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1. Introduction
Knowledge society is a strategic term, such as post-modern society, post-industrial society, experience society, consumer society, risk society, media society or the information society, and similar terms; they tend to focus attention on certain aspects. Issues such as knowledge and education are particularly highlighted by the term knowledge society [1].
Knowledge society is identified as a society based on the creation, dissemination and use of information and knowledge [1]. It is a society with an economy in which knowledge is acquired, created, disseminated and applied to strengthen economic and social development.
What we call the information society in the last decades is marked by increased globalization process, both economically as well as geopolitically. The new economy is promoting a new characteristic attribute, knowledge, empowering them to be integrated into the knowledge society.
Information society emphasizes the amount of information available and accessible. It focuses on technology. Knowledge-based societies are identified as societies that use and apply information in various areas of learning and development.
Manuel Castells [2] argues that ‘dominant functions and processes in the information age are increasingly organized around the concept of networking’. According to Castells [3], ‘information society is the new mode of human existence, in which the production, recording, processing and retrieval of information in organized networks play a central role’.
Reflected by the thesis: ‘Knowledge is information with meaning, and information that acts,’ the two characteristics of knowledge, Drăgănescu concludes ‘Therefore knowledge society is possible only grafted on information society and cannot be separated from it’ [4]. The information society provides knowledge to a higher level. The main features of the knowledge society are emphasized. The truth about existence is discovered through scientific knowledge that is extended and deepened through the society. Existing knowledge must be managed as technological and organizational knowledge. Innovation brings new technological knowledge. The new means, Internet, e-book and using the electronic methods of learning (e-learning), facilitates unprecedented spread of knowledge to everyone on the planet. Referring to the developmental effects of educational paradigm, the author points out that among the operating directions of the knowledge society it is necessary that the education system is based on the knowledge and information society methods (e-learning).
The term informatics is broadly defined as an area covering artificial intelligence, cognitive science, computer science, information science (processing, management and retrieval of information), social sciences and information technology (research, design, development, implementation, support or management of computer-based systems) [5].
Developed after a serious effort to review the specific indicators and of careful reflecting realities of contemporary society, Report to UNESCO [6] of an international commission on education in the twenty-first century, led by Jacques Delors, addressing sore topics joint to educational systems in modern society, seen through the need to adapt to the society of tomorrow. We present below the most relevant topics addressed for our paper:
Education: a required utopia (a look to the future, tensions that must be overcome, design and build of our common future, lifelong learning—the engine of the society, stages and education connections proper assimilation of reform strategies, expanding international cooperation in the global village).
Perspectives: from the local community towards a global society, from social cohesion to democratic participation, from economic growth to human development.
This shows that education, the society engine, must adapt the new technological advancements to the citizens and their needs.
2. Social informatics—A broad definition
Social informatics is an area of research that examines social aspects of computerization. A more formal definition would be ‘inter-disciplinary study of the design, use and consequences of information technology in interdependence with institutional and cultural environments’ [7]. According to Kling, social informatics is a field that is defined by its content (and fundamental questions on it) rather than by a set of techniques and methods very similar to urban studies or gerontology. Social informatics is a research object with systematic, analytical and critical character, helping to ‘develop theories that are relevant to the design, development and operation of information systems, including intranets, electronic forums, virtual libraries and electronic publications’ [7].
Grabbing the spotlight is the concept of ‘computer information systems as socio-technical systems’ [7]. Kling’s idea to achieve ‘missing link’ between human environment and the given attribute of simple tools given to the information technologies, can be considered beneficial to the online environment today.
Complex, interdependent, social and technical systems include the following:
People in different roles and relationships between each other and with other system elements
Software (operating systems, utilities and applications)
Technical (scientific management models, schemes of voting)
Support resources (training/support/help)
IT structures (content, those content providers, rules and regulations, such as those that authorize people to use systems and information in specific ways, access control)
‘These are not simply a static list, but are interconnected within a matrix of social and technical dependencies’ [7]. So, it has been made the connection between the components of the system. Today, we can see the effects of this mind set adopted by many designers of computer systems, namely, proximity to the human element and its folding needs, along with a security structure of the combined system.
Although there are minor variations that are shown between the different definitions, but most experts agreed that social informatics is an inter-disciplinary field of study and research, diverse, comprehensive and highly dynamic regarding the changes caused by information technology and communications in social life. Another landmark is the harmonization of the society with and through the information and communications technology (ICT).
Social informatics area of investigation is extremely broad, including [8] the following:
Studies and analysis on the impact of introducing information technology in society
The importance of social context in computer networks (socio-technical networks)
Computer-mediated communication (C.M.C.)
Organizational changes resulting from the use of ICT (work, communication, structures, power relations)
The relationship between technology and social change
ICT and changes in education (distance learning, e-learning, etc.)
Privacy and social control through ICT
Project management with ICT support
The impact on privacy and individual development
Dynamics and trajectory ICT—policies and guidelines
Public access to the Internet, etc.
Research information systems have the ability to draw attention to developing new technologies. Benamati [9] said that ‘changing technologies obliges our discipline to change more quickly than others’. Web 2.0 phenomenon has captured the attention of industry technology and informatics, media and other professions and disciplines.
The Internet is in the fifth stage of its development. First stage, starting from its appearance in the 1960s until the late 1980s, ARPANET [10] has been a well-kept secret, used by government scientists and researchers. The second phase, between 1987 and 1992, has made open the Internet to the public. In the third stage, 1992–1996, began with the realization of the HTTP [11] protocol, on which was created the World Wide Web (WWW) [12] and search engines. The global network has become an information service accessible from 1991 and, as described by Berners-Lee [13] (1991), ‘the WWW project combines techniques of finding information and hypertext to create an easy to use global information system, but powerful at the same time’.
In the fourth stage of development, the Internet becomes a place where people are organizing communities that collaborate, cooperate and sometimes compete. Some favourite digital tools and services at this stage include social networking sites, collaborative writing tools, network services, file exchange between customers/users (peer-to-peer) and more. O\'Reilly and Daugherty describe this stage in the evolution of the network as a ‘Web 2.0’, O\'Reilly [14], a term introduced and officially registered in 2004. O\'Reilly offered a clearer definition of the term thereof as the (2006) [15]: ‘revolution in computer industry caused by the move towards using the Internet as a platform, and to understand the rules for success on that new platform. The most important of these rules is this: Build applications that use the network effects to attract more people to use them’.
In the fifth stage since 2010, it begins Web 3.0—that is sometimes used as a synonym for Semantic Web, representing a ‘web of data’ that enables computers to understand the meaning of information on the WWW that means total dynamic web pages by including vector graphics and the introduction of ‘Semantic Web’ [16] as a tool of computing systems to observe information in texts and generate new information based on them.
Regarding the Web 3.0,[1] - we can say that enhances existing network resources on the Internet that can be read by users. This is done by adding extensions, called metadata, to existing documents, allowing data to be processed automatically by computers through the concept of similarity.
3. Information security in contemporary society
The introduction of computers in almost every dimension of the society has changed the way people and organizations obtain or use information, or doing business: greater efficiency is achieved, control of operations is increased and there is better access to information. Along with many benefits, computers and connecting them to the network presents negative aspects, such as the emergence of new types of offenses (distribution of computer virus), and the possibility of committing traditional crimes through new technologies (such as fraud or forgery).
With the spread of technology, more powerful and available at increasingly smaller prices, and massive expansion of inter-connectivity, offered to the potential attackers the possibility to create quick attacks without geographical barriers, often with serious consequences for the victims and with little chance of detection or incrimination. Because electronic attacks against information systems can make a lot of negative consequences of financial, operational, legal or strategic type—at the individual level, organization or national, the risks for electronic attacks must be well understood to be reduced or even eliminated.
Cybercrime is a real phenomenon these days, which is frequently reflected in the media. Fear of informatics attacks exceeds on intensity then that of ordinary theft or fraud. Criminological research on crimes carried out through computer systems aim to change the classic way that are seen as offenses in the criminal justice systems.
In the PhD study ‘The legal aspects of cybercrime in the information society’ (study COMCRIM) [17] realized for the European Commission by Ulrich Sieber, from the University of Wurzburg, Germany, the following categories and sub-categories of computer crimes are shown:
Violations of privacy
Economic offenses:
Penetration of computer systems in order to overcome technical security difficulties (‘hacking’)
Cyber espionage
Piracy of computer programs
Computer sabotage
Computer fraud
Distribution of pieces of information that is illegal or injurious (racist propaganda, dissemination of pornographic materials, etc.)
Other crimes:
Crimes against life
Offenses related to organized crime
Electronic warfare
4. Effective use of educational framework to prepare society awareness on cyber security
The educational system has to be folded on the educational needs of current and future generations regarding electronic information security and safe usage of online environment. Therefore, an educational plan should be considered that combines both what has been achieved so far in social informatics, especially the safety information, and also the requirements and needs of their future. The emergence of Internet of Things (IoT) and the Internet of Everything (IoE) must provide to the educational environment the issue of future threats analysis or problems that may occur if future generations are not aware of them. As a result, the need for such a debate and planning is more than necessary.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Category
\n\t\t\t
2014
\n\t\t\t
2015
\n\t\t\t
2016
\n\t\t\t
2020
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Consumer
\n\t\t\t
2277
\n\t\t\t
3023
\n\t\t\t
4024
\n\t\t\t
13,509
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Business: Cross-industry
\n\t\t\t
632
\n\t\t\t
815
\n\t\t\t
1092
\n\t\t\t
4408
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Business: Vertical-specific
\n\t\t\t
898
\n\t\t\t
1065
\n\t\t\t
1276
\n\t\t\t
2880
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Grand total
\n\t\t\t
3807
\n\t\t\t
4902
\n\t\t\t
6392
\n\t\t\t
20,797
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 1.
Internet of Things—basic devices installed by category (Millions of units)
Source: Gartner, Stamford, Conn., November 10, 2015; Web:http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3165317).
IoT is increasingly becoming a topic of conversation, in more formal (companies, organizations) and informal (in the family setting and occasionally in everyday people’s relations) contexts. It is a growing concept that has not only the potential to influence the way we live or will we live, but also the way we work.
After the broadband Internet became widely available, the connection costs are falling, many devices are created with Wi-Fi capabilities and contain built-in sensors; technology costs decrease and use of smart phones has become overwhelming. All these things lead to creating a perfect setting for IoT.
To the question: ‘What is the Internet of Things?’ We can answer in a simple and effective way that is the concept of connecting devices, virtually any device with a ‘Open’ and ‘Closed’ switch, can connect to the Internet. This includes everything from mobile phones, washing machines, coffee makers, lamps, wearable devices and almost anything else. It also applies to machine components, for example, an engine of a car or boat or drilling equipment.
A more general definition is given by ITU [19]: ‘Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical objects—devices, vehicles, buildings and other elements—in electronics, software, sensors and network connectivity, integrated, allowing these items to collect and exchange data’.
Analysis firm Gartner says that [20] by 2020 there will be over 26 billion connected devices. It is a large number of connections (some even estimate this number to be much higher than 100 billion). IoT is a huge network that connects ‘things’ (which also includes people-implanted medical devices for monitoring or survival, like pacemakers). The relationship will be between people-people, people-things and things-things.
Regarding Internet of Everything (IoE) [21], ‘is a term with expanded meaning that focuses on devices and consumer products connected to the Internet and equipped with expanded digital features. It is a philosophy in which the future of technology is composed of several different types of devices and elements who are connected to the Internet worldwide. The term is somewhat synonymous with the Internet of Things (IoT)’.
The new rules for the future will be, ‘anything that can be connected will be connected’. It is not difficult to see how and why it is such an important topic today; certainly it opens the door to a lot of opportunities but also to more challenges. Security is a big problem, which is often brought to the fore. With billions of devices connected together, what can people do to ensure that their information will be safe? Will anyone be able to enter the device and thus get access to the whole network? Also, IoT opens worldwide companies to more security threats. Then there is the issue of privacy and personal data sharing. This is a sensitive topic even today, so one can only imagine how that conversation will evolve and concerns when talking about many billions of connected devices. Another problem that many companies will face is on the massive amounts of data that these devices will produce. Companies will have to find a way to store, track, analyse and cope with the large volume of data that will be generated. There are numerous websites that promote online safety, but the way they are working is not interactive and productive.
Pedagogical context provides a mean through which the student is educated in the online environment and not just informed. It is necessary to use some pedagogical tools in the propagation of the elements of social informatics. It is also necessary to emphasize from the pedagogical point of view, the use of information security services. Specific teaching methods such as systematic exposing of knowledge, conversation method, questioning method and others must be in the spotlight. It must be used in a specific way of organizing individual security services lessons, and also methods for evaluating school performance results.
We propose the creation of an information system to accommodate the needs and cognitive characteristics, reported on a number of indicators (such as age, sex, concerns, needs, etc.).
The need to create an educational platform for security services lies in the connection between real and virtual environment. Security services are a key point in the future society. The making of an interactive platform to create a centralized computerized system has a role in educating students for the safe use of virtual online environment.
The platform should be of interactive portal-/cloud-like architecture, having integrated basic computer security services.
User guidance will be made depending on the area of interest: security banking application, electronic information security (online and offline, on various kinds of media), guide for Internet browsing, social security, protection of the person in the virtual environment, etc.
It will be taken into account: security policies, creating and managing passwords, user types (standard user/system administrator), security of physical connections, network vulnerability, Internet services security, firewall, handling security incidents, viruses, resources on cyber security, etc. It will be used in modern solutions to create an interactive information system between user and informational database.
The database will contain information structured on interest category. Various parameters will be taken into account to guide the platform’s user in finding and assimilating required information. Specific teaching methods will allow a greater degree of efficiency of the educational platform. What should be considered when creating such a platform is the way of interaction with users; thus, current technologies offer new ways of interaction. For example, the user can create a more detailed profile, when entering the platform. Profile that should be done on the basis of questions addressed effectively. The profile can contain not only information related to general data, but can be customized, but not to be understood as custom (which could affect privacy). The application can guess what the user wants to obtain. On the basis of collected information, a security - Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats SWOT analysis of the user profile may be done. From the pedagogical point of view, information collection can be performed using programmed instruction and computer-assisted learning. Through this training method, the subject learns paced, the educational material is divided into small sequences of study, followed by tests, the subject and instructor (the education platform here) can observe the progress of the training immediately.
The SWOT analysis can be dynamic, thus making step-by-step improvements on the level of education in information security services, to the one who is accessing the platform. Finally, and also intermediate, the user can see his minuses, what has he learned and how is he progressing in his educational path. The information system cannot take the place of a teacher, but it can replace and improve it by offering numerous benefits, being an adjuvant to the lack of time, distance and availability of many users who would like to improve their knowledge of security information services in the knowledge society we live in nowadays.
Conversations about IoT will continue to be done all over the world, while we seek to understand the way this will impact our lives. Also, we try to understand how these many opportunities and challenges will arise in the context that more and more devices start to join IoT. The Internet offers to the children great opportunities to discover, create and connect, but can also become a dangerous factor in the education and maturation of a child. For now, the best thing we can do is that the current and future generations to be educated about what is IoT and the potential impact that can be observed on the way we work and live.
5. Conclusions
The way how society is developing nowadays, by relying on knowledge, has been leading to the need for ever-faster expansion of the concept of network inter-connection, in a word: communication. This communication is created without borders of any kind, such as cultural, economic or territorial. The flow of information is becoming bigger, and the areas of interest are more and more diverse. Informatics is becoming the technical support that is the most conducive to this new challenge. But like any support, how we use this base becomes the focus of discussion.
Concluding on our study, we could say that information technology is neither good nor bad, referring to its usage. The way technology is used gives its moral coordinates. Thus, if the society will not be trained to use these emerging technologies from the development of computer networks (such as Internet banking, online communication, brought to new levels today, large data transfer, increased power expression, in different contexts and for almost any topic of debate, creating virtual personalities, etc.), it is likely to witness an unwanted event, generally speaking, the obsolescence of the online environment.
Offenses made by computer systems influences real life more powerfully nowadays. In the coming years we will face a technological assault increased from Internet of Everything, when we will see the most types of devices existing today connected into networks. The benefits will be enormous, and threats will be more than troubling.
In order to control many different devices in our common life, both personal and collective, it must pose a problem to the pedagogical context in which this has the solution: moral and preventive education in the online environment through effective teaching tools. In moral education users must be educated to use responsibly and consciously the resources of information technology and communications, and in preventive education they must be educated to know the dangers they are exposed to and take action to mitigate them. In this context we can discuss about new challenges such as artificial intelligence, virtual reality, cloud computing, network virtualization, software-defined networks (SDN), big data, intelligent vehicular ad hoc networks and information security.
The more the society gets translated into the online environment, the more everyone living in modern society may suffer. How society understands new technologies and their strength becomes a deciding factor in the future development. Kling’s idea to bring into attention ‘interconnected matrix of social and technical dependencies’ must be developed through the pedagogical factor. Educating the general public should be made gradually and in close relation, as far as possible, with age and its particular characteristics.
Computers are using within Web 3.0, semantic understanding of the data. This is an opportunity to generate new training methods. Information security should not be introduced and presented separately to the society from the users’ online experiences. It should be used as a satellite through the users’ online journey. Something like a permanent assistant, who is dynamic and friendly with the participants in the web system, and also provides information on every step of online browsing. Today, it can be guessed by developing artificial intelligence, various features of the human personality. Nowadays there is an opportunity, that was only a dream a few decades ago, to automate various processes by creating a virtual model that meets in users training, pedagogical features.
Thus, the online environment will enjoy a greater receptiveness and openness to the general public of all ages. Will fulfill in this way what expressed O\'Reilly through the words: ‘to understand the rules for success’[15] in the Internet platform, by using ‘the networks effect’[15] in building applications to attract more people to use them. This will result in bringing a greater efficiency and safety in the interconnected computer networks and thus in people’s lives.
\n',keywords:"Social informatics, knowledge society, information and communications technologies, information security",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/52827.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/52827.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52827",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52827",totalDownloads:1298,totalViews:414,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"July 5th 2016",dateReviewed:"August 29th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"November 3rd 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"As the main engine of social development, education must adapt its new technological advancements to the benefit of the citizens and their needs by taking into account the building of a modern society that is based on knowledge. Computer technology becomes the most appropriate technical support, given the new challenges of the knowledge society. Within this context, the social informatics takes on new dimensions. Nowadays, information security is strongly connected to the investigation area of social informatics. Knowledge society and social informatics are being addressed in the paper in the first two parts. Information security in the contemporary society, within the context of building the knowledge society, is addressed in part three. In the fourth part, we propose the creation of an educational framework for the safe use of online virtual environment. Its purpose is primarily the awareness of the importance of security systems, taking into consideration the new challenges of social informatics in the modern society.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/52827",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/52827",book:{slug:"proceedings-of-the-international-conference-on-interdisciplinary-studies-icis-2016-interdisciplinarity-and-creativity-in-the-knowledge-society"},signatures:"Ionuţ-Constantin Manole and Eugen Petac",authors:[{id:"200404",title:"Dr.",name:"Ionuţ-Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Manole",fullName:"Ionuţ-Constantin Manole",slug:"ionut-constantin-manole",email:"manole.ionut@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Social informatics—A broad definition",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Information security in contemporary society",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Effective use of educational framework to prepare society awareness on cyber security",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'GESCI. What is the Knowledge Society? [Internet]. 20-10-2012. Available from: http://www.gesci.org/assets/files/2.%20Knowledge%20Society%20October%202012.pdf [Accessed: 12 may 2016]'},{id:"B2",body:'Berkeley-Globetrotter. Conversation with Manuel Castells [Internet]. 2001. Available from: Globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people/castells/castells-con0.html [Accessed: 14 April 2016]'},{id:"B3",body:'Castells, M., The Rise of The Network Society: The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture. United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons; 2000.'},{id:"B4",body:'Drăgănescu, M., Societatea informațională și a cunoașterii. Vectorii societății cunoasterii. (Information and Knowledge Society. Vectors of the Knowledge Society) (in Romanian) [Internet]. 2001. 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Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons; 2004. 881 p.'},{id:"B11",body:'Fielding, R., Gettys, J., Mogul, C., Nielsen, H., Masinter, L., Leach, J., Berners-Lee, T., Hypertext Transfer Protocol – HTTP/1.1. IETF. RFC 2616 [Internet]. 1999. Available from: https://tools.ietf.org [Accessed: 13 February 2016]'},{id:"B12",body:'Sammartino McPherson, S., Tim Berners-Lee: Inventor of the World Wide Web. United States of America: Twenty-First Century Books; 2009. 112 p.'},{id:"B13",body:'Berners-Lee, T., World Wide Web – Executive Summary [Internet]. 2010. Available from: http://www.w3.org/Summary.html [Accessed: 21 April 2016]'},{id:"B14",body:'O‘Reilly, T., What is Web 2.0 [Internet]. 30-09-2005. Available from: http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/a/oreilly/tim/news/2005/09/30/what-is-web-20.html [Accessed: 06 march 2016]'},{id:"B15",body:'O‘Reilly, T., Web 2.0 Compact Definition: Trying Again [Internet]. 10-12-2006. Available from: http://radar.oreilly.com/archives/2006/12/web_20_compact.html [Accessed: 14 April 2016]'},{id:"B16",body:'Digital Trends/Byblos – Agora Group. Web: Internetul Inteligent (Semantic Web: Smart Internet) (in Romanian) [Internet]. 01-04-2010. Available from: http://digitaltrends.ro/2010/04/semantic-web-internetul-inteligent/#more-576 [Accessed: 12 May 2016]'},{id:"B17",body:'Sieber, U., Legal Aspects of Computer-Related Crime in the Information Society, COMCRIME-Study prepared for the European Commission. Germany: University of Würzburg; 1998. 240 p.'},{id:"B18",body:'Shadbolt, N., Berners-Lee, T., Hendler, J., Hart, C., Benjamins, R., The next wave of the web. WWW \'06 Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on World Wide Web ed. New York, USA: ACM; 2006. 6 p.'},{id:"B19",body:'International Telecommunication Union – ITU. Internet of Things Global Standards Initiative [Internet]. 06-2012. Available from: http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-T/gsi/iot/Pages/default.aspx [Accessed: 14 May 2016]'},{id:"B20",body:'Gartner, S., Con. – Gartner Says 6.4 Billion Connected "Things" will be in use in 2016, up 30 percent from 2015 [Internet]. 10-11-2015. Available from: http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3165317 [Accessed: 20 April 2016]'},{id:"B21",body:'Technopedia. Definition – Internet of Everything – IoE [Internet]. Available from: https://www.techopedia.com/definition/30121/internet-of-everything-ioe [Accessed: 14 April 2016]'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"The term is conceptually formulated for the first time in 2006 by Tim Berners-Lee, creator of the World Wide Web and director of the World Wide Web Consortium: ‘People ask me what is Web 3.0. I think if you add vector graphics, and all content being dynamic, interactive and attractive, over Web 2.0, and also provide access to semantic web over an enormous data space, you get access to an incredible data resource’[18].Also, he defines the Semantic Web as ‘a component of Web 3.0, a data network that can be processed directly and indirectly by computers’[18]."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ionuţ-Constantin Manole",address:"manole.ionut@gmail.com",affiliation:'
“Ion Creangă” State Pedagogical University, Department of Education Sciences, Chişinău, Moldova
“Ovidius” University of Constanța, Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Constanța, Romania
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Chu and David J. 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Smith, Kyriacos Kalli and Kate Sugden",authors:[{id:"4668",title:"Dr.",name:"Graham",middleName:"N",surname:"Smith",fullName:"Graham Smith",slug:"graham-smith"},{id:"133360",title:"Prof.",name:"Kyriacos",middleName:null,surname:"Kalli",fullName:"Kyriacos Kalli",slug:"kyriacos-kalli"},{id:"133361",title:"Prof.",name:"Kate",middleName:null,surname:"Sugden",fullName:"Kate Sugden",slug:"kate-sugden"}]},{id:"8441",title:"Magneto-Optical Devices for Optical Integrated Circuits",slug:"magneto-optical-devices-for-optical-integrated-circuits",signatures:"Vadym Zayets and Koji Ando",authors:[{id:"4688",title:"Dr.",name:"Vadym",middleName:null,surname:"Zayets",fullName:"Vadym Zayets",slug:"vadym-zayets"},{id:"133363",title:"Prof.",name:"Koji",middleName:null,surname:"Ando",fullName:"Koji Ando",slug:"koji-ando"}]},{id:"8442",title:"Tunable Hollow Optical Waveguide and Its Applications",slug:"tunable-hollow-optical-waveguide-and-its-applications",signatures:"Mukesh Kumar, Toru Miura, Yasuki Sakurai and Fumio Koyama",authors:[{id:"63461",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",fullName:"Mukesh Kumar",slug:"mukesh-kumar"},{id:"133388",title:"Prof.",name:"Toru",middleName:null,surname:"Miura",fullName:"Toru Miura",slug:"toru-miura"},{id:"133402",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasuki",middleName:null,surname:"Sakurai",fullName:"Yasuki Sakurai",slug:"yasuki-sakurai"},{id:"133404",title:"Prof.",name:"Fumio",middleName:null,surname:"Koyama",fullName:"Fumio Koyama",slug:"fumio-koyama"}]},{id:"8443",title:"Regenerated Fibre Bragg Gratings",slug:"regenerated-fibre-bragg-gratings",signatures:"John Canning, Somnath Bandyopadhyay, Palas Biswas, Mattias Aslund, Michael Stevenson and Kevin Cook",authors:[{id:"5461",title:"Professor",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Canning",fullName:"John Canning",slug:"john-canning"},{id:"133394",title:"Dr.",name:"Somnath",middleName:null,surname:"Bandyopadhyay",fullName:"Somnath Bandyopadhyay",slug:"somnath-bandyopadhyay"},{id:"133395",title:"Prof.",name:"Palas",middleName:null,surname:"Biswas",fullName:"Palas Biswas",slug:"palas-biswas"},{id:"133396",title:"Prof.",name:"Mattias",middleName:null,surname:"Aslund",fullName:"Mattias Aslund",slug:"mattias-aslund"},{id:"133397",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Stevenson",fullName:"Michael Stevenson",slug:"michael-stevenson"},{id:"133400",title:"Prof.",name:"Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Cook",fullName:"Kevin Cook",slug:"kevin-cook"}]},{id:"8444",title:"Optical Deposition of Carbon Nanotubes for Fiber-based Device Fabrication",slug:"optical-deposition-of-carbon-nanotubes-for-fiber-based-device-fabrication",signatures:"Ken Kashiwagi and Shinji Yamashita",authors:[{id:"5133",title:"Dr.",name:"Ken",middleName:null,surname:"Kashiwagi",fullName:"Ken Kashiwagi",slug:"ken-kashiwagi"},{id:"38416",title:"Mr.",name:"Shinji",middleName:null,surname:"Yamashita",fullName:"Shinji Yamashita",slug:"shinji-yamashita"}]},{id:"8445",title:"High Power Tunable Tm3+-fiber Lasers and Its Application in Pumping Cr2+:ZnSe Lasers",slug:"high-power-tunable-tm3-fiber-lasers-and-its-application-in-pumping-cr2-znse-lasers",signatures:"Yulong Tang and Jianqiu Xu",authors:[{id:"5449",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianqiu",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",fullName:"Jianqiu Xu",slug:"jianqiu-xu"},{id:"110808",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulong",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",fullName:"Yulong Tang",slug:"yulong-tang"}]},{id:"8446",title:"2 µm Laser Sources and Their Possible Applications",slug:"2-m-laser-sources-and-their-possible-applications",signatures:"Karsten Scholle, Samir Lamrini, Philipp Koopmann and Peter Fuhrberg",authors:[{id:"4951",title:"Dr.",name:"Karsten",middleName:null,surname:"Scholle",fullName:"Karsten Scholle",slug:"karsten-scholle"},{id:"133366",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"Lamrini",fullName:"Samir Lamrini",slug:"samir-lamrini"},{id:"133370",title:"Prof.",name:"Philipp",middleName:null,surname:"Koopmann",fullName:"Philipp Koopmann",slug:"philipp-koopmann"},{id:"133371",title:"Mr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Fuhrberg",fullName:"Peter Fuhrberg",slug:"peter-fuhrberg"}]},{id:"8447",title:"Designer Laser Resonators based on Amplifying Photonic Crystals",slug:"designer-laser-resonators-based-on-amplifying-photonic-crystals",signatures:"Alexander Benz, Christoph Deutsch, Gernot Fasching, Karl Unterrainer, Aaron M. Maxwell, Pavel Klang, Werner Schrenk and Gottfried Strasser",authors:[{id:"4537",title:"DI",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Benz",fullName:"Alexander Benz",slug:"alexander-benz"},{id:"135394",title:"Prof.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Deutsch",fullName:"Christoph Deutsch",slug:"christoph-deutsch"},{id:"135395",title:"Prof.",name:"Gernot",middleName:null,surname:"Fasching",fullName:"Gernot Fasching",slug:"gernot-fasching"},{id:"135396",title:"Prof.",name:"Karl",middleName:null,surname:"Unterrainer",fullName:"Karl Unterrainer",slug:"karl-unterrainer"},{id:"135397",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Maxwell",fullName:"Aaron Maxwell",slug:"aaron-maxwell"},{id:"135398",title:"Prof.",name:"Pavel",middleName:null,surname:"Klang",fullName:"Pavel Klang",slug:"pavel-klang"},{id:"135399",title:"Prof.",name:"Werner",middleName:null,surname:"Schrenk",fullName:"Werner Schrenk",slug:"werner-schrenk"},{id:"135400",title:"Prof.",name:"Gottfried",middleName:null,surname:"Strasser",fullName:"Gottfried Strasser",slug:"gottfried-strasser"}]},{id:"8448",title:"High-Power and High Efficiency Yb:YAG Ceramic Laser at Room Temperature",slug:"high-power-and-high-efficiency-yb-yag-ceramic-laser-at-room-temperature",signatures:"Shinki Nakamura",authors:[{id:"4143",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakamura",fullName:"Shinki Nakamura",slug:"shinki-nakamura"}]},{id:"8449",title:"Polarization Properties of Laser-Diode-Pumped Microchip Nd:YAG Ceramic Lasers",slug:"polarization-properties-of-laser-diode-pumped-microchip-nd-yag-ceramic-lasers",signatures:"Kenju Otsuka",authors:[{id:"4259",title:"Professor",name:"Kenju",middleName:null,surname:"Otsuka",fullName:"Kenju Otsuka",slug:"kenju-otsuka"}]},{id:"8450",title:"Surface-Emitting Circular Bragg Lasers – A Promising Next-Generation On-Chip Light Source for Optical Communications",slug:"surface-emitting-circular-bragg-lasers-a-promising-next-generation-on-chip-light-source-for-optical-",signatures:"Xiankai Sun and Amnon Yariv",authors:[{id:"4201",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiankai",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",fullName:"Xiankai Sun",slug:"xiankai-sun"},{id:"122981",title:"Dr.",name:"Amnon",middleName:null,surname:"Yariv",fullName:"Amnon Yariv",slug:"amnon-yariv"}]},{id:"8451",title:"Novel Enabling Technologies for Convergence of Optical and Wireless Access Networks",slug:"novel-enabling-technologies-for-convergence-of-optical-and-wireless-access-networks",signatures:"Jianjun Yu, Gee-Kung Chang, Zhensheng Jia and Lin Chen",authors:[{id:"8503",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianjun",middleName:null,surname:"Yu",fullName:"Jianjun Yu",slug:"jianjun-yu"},{id:"133376",title:"Prof.",name:"Gee-Kung",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",fullName:"Gee-Kung Chang",slug:"gee-kung-chang"},{id:"133378",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhensheng",middleName:null,surname:"Jia",fullName:"Zhensheng Jia",slug:"zhensheng-jia"},{id:"139599",title:"Prof.",name:"Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Lin Chen",slug:"lin-chen"}]},{id:"8452",title:"Photonic Crystal Multiplexer/Demultiplexer Device for Optical Communications",slug:"photonic-crystal-multiplexer-demultiplexer-device-for-optical-communications",signatures:"Sahbuddin Shaari and Azliza J. M. Adnan",authors:[{id:"19951",title:"Dr.",name:"Sahbudin",middleName:null,surname:"Shaari",fullName:"Sahbudin Shaari",slug:"sahbudin-shaari"}]},{id:"8453",title:"Improvement Scheme for Directly Modulated Fiber Optical CATV System Performances",slug:"improvement-scheme-for-directly-modulated-fiber-optical-catv-system-performances",signatures:"Hai-Han Lu, Ching-Hung Chang and Peng-Chun Peng",authors:[{id:"4684",title:"Professor",name:"Hai-Han",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",fullName:"Hai-Han Lu",slug:"hai-han-lu"},{id:"62688",title:"Prof.",name:"Peng-Chun",middleName:null,surname:"Peng",fullName:"Peng-Chun Peng",slug:"peng-chun-peng"}]},{id:"8454",title:"Optical Beam Steering Using a 2D MEMS Scanner",slug:"optical-beam-steering-using-a-2d-mems-scanner",signatures:"Yves Pétremand, Pierre-André Clerc, Marc Epitaux, Ralf Hauffe, Wilfried Noell and N.F. de Rooij",authors:[{id:"5054",title:"Dr.",name:"Yves",middleName:null,surname:"Petremand",fullName:"Yves Petremand",slug:"yves-petremand"},{id:"135512",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre-Andre",middleName:null,surname:"Clerc",fullName:"Pierre-Andre Clerc",slug:"pierre-andre-clerc"},{id:"135514",title:"Prof.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Epitaux",fullName:"Marc Epitaux",slug:"marc-epitaux"},{id:"135516",title:"Prof.",name:"Ralf",middleName:null,surname:"Hauffe",fullName:"Ralf Hauffe",slug:"ralf-hauffe"},{id:"135518",title:"Prof.",name:"Wilfried",middleName:null,surname:"Noell",fullName:"Wilfried Noell",slug:"wilfried-noell"},{id:"135519",title:"Prof.",name:"N.F.",middleName:null,surname:"De Rooij",fullName:"N.F. De Rooij",slug:"n.f.-de-rooij"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"67929",title:"Assemblage of Gastropods in the Rocky Intertidal Zone of Asry Beach, Kingdom of Bahrain",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87772",slug:"assemblage-of-gastropods-in-the-rocky-intertidal-zone-of-asry-beach-kingdom-of-bahrain",body:'
1. Introduction
The marine ecosystem is ecologically rich in terms of community of organisms which comprise the wide coastal area extending to a vast oceanic environment. The intertidal habitat had been the focus of many studies for ecological interactions which has an impact on diverse assemblage of macroflora and macrofauna. The rocky shore as an intertidal area is found at the shoreline between low and high tides and predominantly composed of solid rocks. Macrofaunal community tends to survive despite fluctuating daily diurnal tidal patterns and intense temperature [1]. This zone is considered highly productive with varying levels of biodiversity and dynamic due to diversity of both macrofauna and macroflora [2, 3, 4]. The wet rocky shore promotes enormous algal growth which serves as the feeding ground for the many macrofaunal community, specifically the gastropods thus promoting more diversity [5]. The rocky intertidal as a community is influenced by competitive processes primarily competition for space. The so called competitive dominance is manifested through the use of space. Community organization depends on consumer-prey interaction, physical disturbances as factors and competition for space [6]. Gastropods are the largest and the most diverse faunal group in Phylum Mollusca. The gastropods are known to have a wide range of distribution. They can live in a variety of habitats and are adapted to varying environmental conditions as affected by daily fluctuating tidal patterns and duration of exposure to sunlit which determine diurnal temperatures. These one-shelled marine invertebrates considered as economically important are the major inhabitants of the intertidal marine ecosystem. Marine gastropod species are varied and abundant as an important source of food for higher consumers and contribute to coastal food chains [7, 8]. Mollusks in the rocky shore are highly important in maintaining dynamics in the shore and ecological balance in beaches in addition to their key role in the trophic chains and nutrient recirculation [9]. Further, gastropods have important role in structuring the intertidal assemblages and regulating the intertidal communities since they can respond to variation in microhabitats in a vertical gradient and change their behavior in response to environmental occurrences [10]. Gastropod assemblage is influenced by the characteristic substrate which the majority of the shores are rocks. Characteristically, gastropods show variation in sizes, color and other phenotypic diversity [11]. Gastropods are motile however they are comparatively slow in locomotion which prevents them from moving into and out of the intertidal zone over a relatively short period of tidal range [12]. Hence these molluscan descendants have low migration potential which determines habitat stability in the rocky intertidal zone.
Studies on gastropod assemblage and diversity were conducted in various intertidal habitats of the marine ecosystem. A biodiversity study of gastropod in the intertidal zone of fine sand and coral reef was conducted in January 2017 in Sombu Beach, Wakatobi, Indonesia using quadrant plot method. Ten transects along the beach were established composed of four plots. There were 40 plots used as sources of data for analysis. The diversity of gastropod community was determined using Shannon-Wiener index [H′], evenness index (E) and dominance index (D). Results showed 13 species of gastropods which belong to three genera since the variety of substrate is low which has an impact on food resource and habitat of the identified gastropods [13]. A baseline study was conducted between November 2016 and February 2017 on marine gastropods diversity and distribution in two intertidal rocky shores of Terengganu, Peninsular Malaysia. The intertidal area was categorized and divided into three zones: upper, middle and lower. A 40 m length transect composed of six 1 m2 quadrats was laid at random perpendicular to shore. Results revealed a total of five subclasses of gastropods which belong to nine families and 28 species from upper to lower intertidal zones. Diversity indices based on the results of Shannon-Wiener index (H) and Pielou’s evenness index (J’) were compared with reference to the identified zones [14]. In another study, a spatial distribution of macroinvertebrates on intertidal rocky shores was conducted in Gorgona Island, Colombia of the Tropical Eastern Pacific. Qualitative data were determined using rapid ecological assessments while quadrat method for quantitative data. Species richness, abundance and diversity were determined using Shannon-Wiener H′ and Pielou J’ for evenness. Results of the study revealed 121 species of macroinvertebrates. Mollusks were the most abundant in terms of species and individual count. Researchers concluded that environmental stressor, heterogeneity and stability are limiting factors on the spatial distribution of macroinvertebrates species in this particular area of intertidal rocky shores [15]. A biodiversity study of gastropoda was conducted in the coastal waters of Ambon Island, Indonesia to determine the correlation between the physico-chemical factors and the diversity of coastal waters gastropods. The physical and chemical factors included temperature, salinity, pH and dissolved oxygen (DO). Results showed a total of 65 species in the two established research stations which belong to 48 genera, 19 families and 7 orders. The station-to station averages of the physico-chemical parameters were also determined. Results further show a very high diversity in both stations. Correlation analysis revealed a significant positive correlation between the physical and chemical factors (temperature, salinity, pH and DO) and the diversity of gastropods in the coastal waters of Ambon Island, Indonesia [16].
The Kingdom of Bahrain is endowed with a marine biota as habitat of all life forms. A number of public beach is found in Bahrain however Dry Dock Beach or commonly called Asry Beach in Hidd, Muharraq is of great interest. The beach as it is known to the people is part of the dry dock shipyard in the area. As a public beach, the area is often threatened by unaccountable wastes which may also affect the macrocomponents of the marine ecosystem. Hence continuous monitoring of the macroinvertebrates specifically the gastropods in the intertidal ecosystem is being undertaken since 2011 [17]. The intertidal ecosystem in Asry Beach is predominantly rocky and sandy. The shoreline is characteristically wide during ebb tide while very narrow during the spring tide. The rocky substrate extreme variation in temperature may exert drastic effect on the gastropod community. Hence, this study was conducted to determine the current status of the assemblage of gastropod population in the rocky intertidal zone of Asry Beach from January 2106 to January 2018. Specifically to identify and classify taxonomically the species of gastropod assemblage from the sampled quadrates; find out significant differences in the annual species assemblage of gastropods; calculate diversity using Shannon-Wiener (H′) diversity index; find out species evenness using Pielou’s evenness index; and relate the effect of the aerial temperature on the total species assemblage of gastropods.
2. Research methods
2.1 Study site
The study area is located in the northeastern part of Dry Dock Beach commonly known as Asry Beach in Hidd, Muharraq having geographic coordinates of 26.1957°N and 50.6623°E. The total area of the intertidal zone is 206.30 m stretch where people usually perform beach activities during low tide. Part of the area is a 73.05 m stretch which composed the rocky intertidal biota (Figure 1). Both macrofauna and macroflora assemblages abound in the area in spite of the various human activities and other natural environmental occurrences.
Figure 1.
Part of the 73.05 m stretch of the rocky shore during low tide (↔).
2.2 Sampling, identification and field collection
This particular research was undertaken from January 2016 to January 2018 in a small parcel of the rocky environment of Dry Dock Beach commonly called Asry Beach in Muharraq, Kingdom of Bahrain. Sampling was done every month during the low tide between 7:00 and 1:00 pm. Belt transect method [12, 13, 14] was utilized for the quantitative assessment of gastropods in the rocky shore. A-50 m belt transect made of 0.45 mm clear nylon beading wire and 12 mm corrugated round steel bar post was established parallel to the elevated rocky shoreline during the low tide. The transect line was divided into 25 1 m2 quadratic plots [13, 14] made of size 18 twisted nylon cord Bead Smith Super-Lon (S-Lon) on both sides for a total of 50 quadrates. The area where the transect line was laid represented the rocky intertidal ecosystem of the 73.05 m stretch. Random sampling [14] was conducted simultaneously for a total 25 sampled plots. Both live gastropod species and empty shells within the sampled quadrates including those in rock crevices were identified in situ. Aerial temperature was taken at the same time every sampling month using non-mercury thermometer.
Unidentified gastropod species and shells were photo-documented and collected. Specimens were placed in labeled transparent plastic bags. While in the field, the collected samples of live specimen were stored in an ice bucket to prevent desiccation. Collected samples were brought in the BioLab for identification to the lowest possible taxonomic level based on morphological characteristics using references in gastropods taxonomic identification [18, 19, 20]. The species names were also verified in a database [14] for marine species of gastropods [21]. Using taxonomic classification, identified gastropods were categorized into three hierarchy or categories namely: (1) family, (2) genus, and (3) species. Some live specimens in their natural habitat were photo-documented using Nikon D7000 camera. Collected specimens and shells were measured end-to-end from the longest point of axis for the length using Vernier caliper with ±0.01 mm accuracy and likewise photographed in the laboratory.
2.3 Data analysis
2.3.1 Determination of species diversity
Diversity of gastropod species was calculated using Shannon-Wiener Index (H′) with the formula: [13, 14, 15].
H′=−∑i=spilogpiE1
where H′ = value of Shannon-Wiener diversity index; Pi = proportion of the ith species; loge = natural logarithm of pi; s = number of species in the community or species richness.
Using Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H′), species of gastropod in the assemblage is classified based on the following category: low (H′ < 2); moderate (2 < H′ < 4); and high (H′ > 4).
Species evenness index was determined using Pielou’s evenness index with the formula:
J′=H′/H′maxE2
where H′ = Shannon-Wiener diversity index; Hmax = natural logarithm of species richness.
Species ranges from zero to one; zero means no evenness and one means complete evenness.
2.3.2 Statistical analysis
One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to find out significant differences in the total species assemblage. Correlation analysis using Pearson correlation coefficient r determined if the aerial temperature significantly affected the total annual species assemblage of gastropods.
3. Results and discussion
3.1 Study site
The characteristic substrate of the study site in Asry Beach is shown in Figure 2. It is an obligate, slightly elevated rocky platform which is often exposed to alternating tide sequences resulting to its periodic submergence and emergence. As part of the public beach, however people prefer the sandy part and spend their leisure time in water for swimming. Hence this area remains undisturbed which promotes massive growth of algae that provides nutrients and venue for ecological and intra-inter-specific interactions [5] among the faunal community of organisms. Based on observation and results of the study on the entire intertidal ecosystem [17] human factor is considerably not a limiting factor for the gastropod assemblage to be abundant in the area. This is in contrast to some research findings that human activities may intensify the exploitation of gastropod species for commercial purposes [11, 14]. Hence the rocky platform of the intertidal zone in this particular area serves as the habitation of the many life forms enduring the harsh environmental condition [1].
Figure 2.
Cut view of the sampling site showing the rocky habitat (A) during low tide with massive algal growth (B).
3.2 Sampling, identification and field collection
A total of 16 families composed of 25 genera and 31 species were identified in the rocky shore of Asry Beach from January 2016 to January 2018. The taxonomic identification, classification and total population of individual gastropod species in the sampled quadrates are presented in Table 1. Of the 16 families, Family Muricidae has four species which belong to four genera, Nucella, Ocenebra, Ocinebrina and Scabrotrophon while Family Cerithiidae [8] and Oliveliidae [7] has three species each. Calliostoma selectum of the Family Calliostomatidae has the most number of the gastropods in the rocky intertidal zone having a total of 3841 followed by Lirobittium attenuatum of the Family Cerithiidae with 471, Turbonilla sp. 1 of the Family Pyramidellidae [7] with 226, Cerithiopsis sp., 211 of the Family Cerethiopsidae, and Calliostoma variegatum, 203 which is also from Family Calliostomatidae. Over-all, the highest number of total species was recorded in 2018 with 2011, a total of 1908 in 2017 while 1624 in 2016. In a 3-year study, a total of 5543 individual species were identified inhabiting the small parcel of the rocky shore of Asry Beach. Samples of gastropods in their natural habitat are shown in Figure 3, which include Turbonilla sp. (A) of the Family Pyramidellidae, Lirularia olirulata (B) of the Family Trochidae, and a group of Cerithiopsis sp. (C) of the Family Cerethiopsidae in association with algal community. Various studies on gastropod assemblage showed diversity of gastropods in the intertidal habitats [13, 14, 15, 16] similar in this study with the use of diversity indices. However, the types of substrate vary from fine sand coral reef flats [13] and rocky shore beaches [9], including intertidal rocky shores [14, 15] and generally the intertidal zone of mixed substrate [6, 11]. Results of gastropod diversity study in Sombu Beach, Wakatobi, Indonesia showed 13 species of classes of gastropods covering only a month of study however using more transects [13] while a 3 year study of monthly sampling but using only one transect with 31 identified species. Generally, the type of substrate and the length of time for data gathering vary, although both conducted researches utilized the same sampling method. Composition of molluscs was compared in two communities of rocky shore beaches exposed to human activities. Results showed greater abundance and evenness in the site with less human activities [9] which is comparatively different from the claim that human factor considerably exerts no effect on diversity of gastropods in Asry Beach based on the results of monitoring studies [17]. Likewise, the researches being compared used diversity indices in quantitative analysis of data. Some similar researches covered wider spatial distribution of intertidal gastropods [1, 11, 14] although this research covered only a smaller scale on obligate rocky platform. Identified gastropods were taxonomically classified [13, 14] to the lowest level and specific count of species was determined.
Identified gastropods/Taxonomic hierarchy
Year
Total
2016
2017
2018
Family
Species
Volutidae
Arctomelon tenrsii, Dall, 1872
3
3
6
12
Columbellidae
Astyris aurantiaca, Dall, 1871
1
2
1
4
Batillariidae
Batillaria attramentaria, Sowerby, 1855
3
3
3
9
Cerithiidae
Bittium vancoverense, Dall & Bartsch, 1910
4
4
7
15
Lirobittium attenuatum, Carpenter, 1864
156
148
167
471
Stylidium eschrichtii, Middendroft, 1849
10
17
21
48
Oliveliidae
Callianax baetica, Carpenter, 1864
5
7
9
21
Callianax obiplicata, Sowerby, 1825
5
7
6
18
Callianax pycna, S. S. Berry, 1925
2
3
7
12
Calliostomatidae
Calliostoma selectum, Dillwyn, 1817
1025
1221
1231
3481
Calliostoma variegatum, Carpenter, 1864
54
68
81
203
Cerethiopsidae
Cerithiopsis sp.
63
71
77
211
Pyramidellidae
Evalea tenuisculpta, Carpenter, 1864
37
42
53
132
Turbonilla sp. 1
68
77
81
226
Turbonilla sp. 2
5
7
6
18
Turbinidae
Homalopoma baculum, Carpenter, 1864
28
38
42
109
Homalopoma luridum, Dall, 1885
58
62
67
187
Buccidae
Lirabuccinum odirum, Reeve, 1846
6
8
11
25
Volutharpa ampullarea, Middendroft, 1848
2
5
5
12
Trochidae
Lirularia olirulata, Carpenter, 1864
52
60
67
179
Lirularia succinata, Carpenter, 1864
3
5
8
16
Velutinidae
Marsenia thrombica, Dall, 1871
9
15
9
33
Velutina velutina, O. F. Muller, 1776
2
5
3
10
Muricidae
Nucella lamellosa, Gmelin, 1791
3
3
5
11
Ocenebra inornata, Recluz, 1851
2
2
3
7
Ocinebrina atropupurea, Carpenter, 1864
1
4
5
10
Scabrotrophon maltzani, Kobett & Kuster, 1878
1
1
1
3
Epitoniidae
Opalia borealis, Kepe, 1881
7
10
13
30
Margeliidae
Oepota olividensis, Carpenter, 1864
1
1
3
5
Oenopota tabulate, Carpenter, 1864
6
8
8
22
Borsoniidae
Ophiodermelta cacellata, Carpenter, 1864
1
1
1
3
Total
1624
1908
2011
5543
Total Family
16
Total Genus
25
Total Species
31
Table 1.
Gastropod assemblage in the sampled quadrates using belt transect method.
Figure 3.
Samples of gastropods in their natural habitat during the lowest low tide.
3.3 Data analysis
3.3.1 Measure of diversity
Species diversity and evenness are presented in Table 3. Results of the Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H′) and Pielou’s evenness index (J’) show that species diversity is high (H′ > 4) in the Family Muricidae with computed H′ value of 4.19. Evenness is complete (J’ = 1) where J’ value is 3.81. High species diversity of this group indicates the most number of species (four species) and evenly distributed in the sampled plots of the study site compared to other gastropod families. Generally, the muricids are commonly found in rocky habitat hence these are called rock snails. They are carnivores and predators of sessile animals [18, 19]. Identified gastropod assemblage can adapt to varying environmental conditions such as fluctuation in temperature due to intense solar radiation [1, 6] biotic and abiotic factors [11], substrate condition [10] and wave actions [1, 13]], physical and chemical factors such as temperature [1, 6], salinity, pH and dissolved oxygen (DO) [16] and increase human activities [9, 11]. Specifically in this particular research, aerial temperature was considered as a factor since transect with sampled plots were laid on the elevated rocky habitat (Figure 1). Recorded monthly aerial temperature from January 2016 to January 2018 was correlated with the population of gastropod species assemblage (Table 1). In some related gastropod diversity studies, temperature in general [16] was considered as limiting factor instead of aerial temperature. In sampling locations partly submerged in water as in tidal pool [6, 12] coral reef habitat [13] and the littoral zone [14], water temperature was considered a moderating variable. Generally, the various habitats determined the species of gastropods [7] which directly or indirectly affected by the dynamics of the environmental temperatures. The distribution of organisms is non-homogeneous in the intertidal zone which changes based on the biotic and abiotic factors [12]. Species diversity is moderate (2 < H′ < 4) among the Family Pyramidellidae (H′ = 3.29; J’ = 2.99); Family Cerithiidae (H′ = 3.22; J’ = 2.92); Family Oliveliidae (H′ = 3.12; J’ = 2.84); Family Calliostomatidae and Turbinidae (H′ = 2.19; J’ = 1.99) including species of Family Trochidae, Buccidae, Velutinidae, and Margeliidae having two to three species. Other species in the Family Batillariidae, Borsoniidae, Cerethiopsidae, Epitoniidae, Volutidae and Columbellidae have low diversity (H′ < 2). Of the 31 species (Table 1), three gastropod species have no evenness, O. borealis of the Family Epitoniidae (J’ = 0.97) A. ternsii which belong to Family Volutidae and A. aurantiaca of the Family Columbellidae (J’ = 0.95). Over-all, diversity in the rocky habitat of Asry Beach is moderate with the weighted mean of H′ = 2.06 however evenly distributed (J’ = 1.88) (Table 2). Results imply that the resources specifically food [5] in the sampled rocky habitat supports the assemblage of gastropod species thus maintaining ecological balance in beaches [9].
Result of Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H′) and Pielou’s species evenness (J’).
3.3.2 Statistical analysis on the annual species assemblage
Although the total annual assemblage is high (Table 1) statistical analysis using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed insignificant differences in the total annual population of gastropod species (Table 3). Results imply stability of gastropod species assemblage due to availability of food resources to support community structure [9]. Wet rocky biota promotes massive algal growth which serves as feeding ground for gastropod species [5]. Individual gastropod species only compete for space [6], be it on the rock surface or crevices. Although gastropods are motile, they tend to move slowly thus preventing them from moving in and out of the intertidal ecosystem as a consequence of short period of tidal change [12]. These attributes explain the stability of gastropod assemblage in this particular biota.
Source
SS
df
MS
F-value
p-value
Between treatments
2653.5699
2
1326.7849
0.03052
.96995ns
Within treatments
3912380.7097
90
43470.8968
Total
3915034.2796
92
Table 3.
Result of analysis of variance (ANOVA).
ns = means not significant at p < 0.05.
3.3.3 Effect of aerial temperature on the total assemblage of gastropods
Gastropods are adapted to various environmental factors [6, 13], including changes in diurnal temperature [1, 7, 8, 15]. Tolerant species are identified based on the highest annual individual species count and total count (Table 1). Top tolerant species include C. selectum with increasing annual population of 1025 in 2016, 1221 in 2017, and 2231 in 2018 (total of 3481); L. attenuatum (2016 = 156; 2017 = 148; and 2018 = 167; total = 471); Turbonilla sp. 1 (2016 = 68; 2017 = 71; and 2018 = 81; total of 226). Results imply that these species have higher level of tolerance to temperature changes. The mean temperatures vary annually. In 2016, the mean monthly temperature ranged from 18 to 36°C; 17 to 37°C in 2017; and 18 to 36°C in 2018. Hence, the mean temperature in Table 4 shows fluctuating monthly temperatures with annual mean temperature of 27.75°C in 2016 and 28.25°C in 2017 and 2018.
Month
Mean annual aerial temperature (in °C)
Year
Mean
2016
2017
2018
January
18
19
18
18.33
February
19
17
20
18.67
March
23
21
25
23
April
26
28
27
27
May
32
33
32
32.33
June
34
35
36
35
July
36
37
36
36.33
August
36
37
36
36.33
September
34
35
35
34.67
October
29
31
31
30.33
November
25
26
25
25.33
December
21
20
18
19.67
Mean
27.75
28.25
28.25
28.08
Table 4.
Summary of mean aerial temperature (in °C), January 2016–January 2018.
Statistically, result of Pearson r coefficient of correlation in Table 5 shows a negative correlation (r = −0.0231). It means that temperature changes exert no effect on the total count of gastropod assemblage. The p-value of .943438 means not significant at p < .05. The identified assemblage of gastropods in the rocky zone of Asry Beach constitutes a stable community structure which means that aerial temperature has insignificant effect (p-value = .943438, not significant at p < .05) on the population of gastropods although the rocky habitat is exposed to diurnal sun lit. In some related studies however [16], correlation analysis revealed a significant positive correlation between the physical factors such as temperature, salinity, pH and DO in diversity of gastropods in the coastal waters of Ambon Island, Indonesia. Temperature as a factor in the related study refers to water temperature considering the type of substrate where the gastropods were sampled. Hence different from the emergent rocky habitat where the gastropods abound on rock surfaces and crevices (Figure 2).
Variables
Sum
Mean
SS
n
r
p-valuens
Aerial temperature (°C)
333.99
27.832
508.163
12
−0.0231
.943438
Total species of gastropod assemblage
5543
461.917
11776022.917
Table 5.
Result of Pearson r coefficient of correlation.
ns, not significant @ p < .05.
4. Conclusions
Asry Beach in the Kingdom of Bahrain is typically an intertidal ecosystem characterized by both sandy and rocky substrate. As a public beach, visitors and other beach goers prefer the sandy portion rather than the rocky part. The rocky zone remains undisturbed where macroflora/fauna community contributes in the coastal food chain and in other ecological interactions. The emergent wet rock surfaces and crevices promote massive algal growth which serves as the feeding ground for many macrofaunal communities. Marine gastropods as natural inhabitants in the rocky biota are tolerable to changes in aerial temperature, thus maintains the dynamics in the rocky shores and ecological balance in beaches. The over-all status of diversity and individual species distribution determine the impact of both the biotic and abiotic factors on gastropod assemblage. Periodic biodiversity assessment and monitoring are initiatives for the protection, preservation and conservation of the natural habitat of gastropods.
\n',keywords:"gastropod assemblage, rocky intertidal, tolerant species, Shannon-Wiener index, Pielou’s evenness index",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/67929.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/67929.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67929",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67929",totalDownloads:41,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"March 21st 2019",dateReviewed:"June 6th 2019",datePrePublished:"August 20th 2019",datePublished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"The macrofaunal components find its habitat in all areas of the marine ecosystem. Specifically, gastropods are considered the most common inhabitants of the intertidal zone with wide range of distribution in the rocky intertidal biota. A 3-year study on gastropod assemblage in Asry Beach, Kingdom of Bahrain was conducted from 2016 to 2018 which determines diversity and evenness of the rocky intertidal species. Taxonomic identification showed 31 species which belong to 25 genera and 16 families. The total annual population of gastropod assemblage does not vary significantly at p < 0.05 using analysis of variance (ANOVA). Shannon-Wiener species diversity index (H′) revealed high species diversity (H′ = 4.19) in the Family Muricidae; moderate (H′ = 2.04–3.29) among the species of the Family Pyramidellidae, Cerithiidae, Oliveliidae, Calliostomatidae, Turbinidae, Trochidae, Buccinidae, Velutinidae and Margeliidae; and low (H′ = 1.04–1.11) among the species of the Family Batillariidae, Borsoniidae, Cerethiopsidae, Epitoniidae, Volutidae and Columbellidae. Pielou’s evenness index show that most of the species have complete evenness (J’ = 1.0–3.81). The varying annual mean temperature exert no effect on the total assemblage of gastropods (r = −0.0231). Tolerant species include C. selectum, L. attenuatum and Turbonilla sp. 1. The rocky intertidal pool is typically diverse although exposed to varying environmental occurrences.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67929",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67929",signatures:"Belen T. Lumeran",book:{id:"8421",title:"Invertebrates - Ecophysiology and Management",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Invertebrates - Ecophysiology and Management",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Sajal Ray, Dr. Genaro Diarte-Plata and Dr. Ruth Escamilla-Montes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8421.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"173697",title:"Prof.",name:"Sajal",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"sajal-ray",fullName:"Sajal Ray"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Research methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Study site",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Sampling, identification and field collection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Data analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.3.1 Determination of species diversity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.3.2 Statistical analysis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.1 Study site",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.2 Sampling, identification and field collection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.3 Data analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"Table 3.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Dave TH, Chudasama BG. Survey and diversity of intertidal mollusks along the coast of Veraval (Gujarat), Arabian Sea. International Journal of Science, Environment and Technology. 2018;7:353-360'},{id:"B2",body:'Vaghela A, Bhadja P, Kundu R. Diversity and distribution of intertidal mollusca at Saurashtra coast of Arabian Sea, India. Global Journal of Bio-Science and Biotechnology. 2013;2:154-158'},{id:"B3",body:'Lakwal VR, Kharate DS, Mokashe SS. Intertidal macrofaunal invertebrates diversity from Ratnagiri coast, (MS) India of Arabian Sea. International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology. 2018;6:1630-1638'},{id:"B4",body:'Donnarumma L, Sadulli R, Appolloni L, Sanchez-Lizazo JL, Russo GP. Assessment of structural and functional diversity of mollusk assemblages within vermetid bioconstructions. Diversity. 2018;10:96. DOI: 10.3390/d10030096'},{id:"B5",body:'Jeeva C, Mohan PM, Dil Baseer Sabith KK, Ubare VV, Murugananthar M, Kumari RK. Distribution of gastropods in the intertidal environment of south, middle and north Andaman Islands, India. Open Journal of Marine Science. 2018;8:173-195. DOI: 10.4236/ojms.81009'},{id:"B6",body:'Sullivan H. The effect of gastropod diversity and density on macroalgae diversity in the Massachusetts rocky intertidal. Journal of Marine Ecology. 2015;1:19-26'},{id:"B7",body:'Kohan A, Badbardast Z, Shokri M. The gastropods fauna along the Bushehr Province intertidal zone of the Persian Gulf. Journal of the Persian Gulf. 2012;3:33-42'},{id:"B8",body:'Siti-Balkhis AB, Yaman IC, Siti-Hasmah I, Khalil MZ, Muhammad-Shukri MY, Zulfigar Y, et al. A survey of the marine intertidal macrogastropoda in the northern straits of Malaca. ASM Science Journal. 2015;8(2):159-164'},{id:"B9",body:'Martinez E, Sanchez J, Alba A, Vazquez AA. Changes in structure and composition of two communities of rocky shores mollusks exposed to different human impact in playa Jibacoa, Cuba. Journal of Ecosystem & Ecography. 2015;5:1-6. DOI: 10.4172/2157-7625.1000162'},{id:"B10",body:'Pandey V, Thiruchitrambalam G, Satyam K. Habitat heterogeneity determines structural properties of intertidal gastropod assemblages in a pristine tropical island ecosystem. Indian Journal of Geo Marine Sciences. 2018;47:846-853'},{id:"B11",body:'Kurhe AR, Rodriguez MA, Suryawanshi GD. Vertical distribution and diversity of gastropods mollusks from intertidal habitats of the Ratnagiri coast Maharashtra, India. International Research Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences. 2014;1:1-13'},{id:"B12",body:'Pandey M, Desai AY, Mathew KL. Quantitative abundance of key intertidal gastropods at port Okha reef Gujarat. International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies. 2017;5:188-192'},{id:"B13",body:'Rahmayanti F, Nazira FK, Dewi AK, Tranggono YA. Biodiversity of gastropod in the Sombo Beach, Wakatobi, Indonesia. In: IOP Conference Series; 2018. DOI: 10.1088/1755-1315'},{id:"B14",body:'Baharuddin N, Basri NB, Syawal NH. Marine gastropods (Gastropoda; Mollusca) diversity and distribution on intertidal rocky shores of Terengganu, peninsular Malaysia. AACL Bioflux. 2018;11:1144-1154'},{id:"B15",body:'Londono-Cruz E, Lopez de Mesa-Agudelo LA, Arias-Galvez F, Herrera-Paz DL, Prado A, Cuellar LM, et al. Distribution of macroinvertebrates on intertidal rocky shores in Gorgona Island, Colombia (tropical eastern Pacific). Journal of Tropical Biology. 2014;62:189-198'},{id:"B16",body:'Rumahlatu D, Leiwakabessy F. Biodiversity of gastropods in the coastal waters of Ambon Island, Indonesia. AACL Bioflux. 2017;10:1-12'},{id:"B17",body:'Lumeran BT. Gastropods in the intertidal zone of Asry Beach, Kingdom of Bahrain. International Advanced Research Journal in Science, Engineering and Technology. 2015;2:93-97. DOI: 10.17148/IARJSET.2015.2720'},{id:"B18",body:'Harbo RM. A Field Guide to Seashells and Shellfish of the Pacific Northwest. Canada: Harbour Publishing Company Limited; 2009. 22 pp'},{id:"B19",body:'Robin A. Encyclopedia of Marine Gastropods. Germany: ConchBooks, IKAN Interwasser-Archi; 2008. 480 pp'},{id:"B20",body:'Shell Catalogue [Internet]. 2019. Available from: www.gastropods.com/taxon_pages/TN_Family-shtml'},{id:"B21",body:'World Register of Marine Species-Gastropods (WoRMS) [Internet]. 2019. Available from: www.marinespecies.org/'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Belen T. Lumeran",address:"belentlumeran@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Faculty, Department of Mathematics and Sciences, AMA International University-Bahrain, Kingdom of Bahrain
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
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Services included are:
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
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If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
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Open Access Funding
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To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
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For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Indexing and listing across major repositories
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Long-term archiving Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
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Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
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Dissemination and Promotion
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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+4,400 OA books published
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
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OAPF Publishing Options
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
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10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
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4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
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*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Services included are:
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
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Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
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If your manuscript:
\n\n
\n\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
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If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
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\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories
\n\t
Long-term archiving Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
\n\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+4,400 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+84,800 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 130 million downloads
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