K-means, fuzzy K-means, and K-medoids algorithm comparison details.
\r\n\tThis book will intend to look at different migrant patterns, voluntary and involuntary migration, over the last three centuries. What influenced people to leave their home countries, family, and friends and settle somewhere else? The book may include histories of the 19th century, consider tragedies and movements activated by political events in the 20th century, and/or look at recent events of the 21st century. Push and pull factors are important points. While most of us may be influenced in a negative way by the current happenings in Eastern Europe, the Russian invasion and resulting tragedies also demonstrate some very positive human traits – the preparedness of Ukraine’s surrounding countries to help those in need and to provide a safe place for the present.
\r\n\tWhether one looks at voluntary or involuntary migration into any country, after a period of adjustment, migrants do play a positive role. The research found that migrants contribute to the economy (food, shelter, employment, tax) and enrich a country’s cultural norms. Prerequisites for successful settlements are that the host society adopts a tolerant approach and that the migrants recognize the law and the language of the host country. Nothing is ever easy or without controversy, but I am a migrant (German Australian), and life in Australia has been relatively harmonious. Issues that could be considered in the book are multicultural societies (do monocultural societies still exist?) and theories of acculturation versus integration (settlement processes).
\r\n\tTwo further issues are very important in relation to human migration. There is climate change, global warming, and the environment, which clearly affect people’s movement. Small island populations are very concerned about rising sea levels. 2021 has also seen floods costing human lives: Turkey (August 2021), Brazil (December 2021), Chile (January 2021), and South India (November 2021), to name but a few. In Australia (March 2022), farms and whole townships in New South Wales and Queensland have been flooded for the second time in five years, and plans to resettle these towns are considered. Official and social media provide ample coverage of the events, which leads me to the next issue. There is today’s very important role of the media, of the official and social media. We are constantly bombarded with images of human war tragedies and flood victims. People in industrialized, western countries must be the best-informed populace. How far do the images and up-to-date TV news influence us, make us change our behavior, and perhaps even consider us more generous than we have been?
\r\n\tClimate change and the media are relatively new to the human migration debate, but both issues play important parts, and some interesting discussions are appreciated.
\r\n\t
Matter can primarily be classified into three states: (1) gaseous, (2) liquid, and (3) solid (or condensed). In gaseous phases, the interactions among particles (atoms, molecules and ions) are very weak, and therefore they move freely. In liquid phases, the interactions between particles are comparatively strong. In solids, particles are closely packed or condensed, making the interactions between them the strongest compared to the other two states of matter.
Condensed matters (solids) are mostly crystalline; i.e., they have a periodic arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules. Depending on the periodicity of the atoms, they form different crystal structures. In nature, there are seven types of lattice structures: cubic (e.g., SrTiO3), triclinic (e.g., FeSiO3), monoclinic (e.g., BiMnO3), orthorhombic (e.g., GdFeO3), tetragonal (e.g., BaTiO3), rhombohedral (e.g., BiFeO3), and hexagonal (e.g., YMnO3). Moreover, completely disordered systems displaying non-periodicity of atoms are called non-crystalline amorphous solids (e.g., glass). In reality, both types of systems show complex physics and chemistry with an immense number of functionalities [1].
Irrespective of their structural symmetry, three types of crystalline solids can be found either naturally or artificially, i.e., made in the laboratory. These include polycrystals, single crystals, and thin films. Polycrystalline materials are composed of many crystallites of various sizes that are oriented randomly (Figure 1a). Due to the random orientation of crystallites, they have many crystallite grains (~1 μm in size) with grain boundaries, twin boundaries and high porosity. As a result, polycrystals are occasionally considered dirty materials, and they show unusual behaviors at low temperature due to disorder. Polycrystals can be nearly several centimeters in size. Typically, the “solid-state reaction” method is used to synthesize polycrystalline materials [2].
Schematics of a (a) polycrystal, (b) single crystal, and (c) thin film. Polycrystals have many grains, whereas the crystal orientation in single crystals is uniform. Moreover, thin films are grown on structurally compatible metal oxide substrates. Polycrystalline figure was taken from Ref. [
Single crystals, in contrast, contain uniform orientations of their crystal lattices up to their edges, even at the macroscopic level; hence, there are no grain boundaries (Figure 1b). Therefore, it becomes easy to determine the various directions of a crystal and measure its properties along a particular direction. As a result, single crystals are regarded to be the cleanest and are very popular among the material science community as they reflect the exact properties of a material. Single crystals are nearly a few mm in size. For the most part, the floating-zone method, Czochralski method and Bridgman-Stockbarger method are used to grow high-quality single crystals [3]. A detailed analysis of these methods is beyond the scope of this chapter.
Thin films consist of very few layers of a solid material. They are typically deposited on structurally compatible metal oxide substrate surfaces (Figure 1c) by various thin-film deposition techniques [5]. Details about various thin-film deposition techniques are discussed later in this chapter. Thin films are those with thicknesses ranging from a few angstroms to several nanometers (~4 Å to 1000 nm). Most thin films are made of oxides, particularly transition metal oxides (TMOs).
TMO thin films are one of the most investigated research topics in condensed matter physics as they show a variety of phenomena, e.g., metal insulator transitions (MIT), high-temperature superconductivity (HTSC), colossal magnetoresistance (CMR), and multiferrocity (coexistence of magnetism and ferroelectricity), as well as those exhibited by high-mobility two-dimensional electron gases (2DEGs), topological insulators (TI), and quantum spin-liquids (QSL) [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. In TMOs, the
(a)-(b) Electronic and structural degrees of freedom in transition metal oxides and their interplay show a variety of correlated multifunctional phenomena in perovskite oxides, for both bulk and heterostructure thin films. (c) Schematic representation of a typical ABO3 perovskite structure (e.g., SrTiO3). Sr-cation is at the center; Ti-cation is surrounded by six O-anion forming TiO6 octahedra cage. Reprinted with permission from [
Perovskites, named after the Russian Mineralogist Count Lev Aleksevich von Perovski, have a general unit cell crystal structure of the ABO3 type, where the A-site is an alkaline earth or rare earth metal and the B-site is a transition metal element (e.g., Fe, Co, Ni, Mn, Ti, Ru, and Ir). The structure can easily accommodate a wide range of valence states in both A- and B-sites (e.g. A+1B+5O3, A+2B+4O3, and A+3B+3O3); so the variety of perovskite oxides is unlimited; for example, manganites, ruthenates, nickelates, titanates, and iridates [25]. CaTiO3 was the first perovskite discovered by Gustav Rose in 1839 from samples found in the Ural Mountains in Russia. The B-site cation of ABO3 perovskites is surrounded by six O anions, forming a corner-shared BO6 octahedron (Figure 2c). This octahedral cage is the most important part of the crystal structure of these materials because the hopping of electrons from one
In bulk polycrystals and single crystals, the shape, size and position of the BO6 octahedra can be manipulated externally by inducing chemical pressure (replacing A-site or B-site cations with other transition metal elements), or by partial oxygen pressure (changing the pressure from the atmospheric one) [6]. Ceramic materials fail structurally under modest strain (typically < 0.1% under strain) as these materials are brittle and thus will crack under this magnitude of strain, limiting the ability of routes involving chemical substitutions to control these materials. Cations with different sizes lead to the distortion of the crystal lattice, which is usually quantified as the Goldsmith tolerance factor [27]
where
However, as a result of chemical substitutions, disorder is introduced into the materials, which in most cases suppresses and even destroys the properties of a material. These difficulties can be overcome in a unique way in thin films by a disorder-free clean route approach. This can be achieved by growing thin films on substrates that are structurally compatible but have different cubic (pseudo-cubic) lattice constants. This is termed “strain engineering” in epitaxial thin films [28]. Once a strain effect is induced in a film, due to the change of energy scales of various degrees of freedoms (lattice, charge, spin, and orbital), it shows novel properties that cannot be found in parent bulk compound. This means that novel quantum-correlated phenomena can be obtained by the strain engineering of oxide heterostructures, which broadens the field and our understanding of condensed matter physics. In the next section, we will discuss how to grow such atomically controlled high-quality thin films and induce the strain effect in TMO heterostructure.
In recent decades, significant advances have been made in synthesizing epitaxial thin films in the laboratory using various deposition techniques [5]. These methods are: (1) pulsed laser deposition (PLD), (2) molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), (3) off-axis radio frequency magnetron sputtering (RFMS), (4) metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD), and (5) chemical solution deposition (CSD). By using these techniques, atomically controlled epitaxial thin films (
In 1986, the successful growth of HTSC YBa2Cu3O7−δ (YBCO,
(a) Schematic diagram of a PLD chamber used for growing epitaxial oxide thin films. (b) Schematic of a layer-by-layer view of two different materials grown on a substrate. Reprinted with permission from Refs. [
The advantages of the PLD technique are: (1)
Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) is also a method used to grow high-quality epitaxial thin films [5, 34]. It was invented in 1960s at Bell Labs by Arthur and Alfred Y. Cho [35]. The overall schematic of MBE is very similar to that of PLD thin film deposition. The only difference is the target material. Instead of a ceramic target, one uses “guns” called effusion cells (Figure 4a) [28, 36]. At the same time, one generates molecules from each cell using a highly intense laser beam (termed “atomic spray painting” by D. G. Schlom, a famous MBE thin film scientist) (Figure 4b) [28]. The spray duration is individually controlled for each beam by shutters. Once all the deposition conditions are satisfied, the ejected molecules travel to the substrate surface, condenses and form a single-crystalline thin film compatible with the substrate crystal structure. One of the main advantages of MBE thin film growth is its extreme cleanliness; i.e., no dirt particles (highly energetic species) or unwanted gas molecules can interfere with or contaminate the single-crystal thin film growth.
(a) Schematic diagram of a laser-MBE chamber for growing epitaxial thin films. (b) Schematic illustration of layer-by-layer MBE thin film growth, i.e., “atomic spray painting.” Reprinted with permission from [
Substrates seem to be the basis of all thin film growth. Choosing a suitable metal oxide substrate is an important factor for growing high-quality epitaxial thin films as the structure and properties of a thin film depends on the underlying substrate and the interfacial interaction between the substrate and film [38]. When choosing a metal oxide substrate for growing epitaxial films, one should consider the following factors:
Lattice matching between the substrate and film, which is important for the growth of most natural state films (structural compatibility).
No chemical reaction between the elements of the substrate and film (chemically compatibility).
Thermal-expansion matching between the substrate and film, as films are generally grown at high temperatures (good thermal-expansion match).
Surface quality of the substrate (e.g., free of cracks, unwanted particles, defects, and impure phases).
In most cases, the lattice constant and structure of a thin film should be compatible with those of the substrate to grow epitaxial films in their most natural state (Figure 5a). For most ABO3 perovskites, their lattice constants range from 3.80 to 4.00 Å [39]. Fortunately, there are many perovskite single-crystal metal oxide substrates available commercially with lattice constants ranging from 3.70 to 4.20 Å [28, 33, 40, 41, 42]. Among various available perovskite substrates, insulating SrTiO3 is the most popular one. It has a cubic structure with a lattice constant of ~3.905 Å. There are also a broad range of substrates available with similar structures to that of SrTiO3 while possessing different lattice constants and crystal orientations. These commercially available substrates include
(a) Structural relationship between the substrate and film. For the most natural growth state of a film, a film’s lattice constant (
Strain engineering is a unique way to create the novel functionalities in epitaxial oxide thin films [40, 41, 42, 43]. From substrate-thin film relation point of view, when the lattice constant of a film (
where
Generally, compressive strain (Figure 6a) is induced in a film when
“
In post-Moore era, electronic devices with multifunctionality may offer a new alternative to replace the current silicon-based technology because the additional value the devices would generate from multifunctionality may create an economically viable path superseding the miniaturization limit of silicon electronic devices. In this perspective, oxide electronics based on multifunctional properties of transition metal oxides looks promising [46, 47]. Even more exciting is the fact that advanced thin film growth techniques with atomic controllability provide further opportunities to design and synthesize artificial complex transition metal oxide heterostructures and superlattices to bring forth emergent physical properties, normally not seen in bulk states. However, despite the rapid progress and tremendous success in obtaining novel functionalities by the strain engineering of epitaxial oxide heterostructures, there is no general rule or theory available till date for predicting a material’s electronic, magnetic, or other functional properties. This is perhaps due to a lack of knowledge about fully resolved atomic structures, especially the position of non-trivial oxygen atoms, as no experimental tool has yet been developed for the direct observation of oxygen atoms. In view of the lack of an experimental tool of this kind for transition metal oxides, electronic structure calculations could play a role instead. J. M. Rondinelli and N. A. Spaldin’s recent article is particularly insightful in this regard, and we follow them briefly in this section [48].
The detailed structural distortion obtained by the movement of oxygen atoms due to strain is highly significant and it has a strong influence on the electronic properties of TMOs. In fact, just a small modification in an atomic structure would change the relevant energy scales (lattice, charge, spin, and orbital) and it is hard to predict functionalities as material properties are strongly dependent on the competition between these energy scales. To illustrate the effects of structural distortions in thin films, let us start with the ideal ABO3 perovskite structure which is a simple cubic one with space group
(a) The ideal ABO3 perovskite crystal structure showing tilt in all three directions. (b) Distortion of BO6 octahedra along various directions, lowering the symmetry of the cubic structure and forming other crystal structure. The +ve sign indicates in-phase rotation (
Rotations or tilts of BO6 octahedra around the high-symmetry axes are the most common distortions in perovskite structures [49, 50, 51]. These are conveniently described by the Glazer notation [52, 53] and written as
This structural distortion is imposed on a thin film by the appropriate choice of lattice-mismatched substrates. It is widely believed that the strain imposed by film-substrate lattice mismatch generally changes the in-plane lattice parameter, but exactly what occurs still remains unclear and moreover is difficult to determine experimentally. Two possibilities remain: (1) changes in the in-plane lattice parameter are offset by changes in the in-plane metal-oxygen B─O bond lengths (Figure 8a and b), or (2) while keeping the B─O distance fixed, the lattice mismatch is offset by a change in magnitude of the tilt patterns through the rigid rotation of the BO6 octahedron (Figure 8c and d). This is highly significant as, for example, the magnitude and symmetry of a crystal field are affected by changes in the B─O bond length, whereas the strength and sign of a superexchange interaction are affected by changes in the B─O─B bond angle [48].
(a) Contraction and (b) elongation of B─O bond lengths,
Quantitatively, changes in the B─O bond length and B─O─B bond angles of octahedra affect the bandwidth (
where
Along with these changes in bond length, bond-angle and crystal symmetry that determine changes in the in-plane lattice parameters, another possibility for substrate-induced changes in lattice parameter remains: the defect stoichiometry or defect concentration of the material. Defect concentration, especially the oxygen concentration, is particularly important as films are generally grown under the high oxygen pressure or high vacuum. To accommodate the strain energy, it is easy to form oxygen vacancies. It is known that the higher the concentration of oxygen vacancies, the larger the lattice constants [55]. Since strain is induced by various lattice-mismatched substrates, it is difficult to establish whether changes in defect concentration are an intrinsic thermodynamic response due to strain or if they arise due to an extrinsic effect during the growth process.
In 1986, the discovery of HTSC in the cuprate oxide family by Bednorz and Müller generated considerable interest within the material science community, both in fundamental and applied research, due to the possibility obtaining oxides that are room-temperature superconductors [56]. La1.85Sr0.15CuO4 (LSCO) is one example of these oxides. La2CuO4 is an antiferromagnetic insulator, but upon doping divalent Sr2+ ions in the trivalent La3+ site, magnetism is suppressed, and the compound makes a transition from an insulating to a superconducting state [57]. LSCO has a K2NiF4-type tetragonal structure with bulk lattice constants of
(a) Schematic representation of the K2NiF4-type tetragonal crystal structure of La2−
In principle, external perturbation is applied to a material to enhance its functional properties, suggesting that substrate-induced strain might be a way to enhance the superconducting
(a) In-plane strain and lattice parameters of the LSCO thin film and other perovskite substrates studied. (b) Strain-dependent resistivity (
For compressively strained films grown on (0 0 1) SrTiO3 substrate, which induced ~3% tensile strain on films, the
SrRuO3 is one of the most promising oxide material among those used by thin-film researchers [71]. It is an itinerant ferromagnetic bad metal [72, 73]. Structurally, it has a GdFeO3-type orthorhombic distorted perovskite structure at
(a) Schematic view of the crystal structure SrRuO3 showing both the orthorhombic and pseudo-cubic unit cell. Lattice parameters are
In high-quality bulk single crystals, the
Eom et al. were the first to synthesize high quality metallic epitaxial SrRuO3 thin films on various substrates [80]. The ferromagnetic transition temperature for these thin films were found be lower than the bulk value,
(a) Schematic illustration of the strain effect in epitaxial orthorhombic SrRuO3 thin films. Films on DyScO3 are subject to tensile strain, whereas films on SrTiO3, LSAT, and LaAlO3 undergo compressive strain. (b) Schematic representation of RuO6 octahedral rotation from the bulk, due to both compressive and tensile strain. (c–d) Effect of tensile strain and compressive strain on the resistivity of SrRuO3. For the tensile strain case, overall resistivity increases, while for the compressive-strained case, resistivity decreases from its bulk value. (e) Increase in saturation magnetization following the induction of compressive strain. The magnetic moment becomes ~2 μB per Ru atom, which is close to the theoretical value. Reprinted with permission from Refs. [
The structural phase transition temperature (
Transport wise,
Strain has definite effect on the magnetic properties of SrRuO3. Inducing compressive strain on SrRuO3 by using various lattice-mismatched substrates, e.g., (0 0 1) SrTiO3, (0 0 1) LSAT, and (0 0 1) LaAlO3, and its effect on magnetic properties has been investigated. The ferromagnetic
Compressive and tensile strain-dependent physical properties have also been examined for the tetragonal phase of SrRuO3. (1 1 0) NaGaO3 substrates were used for imposing compressive strain, whereas (1 1 0) GdScO3 substrates were used to induce tensile strain [90]. It has been found that tensile-strained films show low ferromagnetic ordering at
Compressive (on NdGaO3) and tensile (on GdScO3) strain-dependent resistivity of tetragonal phase SrRuO3 thin films. A striking feature was obtained in magnetic ordering. For tensile-strained films (on GdScO3), resistivity is higher than the bulk value and the magnetic ordering temperature is reduced with ferromagnetic
La0.67Sr0.33MnO3 (LSMO) is an extremely important class of material in condensed matter physics [7, 94]. At
(a) Rhombohedral crystal structure of La0.67Sr0.33MnO3 (LSMO) showing MnO6 octahedra. (b) Sr hole doping-dependent resistivity of bulk LSMO single crystals showing insulator-to-metal transitions with the kink in resistivity; appearance of magnetic ordering. (c) Magnetization measurements show ferromagnetic ordering above room temperature at
Due to its rich electronic and magnetic phase diagram (Figure 14e) [99], it is highly desirable to investigate the change in functionalities or appearance of novel states in LSMO by inducing the strain effect. Several groups have reported on the effect of strain on the electronic and magnetic properties of LSMO [100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111]. To observe the strain-dependent magnetic phase diagram, Tsui et al., grew epitaxial LSMO thin films on various substrates, such as (0 0 1) LaAlO3, (1 1 0) NdGaO3, (0 0 1) LSAT, and (0 0 1) SrTiO3 [103]. By using four different substrates, the strain ranged from compressive to tensile strain as follow; −2.0% compressive strain for films grown on (0 0 1) LaAlO3, −0.25% compressive strain for films grown on (1 1 0) NdGaO3, +0.25% tensile strain for films grown on (0 0 1) LSAT, and +0.85% tensile strain for films grown on (0 0 1) SrTiO3. Compressively strained films on (0 0 1) LaAlO3 substrates show in-plane compression and out-of-plane expansion in their lattice parameters. In contrast, tensile-strained films on (0 0 1) SrTiO3 show the opposite effect. For films grown on the other two substrates with very low strain, they show very weak out-of-plane expansion in their lattice parameters. For compressively strained films on (0 0 1) LaAlO3 substrates, there is a strong suppression of
Recently, Adamo et al., performed a comprehensive study on the strain effect on the electronic and magnetic properties of LSMO with biaxial strain ranging from −2.3 to +3.2% by using the following substrates: (1 0 0)
(a) Epitaxial growth of compressive- and tensile-strained La0.67Sr0.33MnO3 (LSMO) films. Films grown on LaAlO3, LaSrGaO4, NdGaO3, and LSAT are subject to compressive strain, whereas films grown on SrTiO3, DyScO3, GdScO3, SmScO3, and NdScO3 are subject to tensile strain. The appearance of thickness fringes in the X-ray diffraction patterns shows the high crystallinity of each film. (b) Change in lattice parameter and (c) evolution of biaxial strain with the judicial choice of substrates for LSMO thin films. (d and e) Resistivity and magnetization of compressive- and tensile-strained films. Highly tensile- or compressive-strained films show insulating behavior (due to the strain and intrinsic atomic disorder effect), whereas metallic behavior was obtained for films that were exposed to moderate tensile or compressive strain. Magnetization measurements show that the ferromagnetic ordering temperature decreases as the tensile strain increases. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [
Bismuth ferrite, BiFeO3 (BFO), is probably the most promising compound in condensed matter physics [9]. It possess a rhombohedral distorted perovskite structure (
(a) Atomic and magnetic structure of rhombohedral BiFeO3 showing rhombohedral distortion with easy-axis polarization along the [1 1 1]
Wang et al., were the first to synthesize high quality epitaxial BiFeO3 heterostructures on (0 0 1) SrTiO3 substrates by using the PLD method and observed multiferroic properties [115]. They observed that these films display a spontaneous
As said, at
(a–f) Summary of the various crystal structures of BiFeO3 thin films under epitaxial strain, i.e., both compressive and tensile strain. Under different amounts of strain, bulk rhombohedral (
One of the key aspects of the strain-induced scenario is to increase the out-of-plane
(a) Polarization values of strained BiFeO3 thin films. The large value of polarization for compressively strained films grown on LSAT substrates was attributed to a leakage problem. (b) Magnetic phase diagram shows that with the evolution of strain, various novel magnetic phases can appear in BiFeO3 thin films. The colors correspond to different stable magnetic states (blue: antiferromagnetic; red: type-1 cycloid; orange: type-2 cycloid). The different substrates used for the study are shown above with different colors corresponding to the different magnetic structures of BiFeO3. The spins are denoted by green arrows. Reprinted with permission from Refs. [
To address how G-type antiferromagnetism is affected by strain effects, Sando et al., studied the strain effect within the range from −2.6% (compressive strain) to +1.0 (tensile strain) for the
SrTiO3 and LaAlO3 are both band insulators with band gaps of ~3.25 eV and ~5.6 eV, respectively [139, 140]. Along [0 0 1], SrTiO3 unit cells consist of charge-neutral layers of SrO0 and TiO20, whereas LaAlO3 consists of polar layers of LaO1+ and AlO21− (Figure 19a and b) [14]. In 2004, Ohtomo and Hwang discovered that if band insulator LaAlO3 (LAO) is grown on top of another band insulator, SrTiO3 (STO), with atomic precision, the interface of LAO-STO can be highly conducting, which results in a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) at the interface [14]. Surprisingly, conductivity was observed for only one type of interface: LaO-TiO2 (n-type), whereas insulating characteristics were observed for AlO2-SrO (p-type) interfaces (Figure 19c) [141]. With this discovery, a tremendous interest has emerged among the thin-film community to deposit each and every thin film material with atomically controlled interfaces. Later, it was found that the LAO-STO interface not only is highly conductive but can also show coexistence of superconductivity and magnetism, the quantum Hall effect, and the Rashba effect [18, 142, 143, 144, 145]. Based on various experimental observations, the origin of 2DEG, interfacial charge distribution vs. oxygen vacancy scenario is still under debate [146, 147].
(a) and (b) Schematic representation of two possible interfaces between change neutral SrTiO3 (band insulator) and polar LaAlO3 (band insulator) materials showing the composition and ionic distribution. Depending on the topmost layer termination of the (0 0 1) SrTiO3 substrate, two possible interfaces can form: (1) LaO1+-TiO20, and (2) AlO21−-SrO0. (c) Temperature-dependent resistivity of these two types of interfaces. LaO1+-TiO20 interfaces show metallicity and the formation of 2-dimesnioanl electron gas (2DEG) with n-type charge carriers at the interface, whereas AlO21−-SrO0 interfaces show insulating characteristics at the interface. Reprinted with permission from Refs. [
Since the atomic configuration of a substrate’s topmost layer plays a key role in forming 2DEGs at interfaces between two non-conducting oxides, it would be highly desirable to study the formation of 2DEGs at oxide interfaces with the strain effects [148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155]. Bark et al., grew LAO-STO interfaces on various substrates, such as (1 1 0) NdGaO3, (0 0 1) LSAT, (1 1 0) DyScO3, and (1 1 0) GdScO3 (Figure 20a) [148]. By using four different substrates, the strain ranged from compressive to tensile strain as follow; −1.21% compressive strain for films grown on (1 1 0) NdGaO3, −0.96% compressive strain for films grown on (0 0 1) LSAT, +1.11% tensile strain for films grown on (1 1 0) DyScO3, and +1.59% tensile strain for films grown on (1 1 0) GdScO3. They have shown that imposing tensile strain on SrTiO3 destroys the 2DEG, whereas exerting compressive strain leads to the 2DEG nature being retained but with a reduction of carrier concentration compared to that of unstrained LAO-STO interfaces (Figure 20b). Using theoretical calculations, they suggested that this behavior is associated with the built-in polarization in SrTiO3, as it was observed that with induced strain, polarization can have built up in pure SrTiO3 as well [44]. This polarization is directed away from the interface and creates a negative polarization opposing that of the polar LaAlO3 layer. It has also been calculated that the distortion of interfacial Ti─O octahedra enhances with increases in in-plane compressive strain, which also modulates the carrier concentration [152]. Applied in-plane compressive strain also reduces the carrier concentration. On the other hand, under tensile strain, the interfacial charge carrier density increases, which is consistent with the theoretical calculations [155]. It has been found that when moving from the compressive-strained to the tensile-strained scenario at the LAO-STO interface, the Ti─O bond length becomes elongated, which confines the Ti
(a) Schematic representation of a LaAlO3-SrTiO3 interface grown on various substrates (i.e., on GdScO3, DyScO3, LSAT and NdGaO3). (b) Carrier concentration at room temperature at the LAO-STO interface under various epitaxial strains. For tensile-strained films, the carrier concentration is below the measurement limit. (c) The strain effect at the interface and lattice parameters of various perovskites. (d) Sheet resistance (
To observe the correlation and strain effect induced by the topmost polar layer, Ariando et al., grew various combination of polar/non-polar ABO3 perovskites, e.g., NaAlO3/SrTiO3, PrAlO3/SrTiO3, and NdGaO3/SrTiO3 (Figure 20c) [150]. They found that these interfaces are also conducting and form 2DEGs. They also claimed that the interfacial strain and electron correlation caused by the polar layers seem to control the carrier density and mobility at the interface (Figure 20d). The presence of large octahedral distortion due to strain also plays an important role in observing these novel phases. Instead of growing various rare earth-based polar ABO3 perovskites, Jang et al., directly grew monolayers of rare-earth oxides (
The physics of strongly correlated materials, i.e., those having strong electronic correlations, is remarkably rich and complex and cannot be understood within the framework of conventional theories of metals and insulators [21, 22]. For example, in strongly correlated nickelate materials, spin, lattice charge, and orbital degrees of freedom result in competing interactions. Due to this, these materials show exotic phases [156, 157, 158]. Among strongly correlated materials, nickelates, more specifically LaNiO3 is a strongly correlated Mott metal [159, 160]. LaNiO3 has a highly distorted rhombohedral structure with lattice parameters of
(a) Schematic representation of the distorted rhombohedral crystal structure of LaNiO3 showing highly distorted NiO6 octahedra with lattice parameters of
The functionalities of strongly correlated rare-earth nickelates are highly sensitive to external perturbation, e.g., chemical pressure and atmospheric pressure [156, 157, 158]. Thus, it would be very interesting to investigate the ability of strain-based perturbation (i.e., by using various lattice-mismatched substrates) to obtain novel functionalities in LaNiO3. Several groups have reported the strain dependent transport properties in epitaxial LaNiO3 thin films [163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172]. Moon et al., investigated in detail the transport properties of tensile- and compressive-strained LaNiO3 systems. They grew 10-unit cell ultra-thin LaNiO3 films on (1 1 0) YAlO3, (0 0 1) SrLaAlO4, (0 0 1) LaAlO3, (0 0 1) SrLaGaO4, (0 0 1) LSAT, (0 0 1) SrTiO3, and (1 1 0) GdScO3 substrates (Figure 22a) [167, 168, 169]. They investigated
(a) Schematic representation of compressive and tensile strain imposed on LaNiO3 by various metal oxide substrates. (b) Low-temperature resistivity of strained LaNiO3 films. With an increase in tensile strain, resistivity at room temperature increases, although the resistivity minima also decrease. (c) The temperature-dependent Hall coefficient (1/
The authors have also investigated the Hall effect (1/
In principle, material functionalities arise from the coupling between spin, lattice, charge, and orbital degrees of freedom. Lattice strain is thus found to be a unique way to engineering the functionalities of many TMOs, which modifies above energy scales. Here, we presented the effect of strain-dependent functionalities of various TMO-based thin films: (1) a high temperature superconductor, La1.85Sr0.15CuO4, (2) a highly conductive oxide, SrRuO3, (3) a colossal magnetoresistive metal, La0.67Sr0.33MnO3, (4) a multiferroic oxide, BiFeO3, (5) a conducting oxide interface, LaAlO3-SrTiO3, and (6) a strongly correlated metal, LaNiO3. The aforementioned materials all show rich and complex structural, electronic, magnetic and polar phase diagrams that are dependent on epitaxial strain, which is mainly caused by modifications of their crystal structures and the effects of these modification on the coupling of their various degrees of freedoms (relevant energy scales). More specifically, tailoring the shape, size, and position of BO6 octahedra by strain give rise to new functionalities in ABO3 perovskite oxides. Strain-dependent MITs, increase in magnetic transition temperature and ferroelectric polarization can be observed in these materials. Obtaining novel properties by designing artificial oxide heterostructures and the subsequent new physics resulting from the strain effect have always been an interesting topic of research among the thin-film community as cheap and environment friendly oxide thin film-based electronic devices are highly in demand in industry. Although there has been vast progress in the strain-dependent tuning of material properties, there is still long way to go to fully understand the intrinsic mechanisms and theoretical developments behind these strain-dependent phenomena. Nevertheless, strain has provided an avenue to explore materials with novel functionalities. We believe that our experimental investigations along with insightful explanations will provide readers with an easier way to understand the strain effect in epitaxial oxide heterostructures and utilize it to explain the fundamental physics and to commercialize oxide-based electronic devices.
YHJ was supported by the National Research Foundation (NRF) of Korea (SRC-2011-0030786 and 2015R1D1A1A02062239).
Clustering is unique to the utmost essential methods in data mining. Clustering is one of the major tasks of grouping the objects which have more attributes from different classes and the objects that belong to the same class are similar. Clustering is an eminent research field that has been used in various areas like Big Data Analytics, Statistics, Machine Learning, Artificial Intelligence, Data Mining, Deep Learning, and so on. Diverse algorithms have been anticipated for assorted applications in clustering [1]. The evaluation of these algorithms is most essential in unsupervised learning. There are no predefined classes in clustering thus it is complicated to measure suitable metrics. For this, a variety of validation criteria have been implemented [2, 3]. The major disadvantage of these validation criteria is cannot evaluate the arbitrary shaped clusters. As it normally selects a particular point from every cluster and computes the distance of particular points based on some other parameters. Suppose variance is computed based on these parameters.
Data Clustering is appropriated among the dataset dividing into different bunches with the end goal that the examination in the gathering is better than different groups. The dataset is to be apportioned to some degree if the information is similarly conveyed, attempt to distinguish the information of certain groups will fall flat or will prompt acquainted a few segments that are with being fake. Another issue is that the covering of information gatherings. These gatherings are at times diminishing the bunching strategies proficiency. This decline the effectiveness is corresponding to the amount of coverage between the groups. Another issue of bunching calculations is their ability to be created in the method of on the web or disconnected. Web-based grouping is a technique for which an input vector is utilized to reconsider the bunch places according to the situation of the vector. Right now, a process where the focuses of groups are to be presented new information every single time. In disconnected mode, the technique is applied on a preparation informational collection, used to locate the focal point of bunches by examining all the information vectors in the preparation set. The bunch communities are found once they are fixed and used to characterize input vectors later. The systems are introduced right now.
Right now, strategies, transformative techniques for bunching, and group approval criteria are presented in Section 2. The complete investigation of the fundamentals much of the time utilized approval techniques in Section 3. The proposed work has been presented in Section 4.
The issue is to recognize the comparative information things and structure as bunches. There are a few calculations and can be delegated Partitioning bunching, Hierarchical Clustering, Density-based Clustering, and Grid-put together Clustering. Here mostly concentrate concerning Partitioning calculations and developmental calculations on seat mark datasets. Dividing calculations legitimately decays an informational index into a lot of disjoint bunches and to decide various parcels have been utilized sure paradigm capacities. Transformative calculations are gotten from the hard bunching calculations for getting the ideal outcomes. The aftereffects of a bunching calculation are not comparable starting with one then onto the next applied with a few information parameters on the same informational index. To assess the groups some approval measures have been proposed. Smallness and Separation approaches are utilized to quantify the separation between groups. Outside criteria, interior criteria, and relative criteria are the three strategies to assess the consequences of grouping. Outer and inside criteria both can have a high computational interest and are dependent on factual methodologies. The significant downside of these two methodologies is the multifaceted nature of calculations. The relative criteria are the assessment of different groups. Many grouping calculations are executed on more occasions on the same informational index with various information parameters. The fundamental goal of the relative criteria is to choose the best grouping calculation from various outcomes based on approval criteria. These distinctive approval criteria have been actualized [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9].
These strategies are classified into two different ways, the centroid and medoid calculations. The centroid calculations are the calculations to speak to each bunch with the assistance of the greatness of the focus of the cases [10, 11]. The medoid calculations are the calculations that speak to each group of the examples storage room to the size place. K-implies calculation is the generally utilized centroid calculation [12]. The k-implies calculation isolates the informational index into k subsets as each point in a given subset is nearest to a similar focus. Ordinarily, the k-implies have some helpful properties, for example, handling on enormous informational collections is productive, over and again stops at neighborhood ideal, having circular shape bunches and touchy to clamor. This calculation goes under the bunching technique since it requires the information ahead of time. The fundamental k-implies calculations principle objective is choosing the exact starting centroids. The most as of late utilized calculation for clear-cut traits is k-modes calculation. Both k-means and k-modes calculations permit cases of bunching by utilizing blended characteristics in the k-models calculation. The disentanglement of normal k-implies has been introduced most as of late. This can be utilized on ball and circle formed information groups with no issue and performs definite bunching without pre-deciding the exact group number. Some conventional grouping calculations produce allotments. In a parcel, all examples have a place with just one single bunch. Along these lines, each bunch in a hard grouping is disjoint.
Fluffy-based grouping stretches out the view to relate each example among each bunch through enrollment work. Generally utilized calculation for this is Fuzzy C-implies calculation, which depends on k-implies. Fluffy C-implies calculation is utilized to locate the run-of-the-mill point in each group. It tends to be viewed as the focal point of the bunch and enrollment of each case in the group. Other delicate bunching calculations have been actualized, based on the Expectation–Maximization calculation [13]. This calculation accepts an easygoing probabilistic model with specific parameters that depict the probabilistic cases of that bunch. The arrangement of FM calculation starts with essential speculations for the Mixture Model parameters. These qualities are utilized to assess the probabilities of bunches for each example. This procedure is rehashed to re-gauge the parameters of those probabilities. The drawback of this calculation is computationally progressively costly. Over-fitting is the issue in the previously mentioned strategy. This issue emerges for two reasons. The initial one is a tremendous number of bunches might be exact. The second one is the likelihood dispersions have more parameters. Completely Bayesian methodology is one of the plausible arrangements right now every parameter has a previous likelihood conveyance. ISODATA is one of the generally utilized solos characterization calculations. It is an iterative calculation and like k-implies. ISODATA calculation split and consolidated the bunches for future refinements. The primary contrast between ISODATA and k-implies is ISODATA permits various bunches while the k-implies expect that the groups are known as apriori. Gradual bunching calculation which is utilized on enormous informational indexes is Leader Algorithm. Pioneer is structure-based calculation and structure different bunch relies upon the request for the informational index which is accommodated calculation.
As indicated by Ashish Goel [14], while looking at k-implies, Fuzzy k-means and k-medoids rather than centroid have been utilized in the middle or Partition Around Medoids. In this way, k-implies utilize the centroid for speaking to the bunch not manage the anomalies. That is, an information object with the most noteworthy estimation of information can be conveyed. This technique handles this with the medoids’ portrayal of the bunch as an incredible centroid. Rather than centroid, the predominantly set information object of the group on the inside is called a Medoid. Right now, several information objects have favored discretionarily equivalent to medoids for speaking to k number of bunches. And all other leftover information objects are in the group have a medoid which is like that information object. After consummation of all the procedure of information questions, another medoid is presented in the spot of centroid to speak to bunches in a most ideal manner and once more the entire procedure is persistent. All the information objects have limited to the bunches relies upon the most up-to-date medoids. Medoids correct their position consistently for every cycle. This nonstop procedure is till the remaining medoids sit tight for a move. Inevitably, k groups to speak to a lot of information items can be found. Examination of K-Means, Fuzzy K-Means, and K-Medoids are investigated in the accompanying Table 1.
K-means | Fuzzy K-means | K-medoids | |
---|---|---|---|
Complexity | O(ikn) | O (I k (n)2) | O (i k (n-k)2) |
Efficiency | Comparatively more | Comparatively more than K-Medoids | Comparatively less |
Implementation | Easy | Less complicated than K-Medoids and Complicated to K-Means | Complicated |
Sensitive to Outliers? | Yes | No | No |
The necessity of convex shape | Yes | Not so much | Not so much |
Advance specification of no of clusters ‘k’ | Required | Required | Required |
Does initial partition affects result and runtime? | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Optimized for | Separated clusters | Separated cluster and categories data | Separated clusters, |
K-means, fuzzy K-means, and K-medoids algorithm comparison details.
On the other hand, several Evolutionary algorithms have been implemented for optimization. Some of the Evolutionary Algorithms have been explained below.
A Genetic Algorithm is a factual advancement approach. The Genetic Algorithm is a notable calculation that is applied to different ideal plan issues. Also, it decides worldwide ideal arrangements by a consistent variable savvy calculation. Differential Evaluation is additionally like Genetic calculation.
Clonal Selection Algorithm is the developmental calculation for the natural resistant framework. There are two components determination and transformation. These two systems are finished by a record of invulnerable properties. Then again, the blast rate is corresponding to the proclivity, and the transformation rate is conversely relative to liking. The connection among lock and key must fit with one another and afterward, the reaction will work.
Particle Swarm Optimization is a transformative bunching calculation and reenacts the properties of running winged creatures. It follows some situations used to take care of the enhancement issues. Right now, the single arrangement is a winged creature in search, call it a Particle. Each Particle is considered as a point in dimensional space. Figure 1 shows the process flow of the PSO algorithm.
Flow chart for particle swarm optimization.
Teaching Learning Based Optimization [10] is one of them as of late actualized advancement calculation. In designing applications, it impacts the impact of an instructor on the yield of students in a class is investigated by scientists for taking care of various streamlining issues.
Suresh Satapathy et al. [8] proposed a novel enhancement calculation named Social Group Optimization that relies upon the conduct of people to learn and take care of complex issues. They executed and examine the exhibition of SGO advancement calculation on a few benchmark capacities. Right now, dissected the different human characteristics of life, for example, resilience, fearlessness, dread, and deceitfulness, etc.
Social Group Optimization calculation can be partitioned into two different ways improving stage and securing stage. Every individual’s information level in the gathering has been tried and upgraded by the impact of the best one in the gathering in the improving stage. The best individual in the gathering having the information for taking care of issues. Everybody in the gathering improves information with communications to each other in the gathering and best one in the gathering around then.
As per Wen-Jye Shyr [15], to compute and verify the improvement calculations execution estimated two elements of numerical destinations. The exhibitions of these techniques can be depicted for certain perspectives that are demonstrated as follows. The initial one is the ideal point union, which is the key executive for this calculation. The second one is the ideal incentive for exactness. The third one is the absolute number of target calculations. For the most part, there are a lot of issues where assembly speed is dependent on the absolute number of target calculations. The last one is the time taken for the calculation to locate the ideal worth. Even though this is the simplicity of calculation can be unforeseen. Notwithstanding these, a few parameters are made, tried to ensure that the outcomes are set in Table 2.
Genetic Algorithm (GA) | Population Size 20 Crossover Probability of 0.6 Mutation Probability 0.005 Iterations 50 |
Clonal Selection Algorithm (CSA) | Number of Clones Generated 100 Hyper mutation Probability 0.01 Scales of Affinity Proportion Selection 100 Percentage of Random New Cells each Generation 10% Iterations 50 |
Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) based Algorithm | Population Size 20 Initial Inertia Weight 0.9 Final Inertia Weight 0.2 Iterations 50 |
Genetic algorithm, clonal selection algorithm, and particle swarm optimization algorithm parameters.
The most widely used validity criteria are introduced in the following section.
These validity criteria have been utilized for estimating the bunches. Root-Mean-Square Standard Deviation (RMSSTD), R-square, Sum of Squared Error (SSE), Internal and External legitimacy criteria applied to the previously mentioned calculations to investigate the best calculations. Bunching Algorithms utilize these approval measures to assess the outcomes. The RMSSTD is the technique to assess the change of the bunches and it gauges the group’s homogeneity. According to these outcomes, to perceive homogeneous gatherings as the most minimal RMSSTD esteem implies great bunching. To gauge the divergence of bunches R-squared record is utilized. R-square estimates the level of homogeneity between the gatherings. The scope of these qualities is 0 and 1. Here, 0 methods have no distinction between the bunches and 1 method there is a huge contrast between the groups. The Sum of Squared Error is a fundamental calculation for factual methodologies and handles another estimation of information. It recognizes how those qualities are firmly related. Once figure the estimation of SSE for a dataset than just ascertain the estimations of change and standard deviation. Inner Validity is the legitimacy measure for the level of traits of free factor and others. Outer Validity is the legitimacy measure to the degree the aftereffects of a summed-up study [16]. The informational collections have been taken from different assets and the subtleties of informational collections and calculations as demonstrated as follows. Sack of words informational collection have taken from UCI Machine Repository site. This informational collection is content sort, 8lakhs of occurrences, and 1 lakh of information traits. Right now, every assortment of content contains the Number of archives spoke to by D; the Number of words spoken to by W, and the Total number of words spoken to by N in the assortment.
The results of the above exploratory survey proposed to pick k-means, Leader, and ISODATA from parceling calculations and actualized on seat mark dataset with the previously mentioned legitimacy criteria for dissecting the presentation. By utilizing some developmental calculations, for example, Genetic Algorithms, Particle Swarm Optimization, and Social Group Optimization to be assessed the presentation with some legitimacy capacities. The accompanying table speaks to the subtleties of grouping strategies. Different clustering methods details with various parameters as shown in Table 3.
Algorithm name | Type of data handle | Time complexity | Input parameters |
---|---|---|---|
Leader | Numerical | O(n) |
|
K-means | Numerical | O(n) |
|
ISODATA | Numerical | O(kn) |
Maximum number of Clusters that can be combined |
Clustering methods details.
The paper titled “ Clustering Algorithms: An Exploratory Review” outlined a few dividing calculations and Evolutionary Algorithms. Apportioning Algorithms, for example, k-implies, k-medoids, Fuzzy k-means, and Expectation Maximization, etc., are considered. According to the correlation of k-implies, Fuzzy k-means, and k-medoids: The primary expert of k-implies is less expense of calculation, albeit con is empathy to Noisy information and Outliers than Fuzzy k-means and k-medoids. In Evolutionary Algorithms: GA, PSO, SGO, CSA, and TLBO are read, and for certain calculations like GA, CSA, and PSO what are the potential parameters utilized for correlations. The legitimacy criteria like RMSSTD, R-square, SSE, interior, and outside criteria have been utilized for the execution of the benchmark informational index. These legitimacy measures have been assessed for different info datasets and look at the effectiveness of the legitimacy measures.
The previously mentioned calculations actualized on seat mark informational collection with legitimacy measures to assess the presentation. In the future, by utilizing this to be evaluated execution present some new developmental calculation which can be utilized for huge and semi-organized information.
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He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. in Chemistry in July 2000, and his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. In 2009 he joined the Dr. Ron Clarke research group at the School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the Interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+, K+-ATPase, and Dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+, K+-ATPase by ATP. He then worked as Assistant Professor at the Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum, and in 2014 was promoted to Associate Professor ranking. In 2011 he joined the staff of the Chemistry Department at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently active as an Assistant Professor. His research interests include:\r\n(1) P-type ATPase Enzyme Kinetics and Mechanisms; (2) Kinetics and Mechanism of Redox Reactions; (3) Autocatalytic reactions; (4) Computational enzyme kinetics; (5) Allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP; (6) Exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in the cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"27",type:"subseries",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11423,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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