magneto-induced effect aiming to the engineering application, it needs to abandon the conventional fabricating solutions and redesign a new magneto-sensitive smart material.
MR gel is another magneto-sensitive smart material whose continuous phase is viscoelastic. The inelastic matrix makes MR gel present typical viscoelastic characteristics even without external magnetic field. Shiga et al. firstly proposed the concept of MR gel in 1995 [47], and they prepared a series of MR gels with different particle contents by dispersing ferromagnetic fillers into silicone gel and investigated the magneto-dependent viscoelastic behaviors and microstructures of MR gel. The MR gels can be further classified into liquid-like and solid-like MR gels according to their physical state without magnetic field.
The liquid-like MR gels can be regarded as a kind of special MR fluid with a little mount of polymer solution as additive. The polymer additive can generate a network structure in the matrix to modify the interfacial characteristic of ferromagnetic fillers and their interaction, greatly slowing down the sedimentation velocity of ferromagnetic fillers [48, 49, 50]. In comparison with MR fluids, except for improving the sedimentation stability, the off-state viscosity and yield stress of liquid-like MR gels can also be adjusted by adding a certain amount of polymer additives. However, the polymer network increases the moving resistance of ferromagnetic fillers in the matrix, and the response of MR gels to external magnetic field is then decreased accordingly. In addition, the sedimentation problem in the liquid-like MR gels is not completely solved.
Strictly speaking, the magnetic gel reported by Shiga et al. is a kind of solid-like MR gels [47]. The most distinct characteristic of solid-like MR gels is that there is no particle sedimentation problem exists, like MR elastomer. Yet the matrix is not the rubber-like elastic material, the solid-like MR gel cannot be classified into MR elastomer. Recently, these solid-like MR gels have been paid more and more attention [51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57]. A novel solid-like MR gel by mixing micrometer-sized magnetic particles and plasticine-like polyurethane was reported by Xu et al. [58]. As Figure 4a shows, this material presents like plasticine without magnetic field, can be changed into any shapes, and remains the status of plastic deformation, so it is named as MR plastomer. MR plastomer deforms along with the direction of the applied external magnetic field (Figure 4b). Further microstructure characterization indicates that the randomly dispersed magnetic particles can rearrange to generate chain-like (or column-like) orientated microstructure driven by magnetic force (Figure 4c and d). In addition, the anisotropic particulate microstructure is kept even the external magnetic field is removed [59].
The images of MR plastomer without (a) and with (b) magnetic field [
In one word, an orientated particulate microstructure in the solid-like MR gel can be adjusted through an external magnetic field. Meanwhile, the chain-like (or column-like) microstructure can be fixed in the soft matrix after removing the magnetic field. This unique feature makes solid-like MR gel process the merits existed on MR fluid and MR elastomer (i.e., movability of particles and the “frozen” property of orientated microstructure) at the same time, which is significant to investigate the magneto-mechanical coupling mechanism.
Some other special MR materials, which cannot be simply classified into the most well-known MR materials as mentioned above, were reported in the literature. MR foam is a kind of solid-like polymer composite by pouring MR fluid into porous polymer foam (Figure 5); the modulus of the MR foam can be controlled by changing the rheological property of MR fluid through a magnetic field [60, 61, 62]. Due to the special porous microstructure, MR foam presents the merits of lightweight, controllable modulus, excellent sound-absorbing property, and so on [63].
The fabrication procedure of MR foam (a): pouring the MR fluid D into porous polymer material E. MR fluid D consists of carbonyl iron particles A, carrier fluid B, and additives C; (b) the microstructure inside the foam: microtubule wall 2 is surrounded by MR fluid 1, and the other space is full of air 3 [
To solve the problem of particle sedimentation for MR fluid, Park et al. prepared a kind of novel MR material with excellent sedimentation resistance ability by substituting the fluidic matrix of MR fluid with commercial grease, and they named this MR material as MR grease [64]. MR grease shows typical Bingham fluid behavior; so strictly speaking, MR grease can be regarded as a special MR fluid. Byrom and Biswal reported a colloidal material system by adding micrometer-sized paramagnetic and diamagnetic particles into ferrofluid [65]. Different from the conventional MR fluid, the particles do not generate a chain-like orientated structure parallel with the direction of magnetic field but a fractal net-like microstructure in 2D direction. Further analysis indicated that the fractal net-like microstructure is induced by the magnetic dipole interaction between paramagnetic and diamagnetic particles, and the fractal dimension of the particle aggregates can be controlled by adjusting the concentration of ferrofluid and the ratio of paramagnetic and diamagnetic particles.
A multifunctional magnetic plasticine™ was developed by Xuan et al. [66], and they chose paraffin wax petroleum jelly as the matrix. Except for the high magneto-induced G′ (4.23 MPa) and MR effect (305%), magnetic plasticine™ can be switched between liquid-like state and solid-like state by changing the temperature, which greatly enhances the regulation ability. Shahrivar and de Vicente also reported a thermo-responsive polymer-based magneto-sensitive material [67], which can easily achieve phase transition by changing temperature. Figure 6a depicts that “liquid-to-solid” transition with increasing temperature appears in the MR composite with PEO-PPO-PEO solutions because a repulsive colloidal glass generates, while an inverse temperature-driven phase transition can be achieved for MR composite with P-NIPA microgel dispersions (Figure 6b). Besides, the critical temperature of phase transition can be changed by tuning polymer concentration. The multi-responsive MR material is a good effort in the frontier between conventional MR fluid and MR elastomer.
Temperature dependent G′ of MR composites with PEO-PPO-PEO copolymer solution (upper subfigure) and P-NIPA microgel dispersion (lower subfigure) (a). Photos of the copolymer-based MR material at different temperatures after 1 h at rest (b) [
The magnetic field usually leads to a structural rearrangement in soft MR material, and this process has significant influence on the physical properties of soft MR material. Due to the weak restriction of polymer matrix to the ferromagnetic fillers and complexity of polymer matrix, the responses of MR gel to external stimuli are more complicated than those of MR fluid and MR elastomer. For this reason, MR gel presents some unique magneto-electro-thermo-mechanical coupling phenomena. However, the realization on the coupling mechanism of MR gel is far from enough in comparison with those of MR fluid and MR elastomer, and more efforts need to be made through experimental and theoretical studies. Tight correlations exist between these three MR materials; so, there are some similarities in MR mechanism, and we can use the characterization techniques and theoretical models of MR fluid and MR elastomer for reference when studying the MR mechanism of MR gel. Next, we will briefly discuss the characterization methods and theoretical studies for different MR materials.
Experimental characterization of MR materials can not only quantitatively evaluate their performance but also provide the necessary parameters for theoretical research or certify the accuracy of the theoretical results, which is the foundation for investigating the MR mechanism. The magneto-induced rheological properties of MR materials under different loading conditions (quasi-static shear, tensile, compressive loading, dynamic shear, and squeeze loading) are the most important properties, and this is the primary reason for naming this magneto-sensitive smart material as MR material. The influences of relevant factors (i.e., magnetic field, temperature, PH value, particle concentration, shape, size, and so on) on rheological properties were also widely investigated. Besides, the magnetization, electrical conduction, thermal conduction, and magnetostriction of MR materials are studied as well.
The rheological property of MR materials under shear loading is the most used characterization parameters at present. Many famous commercial rheometers, like the Physica MCR rheometer from Anton Paar Company and Discovery hybrid rheometer from TA Company, are designed for the rheological characterization under shear loading.
The magneto-dependent rheological behavior of MR fluid is usually described by Bingham model:
where
Shear stress of MR fluid as a function of shear rate under different magnetic fields [
Both of the solid-like and liquid-like MR material can be considered as the viscoelastic material, and the dynamic mechanical analysis under oscillatory shear is one of the most important characterization methods for viscoelastic materials. Normally, applying a sinusoidal shear strain to the viscoelastic material, if the amplitude of the strain is small enough, a sinusoidal response stress at the same frequency but a specified phase shift can be obtained; then, we define the dynamic mechanical properties (i.e., storage modulus G′, loss modulus G″, and loss factor tanδ) of material within the linear viscoelastic (LVE) range as the ratio of response stress to actuation strain in the complex plane. Dynamic mechanical properties are frequently used characterization parameters for investigating the magneto-induced microstructure evolution mechanism of MR materials. For the practical application, most MR materials in the devices are working under the oscillatory shearing mode. More importantly, both solid-like MR elastomer and liquid-like MR fluid can be characterized by dynamic mechanical analyzer (DMA) [71, 72], which indicates that dynamic mechanical analysis can be considered as a universal method to characterize MR materials. Therefore, as the intermediate material system between MR elastomer and MR fluid, the magnetorheological properties of MR gel are mostly studied by DMA [73].
The oscillatory shear mode can be further classified into simple shear and rotating shear according to different measurement principles of commercial devices. Figure 8a shows a typical DMA (Tritec 2000, provided by the Triton Technology Co. Ltd., UK). If an external magnetic field generator is added (Figure 8b), the magneto-mechanical coupling behaviors of MR elastomer under oscillatory simple shear mode can be investigated [74]. The deformation of the sample under simple shear mode is uniform, which is valuable for theoretical analysis. The rheometer can also be used for dynamic mechanical analysis. Figure 8c shows a parallel-plate rheometer (Physica MCR 301, Anton Paar Co., Austria) equipped with a MR accessory (MRD 180), which provides a controllable magnetic field when carrying out a rotating shear experiment (Figure 8d). The deformation of the sample under rotating shear mode is inhomogeneous (the shear strain increases linearly in the radial direction of disc-like sample; the shear strain at the center of the sample is zero). Although with different measurement principles, the measurement results obtained from these two kinds of devices show little difference if the amplitude of the actuating strain is small enough. Besides, the magneto-dependent creep and recovery [75, 76, 77] and stress relaxation behaviors [78] of MR materials under shear loading are very helpful for investigating the magnetorheological mechanism and can be tested with the modified DMA and the rheometer as mentioned above.
A modified magneto-mechanical coupled DMA (a) and its measurement schematic diagram (b); a parallel-plate rheometer (c) with a magnetic field generation accessory (d).
The modulus variation of ferromagnetic filler-doped polymer composite can be reflected from the compressive and tensile properties of MR elastomer, which are also frequently used characterization parameters. Bellan and Bossis investigated the influences of magnetic field, particle concentration, and particle distribution on the tensile property of silicon rubber-based MR elastomer [79]. The compressive properties of MR elastomer with different particle distributions (randomly dispersed isotropic and chain-like orientated anisotropic structures) and its magnetic field dependency were investigated by Varga et al., as shown in Figure 9. It is found that the compressive modulus of MR elastomer is not only affected by the particle distribution (i.e., the compressive modulus of anisotropic MR elastomer is larger than that of isotropic one under the same loading condition) but also by the magnetic field and loading direction. When the directions of magnetic field, particle chain, and compressive loading are parallel (i.e., the middle test condition in the second row of Figure 9), the largest compressive modulus and magneto-induced effect of MR elastomer were observed [80]. In addition, the mechanical properties of MR elastomer under oscillatory squeezing mode were reported by Kallio et al. and Koo et al., respectively [81, 82], which provide valuable experimental data for the application of MR elastomer.
The magneto-dependent compressive experiments of MR elastomers with different particle distribution states [
In recent years, many people pay attention to the rheological behaviors of MR fluid under tensile or squeezing loading, and the results suggest that the yield stress of MR fluids is significantly enhanced due to the squeeze-strengthen effect [83, 84, 85]. However, the tensile and squeezing behaviors of MR gel are rarely studied to date. Therefore, Xu et al. systematically investigated the squeeze flow behaviors (including quasi-static compressive and tensile behaviors and oscillatory squeeze behaviors) of MR gel [86]. It was concluded that the squeeze flow curve of the solid-like MR gel can be classified into three different deformation regions: elastic deformation, stress relaxation, and plastic flow regions. Yield stresses under both tension and compression are sensitive to the particle distributions, the filler concentration, and the magnetic field. In addition, the magneto-sensitive properties of MR elastomer and MR gel under impact compression were also studied [11, 87]. The compressive modulus can still be strengthened by magnetic field even at high strain rate.
Most magnetic fillers (such as carbonyl iron particles [88], nickel particles [89], and Fe3O4 particles covered by silver [90]) are conductive at the same time, so most MR materials also belong to conductive polymer composite. The conductivity of this kind of magneto-sensitive conductive polymer composite is adjusted through external magnetic field except for the particle distribution and particle concentration, presenting a typical magnetoresistance effect [91, 92, 93]. Impedance spectroscopy testing is a nondestructive method to quantitatively detect the evolution of the microstructure, which is suitable for analyzing the microstructure evolution mechanism and the interfacial feature of material. Figure 10 shows a typical experimental setup to test the magneto-sensitive impedance spectroscopy of conductive polymer composite. With this magneto-electrical coupling measurement system, the structure-dependent (Figure 11a) and the magneto-induced (Figure 11b and c) impedance spectroscopy are obtained, and the microstructure-dependent conduction mechanism (Figure 11d) can be further analyzed based on the related experimental results [94].
The magneto-electrical coupling measurement system.
Nyquist plots of magneto-sensitive conductive polymer composite with different particle distribution states (a) and under different magnetic fields (b); the conductivity of magneto-sensitive conductive polymer composite with different preprocessing methods (c); schematic of magneto-sensitive conductive polymer composites with different particle distributions and corresponding interfaces (d) [
Besides, the investigations on the antioxidation [95], durability [96], and thermal conductivity [6] are helpful to the deep understanding on the magneto-induced mechanism of MR materials as well as some specific practical applications.
Magnetorheological effect essentially originates from the discrepancy of magnetic permeability between the continuous phase (the carrier matrix) and the dispersed phase (ferromagnetic fillers). Particular magnetization model (i.e., magnetic dipole model) is the most popular microstructural model to explain the magneto-induced effect of MR fluid [21]. If we ignore the multi-body magnetic interaction between particles (i.e., only the magnetic interaction between adjacent particles in a single particle chain is considered) and the multidirectional magnetization in a single magnetic particle (i.e., simplify the micrometer sized ferromagnetic particles as magnetic dipole), the magnetic moment of spherical ferromagnetic particle within the linear magnetization range is:
where
where
If
When it flows, the rheological properties of MR fluid are related to
where
As the most important rheological parameter of MR fluid, the magneto-induced yield stress can generally be explained from macroscopic and microscopic aspects. The macroscopic theoretical model is usually derived according to the minimum principle of energy. It assumes that the ferromagnetic fillers are spherical, cylindrical, or layered and are dispersed evenly in macroscopic theoretical model [99]. These models based on the sub-microstructure only consider the anisotropy of particle aggregation under small strain while the microscopic models consider the interaction between magnetic particles [100]. Most microscopic models ignore the interaction between the structured particle chains and believe that the magnetic interaction between adjacent particles is the main source of yield stress. Therefore, the yield stress of MR fluid can be well predicted when particle content is relatively low, but the assumption is untenable at high particle concentration, which makes a big deviation between theoretical and experimental results.
Figure 12 demonstrates the schematic of classic single-chain magnetic dipole model. When the material deforms by shearing, an affine deformation happens on the particle chain accordingly, which means that the particle moves horizontally along the direction of arrows as shown in Figure 12a. For this affine deformation, the distance between adjacent particles is identical before and after deformation. This assumption simplifies the deduction of magneto-induced yield stress. The magneto-induced shear yield stress of MR fluid within the linear magnetization range can be obtained based on the affine deformation assumption:
The schematic of single-chain magnetic dipole model [
In the saturated magnetization range, yield stress can be expressed as:
The details for the deduction process of magneto-induced yield stress and the explanation of relevant parameters can be found in the review article about the magnetorheological mechanism written by Bossis et al. [101].
The abovementioned single-chain magnetic dipole model was introduced directly into MR elastomer by Jolly et al. [102]. They predicted the magneto-induced elastic modulus by this model, and the theoretical results fit well with the experiment. Davis also calculated the magneto-induced shear modulus by this model, and he found that the magneto-induced shear modulus reaches a maximum if the volume ratio of the ferromagnetic fillers is 27% [103]. However, the influence of magnetized particle on the surrounding particles is not considered by the magnetic dipole model, and the bias of theoretical results from the fact is growing larger with the increasing particle concentration. Shen et al. realized this problem and modified the single-chain magnetic dipole model by considering all of the interaction of the particles within a single chain, which is more in line with the real situation [104]. A finite-column model based on the experimental results was proposed by Chen et al. [41]. However, this model can only predict the magneto-induced modulus of MR elastomer with low particle concentration.
The abovementioned models concentrate on the magnetic interactions between particles, but different from the MR fluid, a strong constraint effect exists between rubber matrix and magnetic particles for MR elastomer. This constraint will influence the magnetic interactions between particles to some extent. Therefore, the theoretical model of MR elastomer considering the coupling effect between rubber matrix and particles is more reasonable. Chen and Jerrams developed a more general magneto-mechanical coupling model of MR elastomer, which includes the magneto-induced mechanical property of particles, the interfacial slipping effect between ferromagnetic particles and rubber matrix, and the viscoelastic properties of rubber matrix [105]. This model could predict the dynamic mechanical properties of MR elastomer with different particle content or different kinds of rubber matrix, revealing the response mechanism of material to external magnetic field. It is a tendency in recent years that constructing the magneto-mechanical coupling model of MR elastomer bases on the theory of continuum medium mechanics [106], more details about the research progress on the theoretical modeling of MR elastomer can be found in the recent review article [107]. Although the numerical results can be obtained after complex mathematical derivation, these theoretical models can deeply reveal the complicated magneto-mechanism coupling mechanism of MR elastomer, which has guiding significance for the optimal design and the practical application of this smart material.
A lot of work has been done on the magnetorheological mechanism of MR fluid and MR elastomer, yet there are little reports on the magnetorheological mechanism of MR gel. On the one hand, MR gel (especially for the solid-like MR gel) has not attracted wide attentions as a new MR material, and the research on it is not enough. On the other hand, the investigation on the magnetorheological mechanism of MR gel is more difficult than those of MR fluid or MR elastomer due to its intrinsic complex MR characteristics. MR gel possesses both the characteristics of mobility of magnetic particles in MR fluid and the stability of oriented microstructure in MR elastomer. These two features are “contradictory” to some extent, but they indeed exist in solid-like MR gel at the same time. Although the magnetic particles are moveable in the carrier matrix of MR gel, the clustering phenomena of particles in MR gel cannot be interpreted by the theory used in MR fluid because the viscous resistance of polymer matrix is far larger than the resistance from the carrier fluid in MR fluid. It is mean that the Mason number of MR gel is far larger than that of MR fluid, the assumption in fluid is invalid in MR gel. In the meantime, the viscous resistance of polymer matrix to the particle is much less than the constraining force of the rubber matrix to the particle in MR elastomer. After applying a magnetic field, the “solidified” ferromagnetic fillers in MR elastomer can only move slightly from the original position, while the ferromagnetic fillers in MR gel can greatly move under a strong magnetic field and a large applied loading; if the direction of magnetic field is changed, the ferromagnetic fillers can even rearrange to generate chain-like or column-like structure along the new direction of magnetic field. These interesting characteristics that reflect the complexity of MR gel, the rheological behavior of polymer matrix, the magnetic interaction between adjacent fillers, and the interfacial problem due to the relative movement of particle and matrix have to be considered when studying the magnetorheological mechanism of MR gel. In addition, the “huge” change of microstructure after the rearrangement of particles will also make the modeling of the magneto-mechanical coupling behavior of MR gel more difficult.
It is not easy to fully describe the complicated magneto-mechanical coupling behaviors of MR gels. A field theory was developed by Han et al. to describe the magneto-sensitive viscoelasticity of ferrogel based on the principles of non-equilibrium thermodynamics [108]. The responses of ferrogel to different magnetic fields were analyzed by numerical calculation, and the theoretical results consistent with the experimental results under the cyclic magnetic field, which indicates that this theory is reasonable to some extent for the realization to magneto-mechanical coupling mechanism of MR gel. Zubarev evaluated the free energy of ferrogel after tension or compression along with the magnetic field direction by standard methods of statistical physics [109]. The analysis demonstrates that the magnetic field strength, the initial shape of the sample, as well as the particle concentration and the magnetic properties of particles determine the type of magneto-induced deformation (i.e., extension or shrunken). A particle-level molecular dynamics model was employed by Liu et al. to investigate the particle evolution in MR gel under a stable uniform magnetic field [110]. A modified magnetic dipole model is introduced to describe the magnetic interaction between adjacent particles, and this model presents higher precision than classic magnetic dipole model when processing the magnetic interaction of particles close to each other. The rheological behavior of the carrier matrix is described by the Bingham plastic model (Eq. (1)). Some complicated loading methods of magnetic field (such as the rotating magnetic field, as shown in Figure 13), which are difficult to be achieved by experiment, can be easily applied through simulation. With this, the 3D evolution of particular microstructure under complicated magnetic field loading conditions can be obtained, which is very important to understand the microstructure evolution mechanism of MR gel. The microstructure obtained by the particle-level molecular dynamics model matches well with the results by experimental observation under the same loading condition. However, the coupling effect between ferromagnetic fillers and carrier matrix is not considered in this model, and the Bingham plastic model is also too simple to describe the complicated rheological behavior of the carrier matrix; so, the governing equations which describe the physical behaviors of different components within the MR gel need to be further developed.
The evolution process of 3D particular microstructure in MR gel: the initial state before applying magnetic field (a); the magnetic field is parallel with Z axis (b); the magnetic field rotates 45° in the clockwise direction (c); and the magnetic field further rotates 180° in the clockwise direction (d) [
As a smart material whose physical properties can be easily controlled, magneto-sensitive composite (i.e., MR material) attracts more and more attentions in recent years. Many works concentrating on the magnetorheological mechanism and application have been reported. Various MR materials aiming at different practical applications were developed, which shows great application potential.
However, the inherent defects existed in conventional MR materials (e.g., the particle sedimentation in MR fluid, the microstructure control of MR elastomer, the bearing capacity of MR gel as structure unit) preclude their wide application. To this end, from the perspective of material preparation, on the one hand, we need to further improve the conventional MR material aiming at the inherent defects; on the other hand, the novel magneto-sensitive material system which meets the requirements of engineering applications should be developed, which means that we could develop multifunctional smart composite that has the magneto-controllable feature (e.g., magneto-sensitive impact-resistant composite, magneto-sensitive conductive composite, magneto-sensitive heat-conducting composite, and so on). From the perspective of mechanism, magneto-sensitive soft material refers to magneto-electro-thermo-mechanical coupling behavior, and it is difficult to describe the response to external stimuli. The difficulties can be summarized as follows: the description of the exact distribution state of dispersed phase before and after exposed under a magnetic field; the description of the discrepancy of size and shape of the dispersed ferromagnetic fillers; the interaction model between the dispersed phase and the continuous phase; the construction of constitutive model of the polymer matrix in the MR elastomer or solid-like MR gel; and the unification of multiscale model from microscale to macroscale. Considering the complexity of true situation, some necessary simplifications have to be made aiming at specific problem; then, the simplified model which could generally reflects the specific mechanism can be developed after ignoring the secondary factors. The numerical simulation is another effective method to investigate the microstructure evolution mechanism of MR material. It is an important research direction to construct the constitutive model of MR material, which could accurately describe the complicated coupling responses to different stimuli (magnetic field, temperature, strain rate, and so on). It is believed that the engineering applications of magneto-sensitive multifunctional material will be more widely concerned with the further realization on the magnetorheological mechanism and the enhancement of the performance of the material.
The research reported in this publication was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant nos. 11502256, 11502255, 11602242), and the key project “Computational Solid Mechanics” of the China Academy of Engineering Physics. The authors gratefully acknowledge Professor Xinglong Gong and Professor Shouhu Xuan at University of Science and Technology of China for their help on beneficial discussion.
Ove Odredbe i uvjeti ističu pravila i regulacije u svezi korištenja IntechOpenove stranice www.intechopen.com i svih poddomena u vlasništvu IntechOpena, tvrtke sa sjedištem u 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
',metaTitle:"Odredbe i uvjeti",metaDescription:"Ove Odredbe i uvjeti ističu pravila i regulacije u svezi korištenja IntechOpenove stranice www.intechopen.com i svih poddomena u vlasništvu IntechOpena, tvrtke sa sjedištem u 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/cro-terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Pristupom na stranicu www.intechopen.com slažete se s ovim odredbama, sa svim primjenjivim zakonskim odredbama, te se slažete s poštovanjem svih lokalnih zakona. Korištenje i/ili pristup ovoj stranici temelji se na potpunom prihvaćanju ovih odredbi. Svi materijali na ovoj stranici zaštićeni su primjenjivim zakonima o autorskim pravima i žigu.
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\n\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
\n\nKlijent, stranka, vi, vaš odnosi se na vas, osobu koja pristupa ovoj stranici i prihvaća IntechOpenove Odredbe i uvjete;
\n\nKompanija, tvrtka, mi, naše odnosi se na tvrtku IntechOpen;
\n\nStranke, strane odnosi se na klijenta i na nas, ili samo na klijenta ili nas.
\n\nSve odredbe koje se odnose na ponudu, prihvat ili razmatranje plaćanja, a za koja mi pružamo asistenciju klijentu, bilo na ugovoreni ili fiksni način, a s ciljem da se ostvare potrebe i želje klijenta u svezi s našim uslugama, su podložne zakonskim odredbama Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva.
\n\nOsim ako nije suprotno navedeno, IntechOpen i/ili svi davatelji licence vlasnici su intelektualnog vlasništva nad svim materijalima na www.intechopen.com. Sva prava intelektualnog vlasništva su pridržana. Stranice sa www.intechopen.com možete gledati, preuzimati, dijeliti, dijeliti poveznice i printati za osobnu uporabu, a temeljem pravila sadržanih u ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
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\n\nMaterijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
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\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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He is an academic staff member of the Department of Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Selçuk University, Turkey. He manages several studies on sperms and embryos and is an editorial board member for several international journals. His studies include sperm cryobiology, in vitro fertilization, and embryo production in animals.",institutionString:"Selçuk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine",institution:null},{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90846/images/system/90846.jpg",biography:"Yusuf Bozkurt has a BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. from Ankara University, Turkey. He is currently a Professor of Biotechnology of Reproduction in the field of Aquaculture, İskenderun Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include reproductive biology and biotechnology with an emphasis on cryo-conservation. He is on the editorial board of several international peer-reviewed journals and has published many papers. Additionally, he has participated in many international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops with oral and poster presentations. He is an active member of many local and international organizations.",institutionString:"İskenderun Technical University",institution:{name:"İskenderun Technical University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",biography:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev is a senior research scientist at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Russia, and at the Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. He received his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology with his thesis “Genetic variability of the tick-borne encephalitis virus in natural foci of Novosibirsk city and its suburbs.” His primary field is molecular virology with research emphasis on vector-borne viruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, rabies virus, molecular genetics, biology, and epidemiology of virus pathogens.",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",biography:"Amlan K. Patra, FRSB, obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from Indian Veterinary Research Institute, India, in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences. He has more than twenty years of research and teaching experience. He held previous positions at the American Institute for Goat Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA, and Free University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on animal nutrition, particularly ruminants and poultry nutrition, gastrointestinal electrophysiology, meta-analysis and modeling in nutrition, and livestock–environment interaction. He has authored around 175 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. 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