Production of prebiotic carbohydrates
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She has edited 2 books and has had 5 chapters published in international books, and 3 international and 5 national projects, respectively.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Prof. Pekcan received their Ph.D. from the University of Wyoming, United States of America, in 1974. He has more than 362 SCI articles, 26 chapters, and 10 projects and is a member Science Academy in Turkey.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"180256",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Gülşen",middleName:null,surname:"Akın Evingür",slug:"gulsen-akin-evingur",fullName:"Gülşen Akın Evingür",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180256/images/system/180256.jpeg",biography:"Gülşen Akın Evingür graduated from Physics Department at the Yıldız Technical University (YTU, İstanbul, Turkey) in 1996. She completed her Master of Science degree in 2002 at the same department. The titled of her thesis was 'Electrical Properties of Polystyrene”. She received her PhD from Physics Engineering at İstanbul Technical University in 2011. The title of the thesis was 'Phase Transitions in Composite Gels”. She worked as an Assistant Professor between 2011 and 2018, and she is currently working as an Assosciate Professor at Pîrî Reis University, Istanbul, Turkey. She has been engaged in various academic studies in the fields of composites and their mechanical, optical, electrical, and acoustic properties. She has authored more than 60 SCI articles, 92 proceedings in national and international journals, respectively. She has edited \n 2 book, and has had 5 chapters published in international books, 3 international and 5 national projects, respectively.",institutionString:"Piri Reis University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Piri Reis University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"27949",title:"Dr.",name:"Önder",middleName:null,surname:"Pekcan",slug:"onder-pekcan",fullName:"Önder Pekcan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27949/images/system/27949.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Pekcan received his MS Degree in Physics at the University of Chicago in June 1971, and then in May 1974 his PhD thesis on solid state physics was accepted at the University of Wyoming. \n\nHe started his career at Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey as Assistant Professor in 1974. Habilitation thesis on solid state physics was accepted in 1979. He became Associate Professor at Hacettepe University in 1979. \nHe visited ICTP Trieste, Italy as Visiting Scientist between June and August 1980. Between 1980 and 1981 he was a Visiting Scientist at the Technical University of Gdansk, Poland. \nHe worked as Visiting Professor at the Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Canada between 1981 and 1988. \nHe was appointed as full Professor at the Department of Physics, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey and worked there between 1988 and 2005. \nHe became an Elected Member of the Turkish Academy of Sciences (TÜBA) in January 1995. \nHe became the Dean of School of Arts and Sciences at the Istanbul Technical University in 1997. \nHe received the Science Award from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) in 1998. Prof. Pekcan was elected as Member of the Council of TÜBA in 2001 and Scientific Board of TÜBİTAK in 2003, respectively. \nHe was Head of the Department of Physics, and then became Dean of School of Arts and Sciences at the Işık University between 2005 and 2008.\nHe worked as Dean at the School of Art and Sciences, Kadir Has University (2008—2012). \nNow he is Professor at the Department of Bioinformatics and Genetics, Kadir Has University. Since 2012 he is a member of Science Academy. In the last few years Prof. Pekcan’s work covers mostly the area of biopolymers and nanocomposites.",institutionString:"Kadir Has University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Kadir Has University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"14",title:"Materials Science",slug:"materials-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Churchill, Maja Dutour Sikirić, Božana Čolović and Helga Füredi Milhofer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8812.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"219335",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Churchill",slug:"david-churchill",fullName:"David Churchill"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"41117",title:"Resistant Dextrins as Prebiotic",doi:"10.5772/51573",slug:"resistant-dextrins-as-prebiotic",body:'In current days, the way each of human beings live indicates his or her health in the future time. Many factors determine the risk of illnesses, or reversibly, the possibility of being healthy. Being physically active and consumption of appropriate diet are examples of daily routines that may influence the condition of an organism. Lack of physical activity, particularly if associated with over consumption, increases the risk of development of nutrition related chronic diseases, such as obesity, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, osteoporosis, type II diabetes, and several cancers. Over the last decade, drastic changes have taken place in the image and assessment of the importance of the daily diet. Foods are no longer judged in terms of taste and immediate nutritional needs, but also in terms of their ability to improve the health and well-being of consumers. The role of diet in human health has led to the recent development of the so-called functional food concept. A functional food is dietary ingredient, that has cellular or physiological effects above the normal nutritional value. Functional food can contain probiotics and/or prebiotics.
A number of different strategies can be applied to modify microbial intestinal populations. Antibiotics can be effective in eliminating pathogenic organisms within the intestinal microbiota. However, they carry the risk of side effects and cannot be routinely used for longer periods or prophylactically [17, 33].
The consumption of probiotics aims to directly supplement the intestinal microbiota with live beneficial organisms. Lactobacilli and bifidobacteria are numerically common members of the human intestinal microbiota, and are nonpathogenic, nonputrefactive, nontoxigenic, saccharolytic organisms that appear from available knowledge to provide little opportunity for deleterious activity in the intestinal tract. As such, they are reasonable candidates to target in terms of restoring a favorable balance of intestinal species [18, 85].
Prebiotics represent a third strategy to manipulate the intestinal microbiota. Rather than supplying an exogenous source of live bacteria, prebiotics are nondigestible food ingredients that selectively stimulate the proliferation and/or activity of desirable bacterial populations already resident in the consumer’s intestinal tract. Most prebiotics identified so far are nondigestible, fermentable carbohydrates. Intestinal populations of bifidobacteria, in particular, are stimulated to proliferate upon consumption of a range of prebiotics, increasing in numbers by as much as 10–100-fold in faeces [9, 17].
The prebiotic strategy offers a number of advantages over modifying the intestinal microbiota using probiotics or antibiotics.
Advantages over probiotics [17]:
Stable in long shelf life foods and beverages;
Heat and pH stable and can be used in a wide range of processed foods and beverages;
Have physicochemical properties useful to food taste and texture;
Resistant to acid, protease, and bile during intestinal passage;
Stimulate organisms already resident in the host, and so avoid host/strain compatibilities, and the need to compete with an already established microbiota;
Stimulate fermentative activity of the microbiota and health benefits from SCFA (short chain fatty acids);
Lower intestinal pH and provide osmotic water retention in the gut.
Advantages over antibiotics [18]:
Safe for long-term consumption and prophylactic approaches;
Do not stimulate side effects such as antibiotic-associated diarrhea, sensitivity to UV radiation, or liver damage;
Do not stimulate antimicrobial resistance genes;
Not allergenic;
Disadvantages of prebiotics [17]:
Unlike probiotics, overdose can cause intestinal bloating, pain, flatulence, or diarrhea.
Not as potent as antibiotics in eliminating specific pathogens.
May exacerbate side effects of simple sugar absorption during active diarrhea.
A consumed probiotic strain must compete with an already established microbiota, and in most cases they persist only transiently in the intestine. Individuals also harbor their own specific combination of species and unique strains within their intestinal bacteria suggesting that certain host–microbiota compatibilities exist. By targeting those strains that are already resident in the intestinal tract of an individual, the prebiotic strategy overcomes the need for probiotic bacteria to compete with intestinal bacteria that are well established in their niche [12, 17, 89, 103].
The term prebiotics was first introduced in 1995 by Gibson and Roberfroid, defining “non-digestible food ingredient that beneficially affects the host by selectively stimulating the growth and/or activity of one or a limited number of bacteria in the colon, and thus improves host health” [33]. Definition brought up to date by Gibson specified prebiotic as “selectively fermented ingredient that allows specific changes, both in the composition and/or activity in the gastrointestinal microflora that confers benefits upon host well-being and health” [32]. Current definition of prebiotics was suggested during ISAPPexperts’ meeting in 2008 and it states that prebiotic is “dietary prebiotic is a selectively fermented ingredient that results in specific changes, in the composition and/or activity of the gastrointestinal microbiota, thus conferring benefit(s) upon host health” [24, 44].
Substances with prebiotic properties have to possess following properties [42, 74, 114, 116]:
selectively stimulate growth and activity of chosen bacterial strains that have positive influence on health,
lower pH of the bowel content,
show positive for human spot action in the intestinal tract,
be resistant to hydrolysis, action of intestinal tract enzymes and gastric acids,
should not get soaked up in the upper part of the intestinal tract,
should act as a selective substrate for one or for determined amount of beneficial species of microorganisms in the colon,
should be stable in the process of food processing.
In order to evaluate and reason, if the given product is a prebiotic, the source of the substance should be given, as well as its purity, chemical composition and structure. It is very important to specify the carrier, concentration and amount in which it should be given to the host. Relating to the newest definition of the prebiotic, it was decided to type out three main criteria that have to be fulfilled by the substance in order to include it to the group of prebiotics [24].
Substance (component) – it is neither an organism, nor a medicine; substance that may be characterized chemically; in most cases this is a nutrient component.
Health benefits – calculable, exceeding any adverse effects.
Modulation – represents, that the presence of the substance and the preparatory, in which it is handled, changes the composition or activity of host microflora.
Prebiotics, similarly to other nutrient elements, have to fulfill certain safety parameters established in a given county. In the assessment of the final product following points should be taken into account [24, 39], (Figure 1):
If according to the legislation in the country, the history of safe use of the product in host is known (GRAS or its equivalent). If yes, the conductance of the following toxicological tests on animals and humans may not be necessary.
Safe, allowable norms for the consumption with minimal symptoms and adverse effects.
Product must not be infected and it should not contain any impurities.
Prebiotic cannot change the microflora in such a way, to cause a long-lasting harmful effect on host.
Guidelines to the assessment and proof of the action of prebiotics
According to Wang [114] there are 5 most important basic criteria for classification of prebiotics (Figure 2). The first one assumes, that prebiotics are undigested in upper parts of intestinal tract and thus they are able to get to the large bowel where they can be fermented by potentially beneficial bacteria, which in the meantime meets the second criterion [61]. This fermentation may lead to increase in expression of short chain fatty acids, enlargement of faecal mass, some small reduction of large bowel pH, reduction of end nitrogen compounds and decrease of faecal enzymes, as well as general improvement of immunological system of host organism [17]. All these features contribute to improvement of consumer’s health, which is the third criterion for prebiotics. The following one, that has to be fulfilled for the product to be recognized as prebiotic, is selective stimulation of growth of bacteria potentially thought to be connected with health improvement [32]. In order to assess the ability of prebiotic to selectively stimulate positive bacteria of species
PI = (Bif/Total) – (Bac/Total) + (Lac/Total) – (Clos/Total)
Where:
Bif –
Bac –
Lac –
Clos –
Total – total bacteria
This PI allows to track the changes in the population in the given time in vitro conditions. At last, but not least, prebiotic should be able to survive the conditions in which the food would be stored, remain unchanged chemically and be accessible for bacteria metabolism [71].
Criteria for prebiotics classification
The impact of prebiotics on the organism is indirect, because prebiotics do not do anything healthy for it, but they improve microorganisms that are beneficial [43]. The mechanism of how prebiotics influence the human health is presented on the Figure 3.
It is thought, that molecular structure of prebiotics is important taking into consideration the physiological effects, and that it determines which microorganisms are actually able to use that prebiotics. However, the way and progress of the stimulation of bacterial growth still remains unknown.
The most important function of prebiotic action is its influence on the microorganisms’ growth and number in the large bowel [55, 90]. Going further, the tests have been conducted in order to investigate the potential ant pathogenic and anticancer action of prebiotics, their ability to decrease the presence of large bowel diseases [57]. A lot of different potential beneficial influences on human organisms are being sought, and those are, among the others: increase of the volume and improvement of stool moisture, lowering of the cholesterol level, decrease of the amount long chain fatty acids in bowels, decrease of pH in bowels, increase of mineral compounds absorption and raised short chain fatty acids production [1, 21, 90, 114], and the mechanism can be observed on the Figure 4.
Proposed mechanism of prebiotic action
Some prebiotics can be extracted from plant sources, but most are synthesized commercially using enzymatic or chemical methods. Overall, prebiotics are manufactured by four major routes (Table 1). Food-grade oligosaccharides are not pure products, but are mixtures containing oligosaccharides of different degrees of polymerization (DP), the parent polysaccharide or disaccharide, and monomer sugars. Oligosaccharide products are sold at this level of purity, often as syrups. Chromatographic purification processes are used to remove contaminating mono- and disaccharides to producehigher purity oligosaccharide products containing between 85 and 99% oligosaccharides, which are often dried to powders [17].
Mechanism of prebiotic action
Approach | Process | Prebiotic Examples |
Direct extraction | Extraction from raw plant materials | Resistant starch from maize Inulin from chicory Soybean oligosaccharides from soybean whey |
Controlled hydrolysis | Controlled enzymatic hydrolysis of polysaccharides; may be followed chromatography to purify the prebiotics | Fructooligosaccharides from inulin Xylooligosaccharides from arabinoxylan |
Transglycosylation | Enzymatic process to build up oligosaccharides from disaccharides; may be followed by chromatography to purify the prebiotics | Fructooligosaccharides from sucrose Galactooligosaccharides from lactose Lactosucrose from lactose + sucrose |
Chemical processes | Catalytic conversion of carbohydrates | Lactitol from hydrogenation of lactose Lactulose from alkaline isomerization of lactose |
Production of prebiotic carbohydrates
Carbohydrate | Chemical structure | Degree of polymerisation | Method of manufacture |
Inulin | β(2-1)-Fructans | 2 - 65 | Extraction from chicory root and |
Fructooligosaccharides (FOS) | β(2-1)-Fructans | 2 - 9 | Transfructosylation from sucrose or hydrolysis of chicory inulin. |
Galactooligosaccharides (GOS) | Galactose oligomers and some glucose/ lactose/ galactose units | 2 - 5 | Produced from lactose by β-galactosidase. |
Soya-oligosaccharides | Mixture of raffinose and stachyose | 3 - 4 | Extracted from soya bean whey. |
Xylooligosaccharides(XOS) | β(1–4)-Linked xylose | 2 - 4 | Enzymatic hydrolysis of xylan. Enzyme treatments of native lignocellulosic materials. Hydrolytic degradation of xylan by steam, water or dilute solutions of mineral acids. |
Isomaltooligosaccharides (IMO) | α(1–4)-glucose and branched α(1–6)-glucose | 2 - 8 | Microbial or enzymatic transgalactosylation of maltose. Enzymatic synthesis from sucrose. |
Dextrins | Mixture of glucose-containing oligosaccharides | Various | Chemical modification of starch. |
Main candidates for prebiotic status
Different manufacturing processes also produce slightly different oligosaccharide mixtures. For example, FOS mixtures produced by transfructosylation of sucrose contain oligosaccharides between three and five monomer units, with the proportion of each oligosaccharide decreasing with increasing molecular size. These oligosaccharides contain a terminal glucose with β-1→2 linked fructose moieties. FOS produced by the controlled hydrolysis of inulin contain a wider range of β-1→2 fructooligosaccharide sizes (DP 2–9), relatively few of which possess a terminal glucose residue. Even different b-galactosidases used in the production of GOS will produce oligosaccharide mixtures with different proportions of β-1→4 and β-1→6 linkages. Hence, there can be some diversity between the structures of oligosaccharides produced by different manufacturers. The precise impact of these differences in their health effects remains to be determined [17, 100].
There are many oligosaccharides under investigation for their prebiotic potential. Fermentation of some oligosaccharides is not as selective as that of FOS, and their prebiotic status therefore remains in doubt. The main candidates for prebiotic status is provided in Table 2 [26]. There is, therefore, a need for new prebiotic substances of distinct, selective stimulation of growth of lactic acid bacteria, and non-fermented or slightly fermented by other, sometimes pathogenic intestinal bacteria. The search for functional food or functional food ingredients is beyond any doubt one of the leading trends in today’s food industry.
Resistant starch (RS) includes the portion of starch that can resist digestion by human pancreatic amylase in the small intestine and thus, reach the colon. The general behaviour of RS is physiologically similar to that of soluble, fermentable fibre, like guar gum. The most common results include increased faecal bulk and lower colonic pH and improvements in glycaemic control, bowel health, and cardiovascular disease risk factors, so it has shown to behave more like compounds traditionally referred to as dietary fibre [31, 60, 97, 126].
Resistant starch is found in many common foods, including grains, cereals, vegetables (especially potatoes), legumes, seeds, and some nuts [31, 35].
Resistant starch may not be digested for four reasons [30, 38, 60]:
this compact molecular structure limits the accessibility of digestive enzymes, various amylases, and explains the resistant nature of raw starch granules. The starch may not be physically bio accessible to the digestive enzymes such as in grains, seeds or tubers,
the starch granules themselves are structured in a way which prevents the digestive enzymes from breaking themdown (e.g. raw potatoes, unripe bananas and high-amylose maize starch),
starch granules are disrupted by heating in an excess of water in a process commonly known as gelatinization,which renders the molecules fully accessible to digestive enzymes. Some sort of hydrated cooking operation istypical in the preparation of starchy foods for consumption, rendering the starch rapidly digestible. However, if these
starch gels are then cooled, they form starch crystals that are resistant to enzymes digestion. This form of“retrograded” starch is found in small quantities (approximately 5%) in foods such as ‘‘corn-flakes” or cooked and cooled potatoes, as used in a potato salad.
selected starches that have been chemically modified by etherisation, esterisation or cross-bonding, cannot beetherisation, esterisation or cross-bonding, cannot be broken down by digestive enzymes.
Resistance starch is the sum of starch itself and products of her decomposition, that are neither being digested nor absorbed in the small bowel of healthy human [23]. Resistant starch is the difference between amount of the starch exposed to the action of amylolytic enzyme complex and the amount of starch decomposed to glucose during hydrolysis performed by those enzymes [83, 123].
RS = TS – (RDS + SDS)
Where:
RS – resistant starch
TS – total starch
RDS – rapidly digestible starch
SDS – slowly digestible starch
Few types of digestible starch are recognized nowadays [36, 52, 113].
Resistant starch of type 1 – RS1 covers the starch in plant cells with undestroyed cell walls. This starch is unavailable for digestive enzymes present in human intestinal tract, and thus together with fragments of plant tissues passes through the small bowel getting to the large bowel untouched, and there it can undergo fermentation [70, 104]. RS1 is heat stable in most normal cooking operations, which enables its use as an ingredient in a wide variety of conventional foods [31].
Resistant starch type 2 – RS2 is composed of native starch granules from certain plants containing uncooked starch or starch that was gelatinized poorly and hydrolyzed slowly by R-amylases (e.g., high-AM corn starches). RS2 covers scoops of raw starch of some plant species, especially high-amylase corn, potato and banana [70, 104]. Huge size of raw potato flour scoops and hence combined with it limited area of the access for enzymes was considered as the cause of its resistance [73]. But the main reason for the resistance of the raw starch of some plant species on amylolytic enzymes is the structure of its scoops and crystallization type B that us present within them (in the scoop of potato and corn starch). Also other elements of the scoop structure have an impact on the resistance of the starch – such as the shape of the area, size of pores or susceptibility of the starch to germinate. A particular type of RS2 is unique as it retains its structure and resistance even during the processing and preparation of many foods; this RS2 is called high-AM maize starch [31, 117].
Resistant starch type 3 – RS3 covers the substance precipitated from pap or starch gel during the process of retrograding. During the germination of the starch in the lowered temperature and with the proper concentration (1.5% amylose, 10% amylopectin) colloidal solution is formed. Stable starch phase existing as double helix forms reticular structure binding water phase in its ‘eyes’. During the storage of the gel (few hours in lowered temperature) helixes undergo aggregation forming thermally stable crystal structures. Such structures show the resistance to amylolytic enzymes [66, 104]. RS3 is of particular interest, because of its thermal stability. This allows it to be stable in most normal cooking operations, and enables its use as an ingredient in a wide variety of conventional foods [15]. During food processing, in most cases in which heat and moisture are involved, RS1 and RS2 can be destroyed, but RS3 can be formed. Storey et al. [99], classified a soluble polysaccharide called ‘retrograded resistant maltodextrins’ as type 3 RS. They are derived from starch that is processed to purposefully rearrange or hydrolyze starch molecules, and subsequent retrogradation, to render them soluble and resistant to digestion. This process results in the formation of indigestible crystallites that have a molecular similarity to type 3 RS but with a smaller degree of polymerization as well as a lower MW, converting a portion of the normal α- 1,4-glucose linkages to random 1,2-, 1,3-, and 1,4-α or β linkages [25, 31,64].
The definition of presented forms of resistant starch may be presented according to the formulas [83]:
RS1 = TS – (RDS + SDS) – RS2 – RS3
RS2 = TS – (RDS + SDS) – RS1 – RS3
RS3 = TS – (RDS + SDS) – RS2 – RS1
Where:
RS1 – resistant starch type 1
RS2 – resistant starch type 2
RS3 – resistant starch type 3
TS – total starch
RDS – rapidly digestible starch
SDS – slowly digestible starch
Resistant starch type 4 – RS4 covers the starch chemically or physically modified and achieved by combination of these two processes. During chemical modification new functional groups are brought into the starch chain, and they bind to glucose residues. Presence of the substituents and spatial changes in the chain prevent proper functioning of human digestive enzymes. In physical method, during warming of starch in high temperature process of dextrinization occurs, and it may also occur in the presence of acid as a catalyst. One of the products of dextrinization is free glucose, which binds to the chains randomly. As a result of such process between glucose residues, bonds typical for starch and those normally not existing in its chains, arise [13, 70, 124].
Resistant starch type 5 – RS5 is an AM-lipid complexed starch [31, 46], which is formed from high AM starches that require higher temperatures for gelatinization and are more susceptible to retrograde [20, 31]. In general, the structure and amount of starch-lipid in foods depend on their botanical sources. Also, Frohberg and Quanz [29] defined as RS5 a polysaccharide that consists of water-insoluble linear polyα- 1,4-glucan that is not susceptible to degradation by alpha-amylases. They also found that the poly-α-1,4-D-glucans promote the formation of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), particularly butyrate, in the colon and are thus suitable for use as nutritional supplements for the prevention of colorectal diseases [31].
RS is the fraction of starch which is not hydrolyzed to D-glucose in the small intestine within 120 min of being consumed, but which is fermented in the colon. Many studies have shown that RS is a linear molecule of a-1,4-D-glucan, essentially derived from the retrograded AM fraction, and has a relatively low MW (1.2 x 105 Da) [31].
Resistant starch obtained during chemical or physical modification is being investigated nowadays, due to the fact that it possesses some specific physical properties, as well as because of its health benefits [49, 86, 87, 96]. During chemical modification functional groups are introduced to the starch molecule, which then leads to the changes of physical and chemical properties of obtained product, and also it lowers the availability of the starch to amylolytic enzymes, because new functional groups prevent occurring of the enzyme-substrate complex [7]. Chemical modification was found to be advantageous method of decrease of starch digestion, and therefore starch modified chemically may be the source of resistance starch RS4 [15, 36, 70].
Resistant dextrins are defined as short chain glucose polymers, without sweet taste and performing strong resistance to hydrolytic action of human digestive enzymes [68]. In accessible throughout the whole products (resistant dextrin Nutriose, Fibersol) bigger percentage presence of (1→2)-, (1→3)-, (1→6)- α and β-glycoside bonds than in native starch which is the source of getting them [62, 115].
During warming of starch in high temperature, with or without addition of catalyst (usually acidic) dextrinization of starch is observed. Dextrinization is a complex process taking chemical side of it into account. It covers depolymerization, transglucolyzation and repolymerization [122].
During warming of wet starch random bonds (1→4) and rarely (1→6) hydrolytically break. Intermediate form in this reaction is either oxycarbonic ion, or free radicals [105].
Most probably, dextrinization undergoes the mixed mechanism. In case of warming of dry starch (or with a low moisture content), bonds (1→6) are made between two starch chains and intramolecular dehydration coincides, which results in development of 1,6-anhydro-β-D-glucose. In such a way only extreme glucose units with free hydroxyl group within anomeric carbon atom may react. In both cases exuded water has hydrolytic character. With the temperature equal to about 290°C α-(1→4)-glycosidic bondsbegin to break. However during dextrinization not only bond breaking is observed, but also the isomerization (e.g. through mutarotaion) or formation of new bonds. Hydroxyl groups at C-2, C-3 or C-6 glucose unit act on oxycarbonic ions or free radicalsand transglycolization, which is based on formation of (1→2), (1→3) and (1→6) bonds, undergoes. This process leads to formation of branched dextrins. Because of spherical considerations, and maybe also thermodynamic ones, formation of (1→6) bonds is privileged. 1,6-anhydro-β-D-glucose is formed, which easily forms polymers, leads to formation of 4-O-α-D-, 4-O-β-D-, 2-O-α-D- and 2-O-β-D-glukopiranozylo-1,6-dihydro-β-D-glucopyranose [105, 122].
In the next stage following reactions have to be taken into account:
reversion, that is the reaction between glucose units leading to formation of (1→6)-glycosidic bonds,
reaction between (1→6)-anhydro-β-D-glucopyranose and free radicals with formation of 1,6-glycosidic bonds,
recombination.
From all presented reactions the most characteristic and dominating one is transglycolisation. Formation of bonds other than typical for starch (1→4) and (1→6) causes that the received product becomes unavailable for human digestive enzymes and shows properties of resistant starch.
In the presence of acidic catalyst dextrinization process progresses a bit differently. First the hydrolysis undergoes, and in the result of it (1→6) bonds break, but (1→4) bonds stay untouched. In this way, white dextrins are formed. Because (1→6) bonds are more resistant to hydrolysis than (1→4) bonds, these last ones undergo transformation into (1→6) bonds [105].
The role of basic catalyst in dextrinization process is not well known. The only thing know is that in this process deprotonating of hydroxyl groups at C-2 and C-3 is the first stage. In the presence of oxidating agents atom C-1 of terminal glucose units are being oxidized to carboxyl group [105]. Summing up, as a result of hydrolysis the reductive ends of the starch become glucose cations, which undergo intramolecular dehydration forming (1→6)-anhydro-β-D-glucopyranose unit or they take part in formation of intermolecular bonds (transglycolization). As a result of this process random glycosidic (1→2), (1→3) bonds are formed [68]. Formation of bonds other than typical for starch, i.e. (1→4) and (1→6) causes that end product doesn’t undergo hydrolysis through the human digestive enzymes [115].
In the process of formation of resistant dextrin, piroconversion is the first stage, and it covers following steps: thermolysis, transglucolysis, regrouping and repolymerisation. Starch thermolysis leads to breaking of α-D-(1→4) and α-D-(1→6) glycosidic bonds, which then leads to the formation of of products with lower molecular mass and higher viscosity and reducing sugars content. After transglucolysis recombination of hydrolyzed starch fragments with free hydroxyl groups happens, and formation of strongly branched structures. Repolymerisation of glucose and oligosaccharides with formation of high molecular compounds is done in high temperature and presence of acidic catalyst (e.g. hydrochloric acid) [68]. Achieved pirodextrins are the mixture of poli- and oligosaccharides with a different degree of polimerisation (DP), and simultaneously with different molecular mass. Pirodextrins are subjected to enzymatic hydrolysis or chromatography – stages, which aim is to reduce the fractions other than typical for the starch (i.e. containing bonds other than α-D-(1→4) and α-D-(1→6) glycosidic ones [6, 81, 118].
Chemical modification has long been known to inhibit in vitro digestibility of starch, the extent of which is related to the type and degree of modification, the extent of gelatinization, and the choice of enzyme [117, 119]. Starch phosphates [45], hydroxypropyl starches [51, 121], starch acetates [120], phosphorylated starch [86, 94, 119], and citrate starches [117, 124] have been tested for enzymatic degradation previously. In previous studies have been suggested that the substituted groups hindered enzymatic attack and thus also made neighboring bonds resistant to degradation. Chemical substitution of starch reduces its enzyme digestibility, probably because the bulky derivatizing groups sterically hinder formation of the enzyme-substrate complex [7]. The largest change in digestibility has been achieved through cross-linking of starch [119]. The application of organic acids, as citric acid and tartaric acid as derivatizing agents seemed to be profoundly safe. These acids are nutritionally harmless compared to other substances used for chemical modification [123]. When citrate starches were fed to rats no pathological changes could be found in comparison to native wheat and corn starches [117].
Potato starch in a natural form has limited possibilities to be used, and its chemical structure and physical properties give possibilities to many modifications, also those leading to formation of resistant substances to amylolytic enzymes. Big hopes are laid on usage of products with modified starch, especially resistant starch and resistant dextrin as substances with prebiotic properties.
Kapusniak et al. [47] resistant dextrin was receive by simultaneous pyroconversion and chemical modification (esterification/ cross-linking) of potato starch in the presence of hydrochloric acid as catalyst of dextrinization process, and citric acid as derivatizing agent. Potato starch was modified by thermolysis in the presence of acid catalyst in a sealed container at 130°C for 180 min. The effect of addition of multifunctional polycarboxylic acids (citric and tartaric) on the progress of dextrinization process, structure and properties of resulting products was investigated [47]. It seems likely that probiotic activity will be exhibited by dextrin obtained by simultaneous thermolysis and chemical modification of potato starch in the presence of a volatile inorganic acid (hydrochloric acid) as a catalyst of the dextrinization process and an excess amount of an organic acid (tartaric acid) as a modifying factor. Kapuśniak et al. [47, 48] analyzed this dextrin in terms of the solubility and pH of its 1% aqueous solution, the content of reducing sugars, molecular mass distribution, weight average molecular mass using high performance size-exclusion chromatography (HPSEC), average chain length using high performance anion exchange chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection (HPAEC-PAD), and the content of the resistant fraction using the enzymatic-gravimetric method AOAC 991.43, the enzymatic-gravimetric-chromatographic method AOAC 2001.03 [69], the enzymatic-spectrophotometric method [23] and the pancreatin-gravimetric method [94]. It was shown that the use of tartaric acid in the process of starch thermolysis yielded acidic dextrin characterized by high water solubility (about 68%) and a high content of reducing sugars (about 29%). The studies showed that dextrin modified with tartaric acid did not contain any traces of unreacted starch, and the percentage share of the main fraction (having a weight average molecular mass of about 1.800 g/mol) was 80%. The average length of the carbohydrate chain in dextrin obtained with tartaric acid was 8.2 as determined by means of HPAEC. A study by Kapuśniak et al. [47] revealed that the content of the resistant fraction in dextrin modified with tartaric acid, determined by means of the AOAC 991.43, amounted to 44.5%. However, results obtained by the Engllyst [43] enzymatic-spectrophotometric method showed that the actual content of the resistant fraction was above 68%. Kapuśniak et al. [47, 48] used the official AOAC 2001.03 method to determine the content of the resistant fraction in dextrin modified with tartaric acid. This method is the latest approved method for determining total content of dietary fiber in foods containing resistant maltodextrins. Apart from measuring the content of insoluble dietary fiber and the high molecular weight fractions of soluble fiber, this method makes it possible to determine resistant oligosaccharides (by using high-performance liquid chromatography, HPLC). The total content of dietary fiber in dextrin modified with tartaric acid was about 50% [47, 48]. In the Engllyst method, fractions undigested after 120 min are considered resistant. In the pancreatin-gravimetric method, similarly as in the Engllyst method, samples are digested with pancreatin, but resistant fractions are determined gravimetrically only after 16 h. In the case of dextrin modified with tartaric acid, the results of determination by the pancreatin-gravimetric method (67%) were similar to those obtained in the previous studies using the Engllyst method (68%), but much higher than those obtained using the AOAC 2001.03 method (50%) [43, 47]. The observed differences among the various methods in terms of the measured content of the resistant fraction in dextrin modified with tartaric acid was caused by the fact that, according to the latest reports, enzymatic-gravimetric methods (including AOAC 2001.03) using thermostable α-amylase can determine only part of resistant starch type 4 [124]. Based on the enzymatic tests, it can be argued that dextrin obtained using an excessive amount of tartaric acid may be classified as resistant starch type 4.
Resistant starch has a long history of safe consumption by humans and is a natural component of some foods. Intakes vary but are generally low, particularly in Western diets. Similar to soluble fibre, a minimum intake of resistant starch (5 - 6 g) appears to be needed in order for beneficial reductions in insulin response to be observed. Estimates of daily intake of resistant starch range from 3 to 6 g/day (averaging 4.1 g/day) [4, 31]. As a food ingredient, resistant starch has a lower calorific (8 kJ/g) value compared with fully digestible starch (15 kJ/g) [31, 78], therefore it can be a substitutive of digestible carbohydrates, lowering the energy content of the final formulation. Some resistant starch products are also measured as total dietary fibre in standard assays, potentially allowing high-fibre claims [31, 35].
Resistant starch can be fermented by human gut microbiota, providing a source of carbon and energy for the 400 - 500 bacteria species present in this anaerobic environment and thus potentially altering the composition of the microbiota andits metabolic activities. The fermentation of carbohydrates by anaerobic bacteria yields SCFA, primarily composed of acetic, propionic, and butyric acids, which can lower the lumen pH, creating an environment less prone to the formation of cancerous tumours [31, 126].
RS consumption has also been related to reduced post-prandial glycemic and insulinemic responses, which may have beneficial implications in the management of diabetes, and is associated with a decrease in the levels of cholesterol and triglycerides. Other effects of resistant starch consumption are increased excretion frequency and faecal bulk, prevention of constipation and hemorrhoids, decreased production of toxic and mutagenic compounds, lower colonic pH, and ammonia levels. Considering that nowadays several diseases result from inadequate feeding, and that some may be related to insufficient fibre intake, it is reasonable to assume that an increased consumption of indigestible components would be important [31].
Resistant starch enhance the ileal absorption of a number of minerals in rats and humans. Lopez et al. [59] and Youneset al. [128] reported an increased absorption of calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron and copper in rats fed RS-rich diets. In humans, these effects appear to be limited to calcium [16, 30, 107]. Resistant starch could have a positive effect on intestinal calcium and iron absorption. A study to compare the apparent intestinal absorption of calcium, phosphorus, iron, and zinc in the presence of either resistant or digestible starch showed that a meal containing 16.4% RS resulted in a greater apparent absorption of calcium and iron compared with completely digestible starch [30, 65].
Liu and Xu [58] showed that resistant starch dose-dependently suppressed the formation of colonic aberrant crypt focionly when it was present during the promotion phase to a genotoxic carcinogen in the middle and distal colon, suggesting that administration of resistant starch may retard growth and/or the development of neoplastic lesions in the colon. Therefore, colon tumorigenesis may be highly sensitive to dietary intervention. Adults with preneoplastic lesions in their colon may therefore benefit from dietary resistant starch. This suggests the usefulness of resistant starch as a preventive agent for individuals at high risk for colon cancer development [30, 58].
Short chain fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and resistant starch (RS) may act synergistically (by combining, and thus increasing, their prebiotic effects) [31, 79], the administration of the combination of FOS and RS induced changes in the intestinal microbiota, by increasing lactobacilli and bifidobacteria in caecum and colonic contents. Several types of prebiotic fibres can be distinguished considering their rate of fermentability. Such role depends on the carbohydrate chain length as it has been demonstrated
Younes et al. [127] was to examine the potential synergistic effect of a combination of these two fermentable carbohydrates (inulin and resistant starch). For this purpose, thirty-two adult male Wistar rats weighing 200 g were used in the present study. The rats were distributed into four groups, and fed for 21 d a fibre-free basal purified diet or diet containing 100 g inulin, or 150 g resistant starch (raw potato starch)/kg diet or a blend of 50 g inulin and 75 g resistant starch/kg diet. After an adaptation period of 14 d, the rats were then transferred to metabolic cages and dietary intake, faeces and urine were monitored for 5 d. The animals were then anaesthetized and faecal Ca and Mg absorption were measured. Finally, the rats were killed and blood, caecum and tissues were sampled. Ca and Mg levels were assessed in diets, faeces, urine, caecum and plasma by atomic absorption spectrometry. The inulin and resistant starch ingestion led to considerable faecal fermentation in the three experimental groups compared with the control group diet. Moreover, both carbohydrates significantly increased the intestinal absorption and balance of Ca and Mg, without altering the plasma level of these two minerals. Interestingly, the combination of the studied carbohydrates increased significantly the faecal soluble Ca and Mg concentrations, the apparent intestinal absorption and balance of Ca, and non-significantly the plasma Mg level. The combination of different carbohydrates showed synergistic effects on intestinal Ca absorption and balance in rats [127].
The example of commercially available resistant dextrin is Nutriose. It is a non-viscous soluble fiber made from starch using a highly controlled process of dextrinization. It is mostly resistant to digestion in the small intestine and largely fermented in the colon. A process of dextrinization includes a degree of hydrolysis followed by repolymerization that converts the starch into fiber by forming no digestible glycosidic bonds. Nutriose is totally soluble in cold water without inducing viscosity [37, 53]. It is produced from wheat or maize starch using a highly controlled process of dextrinization followed by chromatographic fractionation step [28]. Nutriose FB®06, produced from wheat starch, contains approx. 13% of 1,2- and 14% of 1,3- glycosidic linkages [81]. The weight average molecular weight (Mw) and the number average molecular weight (Mn) for that dextrin were nearly 5000 and 2800 g/mole respectively. The residual content of sugars (DP1-2) of Nutriose FB®06 was below 0.5% and it could be considered as sugar free [80]. The enzyme-resistant fraction content, determined according to AOAC official method 2001.03 for total dietary fiber in foods containing resistant maltodextrins, was nearly 85% for Nutriose®06 and nearly 70% for Nutriose®10 [80, 81]. Nutriose has found wide application in food and pharmaceutical industries, as components of fiber-enriched drinks [92], components of a fiber-enriched composition for enteral nutrition [88], granulation binders [93], in the preparation of low-calorie food [11], and sugar-free confectionery [91]. Very well tolerated, Nutriose may be 20-25% of a product’s composition without causing discomfort or bloating. About 15% of Nutriose are absorbed in the small intestine, about 75% fermented in the large intestine, while the remainder (about 10%) is excreted in the faeces [72, 110]. Nutriose induced an increase of the colonic saccharolytic flora and decrease in potentially harmful
Guérin-Deremaux et al. [37] found that the non-viscous soluble dietary fiber may influence satiety. The randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical study in 100 overweight healthy adults in China investigated the effect of different dosages of dietary supplementation with a dextrin, Nutriose, on short-term satiety over time. Subjects were randomized by body mass index and energy intake and then assigned to receive either placebo or 8, 14, 18, or 24 g/d of Nutriose mixed with orange juice (n = 20 volunteers per group). On days - 2, 0, 2, 5, 7, 14, and 21, short-term satiety was evaluated with a visual analog scale, and hunger feeling status was assessed with Likert scale. Nutriose exhibits a progressive and significant impact on short-term satiety, which is time and dosage correlated. Some statistical differences appear for the group 8 g/d from day 5, and from day 0 for the groups 14, 18, and 24 g/d. The hunger feeling status decreases significantly from day 5 to the end of the evaluation for the group 24 g and from day 7 for the groups 14 and 18 g. By day 5, the group 24 g showed significantly longer time to hunger between meals compared with placebo. These results suggest that dietary supplementation with a soluble fiber can decrease hunger feeling and increase short-term satiety over time when added to a beverage from 8 to 24 g/d with time- and dose-responses relationship [37].
Human clinical trials on healthy subjects have shown that Nutriose is well tolerated and able to stimulate the growth of acid-resistant bacteria. We particularly observed a beneficial shift in the bacterial microbiota profile to butyrogenic genera such as
Resistant maltodextrins made from starch are commercially available. Fibersol-2 is well-known soluble, non-digestible, starch-derived resistant maltodextrin [67]. Fibersol-2 is produced from corn-starch by pyrolysis and subsequent enzymatic treatment (similar to the process to manufacture conventional maltodextrins) to convert a portion of the normal α-1,4 glucose linkages to random 1,2-, 1,3- α or β linkages [69]. Solubility of Fibersol-2 in water reaches 70% (w/w) at 20°C. It is readily dispersible in water and highly compatible with dry drink mix applications. At typical use levels, it yields clear, transparent solutions that are near water-like in performance. Fibersol-2 adds no flavor or odor. It has essentially no sweetness of its own. It shows stability to acid and heat/retort processing, including stability in high acid, hot filled, aseptic, or retorted products like juices, sauces, puddings, fluid milks, and sports. Fibersol-2 shows superior freeze-thaw stability. It shows precise and extremely low viscosity and very low hygroscopicity. It does not actively participate in non-enzymatic Maillard-type browning [69]. Fibersol-2 exhibited very important physiological properties. It was fermented slowly, producing less acid and gas than most soluble dietary fiber [27]. Studies indicated that Fibersol-2 could effectively reduce postprandial levels of blood glucose and insulin [109]. Fibersol-2 significantly reduced levels of blood triglycerides and serum cholesterol [125]. By adding stool volume, moisture, and reducing transit time, Fibersol-2 helped maintain good colon health, potentially reducing the incidence of various types of colon diseases and cancers [102]. Fibersol-2 effectively promoted the growth of a variety of beneficial bacteria (naturally occurring or ingested as probiotics) in the colon. In promoting the growth of beneficial bacteria, Fibersol-2 indirectly reduced the presence of undesirable bacterial species [41, 63].
Bodinhan et al. [8] found that a non-viscous resistant starch significantly lowered energy intake after intake of the supplement compared with placebo during both an ad libitum test meal (P = 0.033) and over 24 hours (P = 0.044). Cani et al [14] found that treatment with the fermentable dietary fiber oligofructose increased satiety after breakfast and dinner and reduced hunger and prospective food consumption after dinner, suggesting a role for the use oligofructose supplements in the management of food intake in overweight and obese patients [37].
Kapusniak et al. [47] and Śliżewska et al. [98] enzyme-resistant chemically modified dextrins resulting from heating of potato starch with hydrochloric acid as catalyst and additionally polycarboxylic acids (citric and tartaric acids) were tested as the source of carbon for probiotic bacteria (
In today’s world, life style is an important determinant of health in later life. Lack of physical activity, particularly if associated with over consumption, increases the risk of development of nutrition related chronic diseases, such as obesity, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, osteoporosis, type II diabetes, and several cancers. Over the last decade, drastic changes have taken place in the image and assessment of the importance of the daily diet. Foods are no longer judged in terms of taste and immediate nutritional needs, but also in terms of their ability to improve the health and well-being of consumers. The role of diet in human health has led to the recent development of the so-called functional food concept. A functional food is dietary ingredient, that has cellular or physiological effects above the normal nutritional value. Functional food can contain probiotics and/or prebiotics [33, 40].
The studiessuggests that soluble fibers help to regulate the digestive system, may increase micronutrient absorption, stabilize blood glucose and lower serum lipids, may prevent several gastrointestinal disorders, and have an accepted role in the prevention of cardiovascular disease. It is concluded that supplementation with soluble fibers (e.g. wheat dextrin) may be useful in individuals at risk of a lower than recommended dietary fiber intake.
A prebiotic is a nondigestible food ingredient that beneficially affects the host by selectively stimulating the growth and/or activity of one or, a limited number, of bacteria in the colon that can improve host health [19]. Some carbohydrates, such as fructooligosaccharides (FOS) [10, 34, 75, 101], inulin [75, 76, 77, 112] and galactooligosaccharides (GOS) [84, 108] are well-accepted prebiotics.
Promising sources of prebiotics are starch products, especially resistant starch (RS) [3, 19, 106] and products of partial degradation of starch [56].
The commercial degraded starches are known as converted starches and comprise the “thin-boiling” acid-converted starches, oxidized starches, and dextrins. There are four major groups of dextrins: maltodextrins produced by hydrolysis of dispersed starch by action of liquifying enzymes such as amylase, degradation products by acid hydrolysis of dispersed starch, cyclodextrins, and pyrodextrins produced by the action of heat alone or in a combination with acid on dry granular starch. On the market pyrodextrins are available in three major varieties: British gums, white dextrins and yellow dextrins [5, 105, 122].
In particular, almost every food oligosaccharide and polysaccharide has been claimed to have prebiotic activity, but not all dietary carbohydrates are prebiotics. Conventional fibers, like pectins, cellulose, etc. are not selectively metabolized by gut bacteria. Resistant maltodextrins, being a mixture of fractions of different molecular weight (different degree of polymerization), are dietary fibre, but there are not necessarily selective for desirable bacteria in the gut. Hence, research showing the effect of prebiotic should continue to be performed, both in the in vito and in vivo.
Italy is the second country in Europe for manufacturing production and the nation week in the world from the point of view of industrialization, albeit with a limited territory and population. For many decades, this process of industrialization has had to face various problems relating to situations of risk of accidents at work. Each economic phase involves the definition of different risk conditions. The passage from the industrial model to a tertiary economy and to the “Fourth capitalism” has led many countries to the overcoming of the central function of manufacturing production, for the promotion of a system based on services. This has also happened to countries with a great industrial tradition, such as Italy and Germany. However, this situation has not entirely limited the conditions of exposure to the risk of accidents at work: the maintenance of a significant presence in industrial production has been accompanied by the new risk conditions that characterize the new economic models and which extend to the sector of tertiary and services. For this reason, in the last 20 years, Italian legislation and the system of employment contracts have placed a strong focus on the prevention of risks at work, introducing important obligations for each company and specific figures, such as the Safety Manager. Italy has a very significant law regarding the prevention and protection of health and safety in the workplace, the “Consolidated text for health and safety in the workplace” [1] (Legislative Decree no. 81 of 2008), a national body called Inail which carries out insurance activities, but also for the prevention of occupational risks, information, training, and assistance in the field of safety and health at work and a national inspection agency for checks in companies. However, the issue of exposure to the risk of accidents at work remains a very present phenomenon, which must be considered due to the following in-depth elements, which constitute important aspects of the evolution of the economic and production system, destined to produce effects also in the coming years:
The presence of conditions of exposure to the risk of accidents in small industrial enterprises, in subcontracting and in less structured production contexts;
The evolution of risk characteristics due to technological innovation and digitalization and in the tertiary and service sectors;
The presence, in addition to the risk of accidents and injuries, of increasing exposure to pathologies connected to the phenomenon of “work-related stress”.
This situation must be seen as a whole and determines significant impacts on society and on the health of citizens, which is useful to examine and evaluate.
The primary source of the analysis contained in this essay is the Information System of accidents reported to Inail, the Italian public institution that has insurance and preventive functions to combat the phenomenon of accidents at work. This database is extremely detailed and updated every 3 months and in particular evaluates the trends in the different types of accidents and for the different territories. However, the hypothetical assessment of unreported accidents, especially present in some economic areas and territories, was also taken into consideration. The focus on work-related stress takes into account the compensation claims submitted by workers to Inail, but also in this case the trend phenomenon is taken into account, as many situations may not have been reported. The methodology, therefore, considers the empirical and factual datum, but completes this datum through a phenomenological evaluation of the current trends, in the face of the possibility of having a complaint that does not correspond to all situations of injury or risk. In particular, with respect to the impact of digitization and the role of smart work, a survey carried out by the Foundation for Labor Consultants was considered on a statistically significant sample.
This essay, therefore, proposes, as an innovation of the methodology for the analysis of the evolution of the risk of accidents at work and the worsening of safety conditions, the evaluation, and consideration of factual data deriving from official reports of accidents, including reports of work-related stress, to the public institution Inail, in connection with the phenomenological analysis of trends, supported by correct surveys on an evaluation level. In this way, a more complete assessment of the reality and extent of the phenomena and the evolution of risk factors can be connected to the analysis of what has actually been reported.
Among the various initiatives of Istat, the Italian national research body for statistics, aimed at gathering the information necessary for the analysis of the effects of the health crisis on the economy and society, in May and November 2020, two specific surveys aimed at understanding how Italian companies have experienced such a dramatic phase, with particular reference to the economic, financial and employment impact. These researches constitute an important component in defining the proposed methodological framework.
The phenomenon of accidents at work in Italy is read through the data of the complaints to Inail and shows how the first months of economic recovery in 2021 led to an increase in risk situations and accidents. Among other things, it must be taken into account how reporting to Inail represents a legal and correct method of verifying the accident phenomenon, but how in Italy there is the problem of accidents not reported to the national insurance institution, especially in situations concerning the conditions of irregular work, present above all in some sectors. In any case, the latest Inail report of 2021 [2] shows an increase in the accident phenomenon of particular significance. In the period January–August of this year, compared to the same period of 2020, there was an increase in overall accident reports, a decrease in fatal ones, and a rise in occupational diseases. The reports of accidents at work submitted to Inail by last August [3] were 349,449, over 27,000 more (+ 8.5%) compared to 322,132 in the first 8 months of 2020, a summary of a decrease in complaints observed in the quarter. January–March (−11%) and an increase in the April–August period (+ 26%) in the comparison between the 2 years. The data collected on 31 August of each year show in the first 8 months of 2021 a national increase in accidents while commuting, that is, those occurring on the return journey between the home and the workplace (+ 20.6%, from 38,001 to 45,821 cases), which decreased by 32% in the first 2 months of this year and increased by 59% in the period March–August (thanks to the massive use of smart working last year, starting from March), and an increase of 6.9% (from 284,131 to 303,628) in those occurred on the occasion of work, which fell by 10% in the first quarter of this year and increased by 22% in the April–August period. The number of reported work accidents increased by 6.9% in the Industry and Services insurance management, by 3.6% in Agriculture, and by 29.2% in the state sector. The territorial analysis shows a decrease in complaints only in the North-West (−3.6%), as opposed to the Islands (+ 16.5%), the South (+ 14.9%), the Center (+14, 5%), and the North-East (+ 13.6%).
The increase that emerges from the comparison of the first 8 months of 2020 and 2021 [4] is linked only to the male component, which records a + 14.7% (from 195,612 to 224,400 complaints), while the female one is down by 1.2% (from 126,520 to 125,049). The increase affected both Italian workers (+ 7.8%) and non-EU (+ 14.5%) and EU workers (+ 2.5%). The analysis by age group shows a decline only among the 15–19 year olds (−0.7%), with increases for the 20–49 year-old group (+ 9.9%) and among the over 50s (+3, 5%).
The reports of accidents at work with a fatal outcome submitted to the Institute by August were 772, 51 less than the 823 recorded in the first 8 months of 2020 (−6.2%). The comparison between 2020 and 2021 requires caution as the data of the fatal reports of the monthly open data, more than those of the reports as a whole, are provisional and strongly influenced by the covid-19 pandemic, with the result of not counting a significant number of “late” fatal reports of contagion, in particular relating to the month of March 2020. At the national level, the data collected on 31 August of each year show an increase only in cases occurring in progress for the first 8 months of this year, went from 138 to 152 (+ 10.1%), while those at work were 65 less (from 685 to 620, −9.5%). The decrease observed in the comparison between the first 8 months of 2020 and 2021 is linked both to the female component, whose fatal cases reported went from 83 to 78 (−6.0%) and to the male component, which went from 740 to 694 cases (−6.2%). The decrease concerns the complaints of Italian workers (from 700 to 663) and EU workers (from 41 to 25), while those of non-EU workers went from 82 to 84.
As of August 31, 2021, 12 multiple accidents occurred in the first 8 months for a total of 29 deaths, 17 of which were road accidents. Last year, however, there were six multiple accidents recorded between January and August, with 12 fatal cases reported, half of which were road accidents. The complaints of occupational disease registered by Inail in the first 8 months of 2021 were 36,496, 8735 more than in the same period of 2020 (+ 31.5%), a summary of a decrease of 26% in the January–February period and of an increase of 66% in that of March–August, in the comparison between the 2 years.
The pathologies reported, therefore, start to increase again, after 2020 strongly conditioned by the pandemic with reports in a constant decrease in comparison with previous years [5, 6, 7]. In fact, last year, arrests and restarts of production activities reduced exposure to the risk of contracting occupational diseases. Pathologies of the osteo-muscular system and connective tissue, of the nervous system, and of the ear continue to represent, even in the first months of 2021, the first three occupational diseases reported, followed by tumors, which exceed those of the respiratory system in August.
This situation, which exposes the data of the national information system of Inail, provides for interventions on the system of rules, which the Italian government has announced and which also concern the strengthening of inspection and control activities. However, it seems important to point out the impact that the accident phenomenon continues to have on the social and health system and how the evolution of the economic system has introduced some risk factors that can be addressed not only through increased controls but also through different ways of carrying out the work performance, greater attention to organizational well-being and a widespread introduction of corporate welfare tools. The accident data does not derive only from the introduction of dangerous work tools and the lack of controls in some sectors, but is often a consequence of excessive workloads, the acceleration of work times, and a “culture of performance” and productivity which increases risk margins and which, when it does not cause an injury, in any case, causes an increase in the condition of “work-related stress” [8, 9, 10].
In this context, it becomes useful to analyze the impact of the phenomenon of accidents on the female component of Italian work. Also in this case it becomes useful to analyze the trends shown by the Inail database on the evolution of accident reports reported is more present. This makes this assessment partly underestimated. However, the data show us that in some situations it is women who appear to be more exposed to greater conditions of risk. If we analyze the most consolidated annual Inail data in the period between 2015 and 2019, accident reports [11, 12, 13] presented to Inail increased overall by 1.3% (from 636,674 in 2015 to 644,970 in 2019).
Faced with an increase in female employment equal to +1.1% 1, the complaints and accidents of female workers went from 227,068 in 2015 to 231,128 in 2019, equal to a percentage increase of 1.8%, higher than that recorded among male workers (+ 1.0%), for which Istat recorded an increase in employment equal to +0.3%. In the same 5 year period, the incidence of women in total accidents was almost constant and on average equal to 35.8%. On the other hand, reports of accidents with fatal outcomes among female workers decreased, from 117 cases in 2015 to 97 in 2019, equal to −17.1%, more markedly than the 8.9% reduction recorded over the same period of time among workers. It is important to point out that the incidence of accidents for female workers is particularly high in the domestic and family services sector (domestic workers and carers), with 89.9% of the total complaints in the sector, followed by health and social assistance (74, 2%) and from the packaging of clothing items (70.9%), while in the riskiest sectors of the industry it drops to 2.8% recorded in construction. The complaints related to the insurance policy against domestic accidents (mandatory for all people aged between 18 and 67 who take care of the home in a habitual, exclusive, and freeway), in 2019 were a total of 760 and registered an exceptional increase of 58.3% compared to 2018, when 480 were registered. Almost all (742) concerned women and no cases with a fatal outcome were recorded in 2019, compared to 20 cases in 2015–2018. A truly significant figure is that which concerns the overall complaints of accidents at work “in progress”, that is, occurring on the return journey between home and work, which continue to be for female workers, even in 2019, more than men: 54,299 cases against 51,524. In relative terms, ongoing cases represent 23.5% (practically one in four) of female complaints (231.128) and 12.5% (just over one in ten) of male ones (413.779). For complaints with a fatal outcome, the incidence of this type of accident among female workers is even higher: in 2019, almost one in two female deaths (44 out of 97, 45.4%) occurred in progress, a ratio that for men dropped to about one in four (281 out of 1087, 25.9%). A gender difference that is confirmed by looking at the broader category of accidents “outside the company” (sum of all accidents while traveling and those during work occurring with the means of transport involved) generally attributable to the risk of road traffic: 25.3% (58,396) of female complaints against 16.1% (66,485) of male ones.
For a correct analysis of the phenomenon of accidents, it is necessary to consider how, in addition to issues of a cultural nature, one of the major problems concerning the scourge of deaths and accidents at work—in Italy and beyond—is that relating to the measurement of the phenomenon as when comparing the data between countries, the incidence rates are difficult to interpret. In fact, the probability of going into an injury is, among other factors, related to the work activity that the worker carries out and the weight of the different economic activities varies from one country to another depending on the structure of each economy. Furthermore, a higher number of accidents ascertained at work does not necessarily indicate worse safety conditions; on the contrary, it may indicate a greater propensity to report and therefore paradoxically better protection of the worker. It should also be considered that among the various injured, sick, and dead at work, there is a part of workers in irregular conditions that are difficult to estimate. It should also be considered how in Europe those accidents on the way from home to work or vice versa are not considered in the data, i.e., accidents “in itinere”, which the Italian system instead evaluates and considers from an insurance point of view. In any case, if we consider the pre-Covid data, Italy ranks above the EU28 average (1.8) for the number of deaths at work out of the total number of employees, with 2.3 deaths per 100,000 employed. Among the states most similar to Italy, France recorded a higher figure (2.7); the United Kingdom (0.8), Germany (0.8), and Spain (2) a lower figure. The phenomenon of unreported accidents should also be considered: the “Independent Observatory of Bologna on the fallen from work” believes that a high number of deaths at work escapes the statistics on the phenomenon [14]. This observatory includes in its data irregular workers, unreported deaths, and a portion of fatal injuries not ascertained by Inail. According to the independent Bolognese Observatory, 2019 would even have ended with 1437 workers who died at work: 701 in the workplace, 736 in transit; a figure double that of Inail.
In any case, the accident phenomenon represents a very present reality for Italy and with the increase in accidents coinciding with the resumption of post-Covid economic activities, it appears important to initiate careful preventive action, which also concerns the culture of health at work itself. In this effort, it is also important to point out how risk factors are often linked to the rhythms imposed on the job and not only to a lack of attention to prevention. The data on the evolution of work-related stress and related pathologies constitutes an interesting aspect in this sense (Figures 1–3).
Variation in accidents.
Variation in fatal cases.
Variation in occupational diseases.
If construction and manufacturing activities are still the most significant components of the accident phenomenon, the issue of occupational diseases, with their relative impact on the health system, increasingly concerns the tertiary sector as well. In this context, the phenomenon of work-related stress has grown in recent years, linked to increasingly widespread pathologies. Work-related stress occurs among workers when the demands made on them exceed the ability to cope with it, with harmful consequences for health and mental balance, which are also reflected in the relational life of those affected. Some examples of working conditions that involve psychosocial risks and which could therefore cause work-related stress are:
Excessive workloads;
Conflicting requests or lack of clarity on roles;
Lack of involvement in decision-making processes affecting workers;
Inadequate management of organizational changes, job insecurity;
Ineffective communication, lack of support from colleagues or superiors;
Physical and psychological violence against the worker, perpetrated by the employer or by third parties.
From these situations, characterized by a strong dysfunctional protracted over time, symptoms may arise that can cause real occupational diseases:
Psycho-emotional such as anxiety, fear, obsession, hypochondria, hysteria, paranoia, depression, aggression, low self-esteem, and sleep disturbances, which amplify the risk factors for neuropsychiatric diseases;
Physical, affecting organs and systems such as the cardiovascular system (with consequent arterial hypertension), the gastrointestinal system (with gastritis, gastric ulcer, and ulcerative colitis), the osteoarticular system (with pain in the spine, scapulohumeral periarthritis, and muscle tension), or immune or psychosomatic pathologies (such as dermatitis, psoriasis, hyperhidrosis, skin rashes);
Behavioral, which amplify the risks of accidents, alcoholism, smoking, drug addiction and also compromise the relational and family balance of the worker.
Intense and prolonged stress over time can cause psychosomatic, physical, mental, and behavioral disorders, even severe ones, in workers, with more or less stable effects. By analyzing the relationship between work-related stress and some pathologies, in fact, a directly proportional correlation was identified between the risk of psychological deficit and an increase in work stress. The conditions most often encountered range from mood disorders, to alterations in the sleep-wake rhythm, to interpersonal and family conflicts, up to burnout and depression. A pre-existing psychophysical disorder, such as that of adaptation or post-traumatic stress disorder, can also coexist with one related to work events, sometimes strengthening it. Alongside these psychosomatic and behavioral disorders, the consequences of prolonged work-related stress can also affect the cardiovascular and nervous, endocrine, gastrointestinal, and immune systems. There is also a link between work-related stress and musculoskeletal disorders [15].
In Italy, in the case of pathologies due to work-related stress, in order for Inail to deliver the relative economic services, the worker must demonstrate that the pathology is caused by an adverse working condition, reconstructing (through documentary and possibly testimonial evidence) work environment that contributed to the emergence of occupational stress disease.
Mental disorders can be considered of professional origin, and therefore eligible for compensation by Inail as an occupational disease, only if they are caused, even if only predominantly, by situations of organizational coercion, that is, if they involve clear and relevant consequences on the working position and on the possibilities of carrying out the work. Stress itself is not a disease, but its consequences may be. Continuous exposure to situations and sources of stress can in fact lead to physical and psychological somatization of the problem. In recent years, the evolution of pathologies and the data of occupational diseases in Italy reported by Inail makes evident the presence and growth of the phenomenon of work-related stress.
According to the European Agreement on work-related stress of 2004, stress is “a condition that can be accompanied by disorders or dysfunctions of a physical, psychological or social nature and is a consequence of the fact that some individuals do not feel able to meet the demands or to the expectations placed in them” [16]. Work-related stress can therefore potentially affect every workplace and every worker as it is caused by different aspects closely related to the organization and the work environment.
In Italy, the current regulatory framework, consisting of Legislative Decree 81/2008 and related laws, obliges employers to assess and manage the work-related stress risk on a par with all other risks, in acknowledgment of the contents of the European agreement. In this regard, the Permanent Advisory Commission for Occupational Health and Safety has developed the necessary information for assessing the risk of work-related stress, identifying a methodological path that represents the minimum level of implementation of the obligation. The Department of Medicine, Epidemiology, Occupational Hygiene, and the Environment has developed a Methodology for assessing and managing work-related stress risk and published a specific online platform that can be used by Italian companies to carry out risk assessment pursuant to Legislative Decree 81/2008.
The proposed method offers companies validated tools and specific resources, which can be used by companies following a sustainable and integrated approach, divided into phases, which involve the involvement of prevention figures and workers. The aspect of the risk from work-related stress, also in the assessment of the allowances recognized by Inail, which represent only the most evident and emerged aspect of a much broader phenomenon, show how the evolution of work and its organization, despite the perspective of Fourth Capitalism, it continues to produce conditions of risk to health and safety, whether physical, mental or psychological. In this dimension, the aspects connected to the digitization and its impact on working conditions must also be considered, which the spread of smart working during the months of the pandemic has made it particularly widespread everywhere, even in Italy.
The pandemic had a significant impact on every dimension of the world of work, but the one that was most disrupted was health and safety. The explosion of an event with disruptive potential in terms of risks to the health of workers and the entire population has led, in the space of a few days, to drastic choices with the closure of many activities and to stringent measures that have seen a vast adjustment by part of the companies. These have been committed, both from an organizational and economic point of view, not only to guarantee the minimum prevention measures (from sanitization to the distribution of masks, as many as 98% of Italian companies have done so) [17], but also to provide adequate information to employees (94.7%), provide specific training (90.4%), rotate staff or program staggered access and exits (70%), make various types of tests available to collaborators (52%) and exempt the most fragile workers or with specific assistance problems from the obligation to be present (46.2%). Measures that have transversally affected the business world, from large to small which, despite a 1000 difficulties, have nevertheless adapted their organizational and management models to the standards imposed by the pandemic: standards in many cases onerous, both from an organizational point of view than cheap. The efforts were rewarded by the results, with containment of accidents from Covid in the workplace and causes of mortality: as of March 31, 2021, Inail accounted for 165,000 accident reports from Covid, mostly concentrated in the health sector (67.5%), of which 551 with fatal outcome. This is a high figure, considering the overall impact of Covid accidents on the total of those reported (infections caused by the Sars-Cov-2 virus in 2020 accounted for 23.6% of reports and 33.3% of those fatal), but relatively contained when compared to the effects, in terms of infections and mortality, produced by the epidemic.
At the same time, the widespread use of agile work as the main tool for preventing the spread of infections in the workplace, in addition to containing the risk, has had the positive effect of producing a significant drop in accidents while traveling. This dynamic marks an important discontinuity with respect to the trends of recent years which, in the face of stability of accidents in the workplace, had seen the number of those in transit progressively increase, especially among women.
The development of smart working as a new organizational model, if on the one hand has positive effects with reference to accidents and mortality at work, on the other, poses new challenges in terms of health and safety. A growing responsibility of the worker is necessary and required, who are asked to collaborate to better organize their domestic work station, in order to ensure adequate safety and prevent the occurrence of accidents or the onset of diseases. In this context, the risk margins potentially linked to the safety of a work environment that can vary over time widen (27% of agile workers worked from a place other than their home, even for prolonged periods), which is not said it complies with the minimum plant safety regulations (electrical, fire prevention) or that it has adequate and equipped workplaces and environments according to ergonomic criteria.
To these aspects is added the risk of increased stress produced by the expansion of working times, by performance anxiety, by the weakening of company relations, and by the fear of marginalization, already identified by various surveys by almost half of the agile workers such as elements of the discomfort of working remotely. These are the first elements of an experience that is still being evaluated, but whose impact on the health and safety dimension could be disruptive, both in terms of limiting the accident phenomenon and innovating the prevention and safety logic, which must be made more functional to the new organizational models. The emergency, in addition to making “the risk” tangible and real, has brought this dimension to the center of the strategies and of the company organization, paving the way for an unexpected coincidence of interests between the parties: health protection on the one hand, and safeguarding business activity on the other. An important step which, induced by the emergency of the moment and the need to adopt all the necessary measures to contain risks and infections, also resulted in the launch of a more participatory model of health and safety management in the company, which has become a shared value between all the parties, who have undertaken to implement, in a logic of prevalent collaboration, the most suitable measures to protect the health of workers on the one hand and the business activity on the other. The extraordinary survey carried out by Istat in December 2020 [17] on Italian companies with more than three employees, clearly highlights from this point of view the significant effort made by Italian companies to adapt to health protocols and the new rules and obligations imposed by the pandemic. It should be considered that 58.7% of the companies had to make changes to the work environments to ensure spacing, through the use of barriers, signs to trace different paths: a measure that is strongly conditioned by the size of the structures, affecting especially the large ones with more than 250 employees, where “structural” interventions were made by 85.9% and to a lesser extent, but still important, the small ones, as even among companies with less than 10 employees, are 57% are involved in these types of initiatives. In the face of the measures relating to the work environment, the companies had to make important organizational interventions to ensure safety within the premises, in compliance with the health protocols provided. The experience of the last year has led to new leadership of companies and employees in the management of safety at work, which could mark an important step towards a more participatory and shared intervention logic.
The challenge of the Fourth Capitalism, the ongoing digitization, and the characteristics of the new organizational models of work entail in any case new risk factors for the health of citizens, which must be faced with tools, rules, and with a different culture of prevention, of work, and corporate well-being.
What is dealt with in Italy by the institutions responsible for preventing and combating the phenomenon of accidents at work finds an international reference at the institutional level, first of all in the role of the International Labor Organisation (ILO), the World Labor Organization.
Worldwide, it is estimated that every 15 sec a worker dies on the job due to an accident at work or an occupational disease. Every 15 sec, 153 workers have an accident at work. It is also estimated that 6300 people die every day from work-related accidents or occupational diseases, causing more than 2.3 million deaths a year. The injuries which are prolonged work on-site annually 317 million, many of which involve sick leave from work. The human cost of these tragedies is enormous and the economic burden of inadequate occupational safety practices is estimated to be 4% of the world’s gross domestic product each year.
The work that the ILO carries out in the field of health and safety at work intends to develop and increase awareness, worldwide, of the consequences of accidents, injuries, and occupational diseases in the workplace, through information and assistance activities for all male and female workers internationally, and supporting practical action at all levels. The ILO has adopted more than 40 conventions and recommendations relating specifically to occupational health and safety and has adopted over 40 codes of conduct. The recommendations and indications of the ILO constitute an important reference for the action of governments and in particular the Italian government, in its law enforcement policies, has carefully followed the various ILO indications, in particular in recent months on aspects relating to the return to the work safely during the Covid-19 pandemic. In particular, the ILO document of May 2020 [18], which defines the actions necessary for returning to work in safe conditions, should be mentioned. This tool provides guidance to employers, workers, and their representatives on preventive measures for a safe return to work in the context of Covid-19. The tool follows the ILO’s established principles and methods on risk management for occupational safety and health and requires the involvement of workers. The tool must be adapted to national guidelines and does not address higher risk sectors, such as health services, and has been considered in the provisions adopted by the Italian government in recent months.
The European reference institution is the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work Occupational Safaty and Health Administration (EU-OSHA). This institution works to make EU workplaces safer, healthier, and more productive, for the benefit of companies, workers, and governments, and to foster a culture of risk prevention aimed at improving working conditions in Europe. In particular, these EU-OSHA benchmark actions need to be considered:
Healthy and Safe Workplace campaigns: these biennial campaigns raise awareness of occupational health and safety (OSH) issues in Europe;
The online interactive risk assessment (OiRA) project, which provides online tools for small and medium-sized enterprises to assess and manage risks in the workplace;
The European Survey Of Entreprises On New And Emerging Risks (ESENER) survey: this comprehensive survey offers an instant description of how to manage health and safety risks in European workplaces;
Forecasting projects: which highlight new and emerging OSH risks with specific forecasting projects.
The institutions that operate in Italy for prevention and safety at work act using the instrumentation and analysis carried out by the European OSHA Agency. In recent months, EU-OSHA is implementing a series of forecasting projects aimed at assessing the possible effects of new technologies and new ways of working as well as social changes on the health and safety of workers. Projects aim not only to identify new risks as they emerge but also to anticipate changes that could affect health and safety in the workplace. EU-OSHA foresight projects use a variety of methods, including literature reviews, expert consultations, and scenario development.
The purpose of this work program is to inform policymakers and to help define priorities for action and research. Foresight studies can have a major impact on decisions to be made, for example by helping policymakers find innovative solutions and promoting a long-term strategic approach.
The reference European policies and the indications of the European Commission must then be considered, which constitute the priority area of international health security for Italy. In this sense, the provisions of the EU Strategic Framework on health and safety in the workplace 2021–2027 must be considered: “Safety and health at work in a changing world of work” [19]. EU legislation on health and safety at work (OSH) is essential to protect the health and safety of the nearly 170 million workers in the EU. Protecting people from risks to health and safety in the workplace is in fact a key element in guaranteeing decent and lasting working conditions for all workers. This has made it possible to reduce occupational health risks and improve OSH standards within the EU and across all sectors. However, challenges remain, and the covid-19 pandemic has exacerbated the risks that need to be addressed. The protection of the health and safety of workers, enshrined in the Treaties and the Charter of Fundamental Rights, is one of the basic elements of an EU economy serving citizens. The right to a safe and healthy workplace is reflected in Principle 10 of the European Pillar of Social Rights and is fundamental to achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, as well as being a constituent element of the European Union of health in progress of development.
The new OSHA 2021–2027 framework, announced in the European Pillar of Social Rights Action Plan, sets out the priorities and key actions needed to improve the health and safety of workers over the next few years in the post-world context pandemic, characterized by green and digital transitions, economic and demographic challenges, and the evolution of the concept of the traditional work environment.
Undoubtedly, smart working has had a very positive effect in terms of contraction of the accident phenomenon, allowing an important reduction of accidents during the journey that have always presented greater criticalities both in terms of management and prevention, also because they are not immediately related to the working environment. However, the evolution towards an agile work model, made up of growing hybridization between face-to-face and remote activities, also poses new challenges in terms of managing the health and safety of workers. Beyond the indications of the law, and the employers’ provisions, it is evident that some typical elements of smart working, of remote work, as it has taken shape in the experience of the last year, raise many questions about the actual capacity for the protection of the health and safety of workers, where, beyond the training and training obligations of the employer, a large part of the responsibility is entrusted to the worker: think of the necessary electrical and fire safety to be guaranteed inside the elected home workplace, at the workstation, which must be defined and equipped according to ergonomic criteria or the possibility of carrying out work remotely from places and contexts other than the usual, for which it is difficult to imagine that conditions and safety procedures.
Mobility from one workplace to another, outside the company, represents a potential factor in increasing health risks. The alternation of places increases the risk of the inadequacy of domestic workstations, which already appears to be a “critical” factor for the health of workers. A survey carried out by the Labor Consultants Studies Foundation shows that in Italy [20], in May 2021, almost half of the employed working from home (48.3%, estimated at 2.6 million employees) complained of the onset of problems physical resulting from this aspect; an element that is particularly accentuated among men (50.4%) and among young people, where 53.6% report this type of problem. This is a fact attributable to the presumed less attention in compliance with procedures and precautions aimed at protecting health, which grows in contrast with advancing age, but also to the more frequent movement to workplaces other than one’s home, which presumably present greater limits in terms of safety and suitability of the workstations.
Another aspect worthy of attention, for the implications in terms of health and well-being of the worker, is the increase in work stress, generated by the dilation of time, by performance anxiety, by the weakening of company relations, all aspects highlighted by the survey cited as a direct consequence of the use of agile work and which together can contribute to causing an increase in work-related stress and particular pathologies connected to it. According to this survey, almost half of smart working workers complain of greater stress and performance anxiety. Even the distortion of relationships with colleagues, bosses, customers, based on physical distancing, in the long-run has counterproductive effects for about one worker out of two: 49.7% in fact report the worsening of the climate in the company, the weakening of working relationships; 47% feel marginalized with respect to the dynamics of organizations, while about 40% begin to report real disaffection towards work. Finally, about a third (33%) declare that remote work is penalizing their career and professional growth.
The digitization of the way the work is carried out must therefore be considered for what it really is: it is not the mere introduction of new technical and organizational tools, but the promotion of a real context, a different environment that determines an overall impact on conditions of work and can lead to opportunities and problems at the same time. In general, the analysis of the trend in these months of progressive exit from the pandemic of accidents at work, occupational diseases, and the impact of smart working and work stress confirms that in this historical phase it is very important to avoid changes in the work induced by the economy compromise the conditions of well-being, human relations, and the reconciliation between lifetimes and work times. The challenge of well-being at work is the factor that goes with a decrease in the risk of accidents and illnesses. This is true in Italy as in the rest of Europe.
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We observed that the dielectric shell thickness affects considerably the sensibility of the sensor when analyzing the change in other parameters of the CSNps array.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Nadson Welkson Pereira de Souza, Jefferson Souza Costa, Rafael\nCorrea dos Santos, André Felipe Souza da Cruz, Tommaso Del Rosso\nand Karlo Queiroz da Costa",authors:[{id:"25711",title:"Dr.",name:"Karlo",middleName:"Queiroz",surname:"Costa",slug:"karlo-costa",fullName:"Karlo Costa"},{id:"209124",title:"MSc.",name:"Nadson",middleName:null,surname:"Souza",slug:"nadson-souza",fullName:"Nadson Souza"},{id:"209125",title:"MSc.",name:"Jefferson",middleName:null,surname:"Costa",slug:"jefferson-costa",fullName:"Jefferson Costa"},{id:"209126",title:"Mr.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Santos",slug:"rafael-santos",fullName:"Rafael Santos"},{id:"209127",title:"Mr.",name:"Andre",middleName:null,surname:"Cruz",slug:"andre-cruz",fullName:"Andre Cruz"}]},{id:"34987",doi:"10.5772/35925",title:"Recent Advances in Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Gas Diffusion in Metal Organic Frameworks",slug:"recent-advances-in-molecular-dynamics-simulations-of-gas-diffusion-in-metal-organic-frameworks",totalDownloads:3815,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"1966",slug:"molecular-dynamics-theoretical-developments-and-applications-in-nanotechnology-and-energy",title:"Molecular Dynamics",fullTitle:"Molecular Dynamics - Theoretical Developments and Applications in Nanotechnology and Energy"},signatures:"Seda Keskin",authors:[{id:"106387",title:"Prof.",name:"Seda",middleName:null,surname:"Keskin",slug:"seda-keskin",fullName:"Seda Keskin"}]},{id:"57687",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70523",title:"Magneto-Elastic Resonance: Principles, Modeling and Applications",slug:"magneto-elastic-resonance-principles-modeling-and-applications",totalDownloads:1778,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The magnetostriction effects are first discussed in the frame of the magneto-elastic resonance to define important values mainly the magneto-elastic coupling factor, k33. We review the different magnetostrictive materials according to their developments, with a special attention to amorphous ribbons to design magnetostrictive resonators. Furthermore, we focus on the current instrumental setups including their limitations, and then on the usual measurement procedures of the resonators, particularly the frequency domain measurement. In addition, an innovative approach based on the magneto-elastic impedance is reported, together with an analytical model which establishes the complete transfer function between the input and output voltages. This model is applied to ribbon-shaped materials, particularly to determine the magneto-elastic coupling factor. These resonators are suitable to sensing applications, i.e., to estimate the influential quantities such as the temperature, magnetic fields and mass stuck on the resonating surface.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Yannick Le Bras and Jean-Marc Greneche",authors:[{id:"207634",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannick",middleName:null,surname:"Le Bras",slug:"yannick-le-bras",fullName:"Yannick Le Bras"},{id:"216492",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Greneche",slug:"jean-marc-greneche",fullName:"Jean-Marc Greneche"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56538",title:"Stochastic Resonance and Related Topics",slug:"stochastic-resonance-and-related-topics",totalDownloads:1718,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The stochastic resonance (SR) is the phenomenon which can emerge in nonlinear dynamic systems. In general, it is related with a bistable nonlinear system of Duffing type under additive excitation combining deterministic periodic force and Gaussian white noise. It manifests as a stable quasiperiodic interwell hopping between both stable states with a small random perturbation. Classical definition and basic features of SR are regarded. The most important methods of investigation outlined are: analytical, semi-analytical, and numerical procedures of governing physical systems or relevant Fokker-Planck equation. Stochastic simulation is mentioned and experimental way of results verification is recommended. Some areas in Engineering Dynamics related with SR are presented together with a particular demonstration observed in the aeroelastic stability. Interaction of stationary and quasiperiodic parts of the response is discussed. Some nonconventional definitions are outlined concerning alternative operators and driving processes are highlighted. The chapter shows a large potential of specific basic, applied and industrial research in SR. This strategy enables to formulate new ideas for both development of nonconventional measures for vibration damping and employment of SR in branches, where it represents an operating mode of the system itself. Weaknesses and empty areas where the research effort of SR should be oriented are indicated.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Jiří Náprstek and Cyril Fischer",authors:[{id:"207472",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiri",middleName:null,surname:"Naprstek",slug:"jiri-naprstek",fullName:"Jiri Naprstek"},{id:"213311",title:"Dr.",name:"Cyril",middleName:null,surname:"Fischer",slug:"cyril-fischer",fullName:"Cyril Fischer"}]},{id:"56914",title:"Introduction to Parametric and Autoparametric Resonance",slug:"introduction-to-parametric-and-autoparametric-resonance",totalDownloads:1909,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter will give an introduction to linear and nonlinear oscillators and will propose literature to this topic. Most importantly, hands on examples with numerical simulations are illustrating oscillations and resonance phenomena and where useful, also analytical methods to treat nonlinear behavior are given.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Lukas C. Kurmann",authors:[{id:"208970",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Lukas",middleName:null,surname:"Kurmann",slug:"lukas-kurmann",fullName:"Lukas Kurmann"}]},{id:"57687",title:"Magneto-Elastic Resonance: Principles, Modeling and Applications",slug:"magneto-elastic-resonance-principles-modeling-and-applications",totalDownloads:1778,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The magnetostriction effects are first discussed in the frame of the magneto-elastic resonance to define important values mainly the magneto-elastic coupling factor, k33. We review the different magnetostrictive materials according to their developments, with a special attention to amorphous ribbons to design magnetostrictive resonators. Furthermore, we focus on the current instrumental setups including their limitations, and then on the usual measurement procedures of the resonators, particularly the frequency domain measurement. In addition, an innovative approach based on the magneto-elastic impedance is reported, together with an analytical model which establishes the complete transfer function between the input and output voltages. This model is applied to ribbon-shaped materials, particularly to determine the magneto-elastic coupling factor. These resonators are suitable to sensing applications, i.e., to estimate the influential quantities such as the temperature, magnetic fields and mass stuck on the resonating surface.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Yannick Le Bras and Jean-Marc Greneche",authors:[{id:"207634",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannick",middleName:null,surname:"Le Bras",slug:"yannick-le-bras",fullName:"Yannick Le Bras"},{id:"216492",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Greneche",slug:"jean-marc-greneche",fullName:"Jean-Marc Greneche"}]},{id:"52203",title:"An Introduction to Ensemble-Based Data Assimilation Method in the Earth Sciences",slug:"an-introduction-to-ensemble-based-data-assimilation-method-in-the-earth-sciences",totalDownloads:1631,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In this chapter, the ensemble-based data assimilation methods are introduced, including their developments, applications and existing concerns. These methods include both traditional methods such as Kalman filter and its derivatives and some advanced algorithms such as sigma-point Kalman filters and particle filters. Emphasis is placed on the challenges of applying these methods onto high-dimensional systems in the earth sciences.",book:{id:"5192",slug:"nonlinear-systems-design-analysis-estimation-and-control",title:"Nonlinear Systems",fullTitle:"Nonlinear Systems - Design, Analysis, Estimation and Control"},signatures:"Youmin Tang, Zheqi Shen and Yanqiu Gao",authors:[{id:"147569",title:"Prof.",name:"Youmin",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"youmin-tang",fullName:"Youmin Tang"}]},{id:"56855",title:"Fano Resonance in High-Permittivity Objects",slug:"fano-resonance-in-high-permittivity-objects",totalDownloads:1619,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In this chapter, Fano resonances in simple structures with high permittivity such as spheres or core-shell particles are analyzed by Mie theory. The Mie scattering coefficients can be decomposed into slow varying backgrounds and narrow resonances, which cause the Fano resonances in scattered field. For structures of arbitrary shapes, temporal coupled-mode theory is applied to explain the Fano resonances found in the scattering cross section. At last, we analyze the periodic structures by using band diagram, and it shows that the Fano resonances can be viewed as the superposition of the Bloch wave and the Mie scattering wave.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Xianghong Kong, Lina Qiu and Gaobiao Xiao",authors:[{id:"3782",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaobiao",middleName:null,surname:"Xiao",slug:"gaobiao-xiao",fullName:"Gaobiao Xiao"},{id:"207824",title:"Dr.",name:"Xianghong",middleName:null,surname:"Kong",slug:"xianghong-kong",fullName:"Xianghong Kong"},{id:"207861",title:"Dr.",name:"Lina",middleName:null,surname:"Qiu",slug:"lina-qiu",fullName:"Lina Qiu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"970",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). With consideration of all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, gut, skeletal and smooth muscle, liver, pancreas, kidney, eye) and the interactions thereof, this Physiology Series will address the goals of resolving (1) Aging physiology and chronic disease progression (2) Examination of key cellular pathways as they relate to calcium, oxidative stress, and electrical signaling, and (3) how changes in plasma membrane produced by lipid peroxidation products can affect aging physiology, covering new research in the area of cell, human, plant and animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/10.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 20th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:14,editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. 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From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. He has published more than ninety scientific papers and serves as an editorial board member for Plant Methods, Biomolecules, and International Journal of Molecular Sciences.",institutionString:"National University of Kaohsiung",institution:{name:"National University of Kaohsiung",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:16,paginationItems:[{id:"82135",title:"Carotenoids in Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105210",signatures:"Lovina I. Udoh, Josephine U. Agogbua, Eberechi R. Keyagha and Itorobong I. 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Buchholz and Erik J. Behringer",hash:"e373a3d1123dbd45fddf75d90e3e7c38",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",editors:[{id:"89438",title:"Dr.",name:"John N.",middleName:null,surname:"Buchholz",slug:"john-n.-buchholz",fullName:"John N. Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",biography:"Full Professor and Vice Chair, Division of Pharmacology, Loma Linda University, School of Medicine. He received his B.S. Degree in Biology at La Sierra University, Riverside California (1980) and a PhD in Pharmacology from Loma Linda University School of Medicine (1988). Post-Doctoral Fellow at University of California, Irvine, College of Medicine 1989-1992 with a focus on autonomic nerve function in blood vessels and the impact of aging on the function of these nerves and overall blood vessel function. Twenty years of research funding and served on NIH R01 review panels, Editor-In-Chief of Edorium Journal of Aging Research. 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Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. 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