Types of hydrogel-based products applied via different routes of drug administration [10, 59].
\r\n\tThe purpose of this book is to discuss some of the critical security challenges in today’s computing world and to discuss mechanisms for defending against those attacks by using classical and modern approaches to cryptography and other security solutions. With this objective, the book invites contributions from researchers in the field of cryptography and its applications in network security. Some illustrative topics of interest (but not limited to) are cryptography algorithms, authentication, authorization, integrity, confidentiality, privacy, security in wireless networks, security in wireless local area networks, wireless sensor networks, wireless ad hoc networks, vehicular ad hoc networks, security and privacy in the Internet of Things. Privacy of information, Blockchains, and Machine Learning in Security are three additional topics that the book will also deal with.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-196-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83769-980-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-197-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"b268e581d5e458cb91b82c518f2717eb",bookSignature:"Prof. Jaydip Sen",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11547.jpg",keywords:"Symmetric Key Cryptography, Block Ciphers, Authentication Protocols, Electronic Mail Security, User Privacy, Privacy-Preserving Data Mining, Blockchain Security, Anomaly Detection, Malware Analysis, Secure Quantum Communications, Internet of Things, Cyber Laws",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 4th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 5th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 3rd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 22nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 21st 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a day",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Sen is a pioneering researcher in machine learning and artificial intelligence. He is an IEEE and ACM senior member who has been listed among the top 2% scientists in the world by Stanford University, USA. Prof. Sen has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3569",title:"Biodegradation",subtitle:"Life of Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb737eb528a53e5106c7e218d5f12ec6",slug:"biodegradation-life-of-science",bookSignature:"Rolando Chamy and Francisca Rosenkranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"165784",title:"Dr.",name:"Rolando",surname:"Chamy",slug:"rolando-chamy",fullName:"Rolando Chamy"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"67426",title:"Structural Effect in Ionic Liquids Is the Vital Role to Enhance the Corrosion Protection of Metals in Acid Cleaning Process",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82422",slug:"structural-effect-in-ionic-liquids-is-the-vital-role-to-enhance-the-corrosion-protection-of-metals-i",body:'\nCorrosion is defined as the destruction or deterioration of metal because of its reaction with the environment. The age of corrosion is as old as the earth. It is known that it had different names at different time. However, carbon steel is prone to corrosion in an acid environment, which causes material damage and increases downtime costs in industry. Hence, a periodical cleaning and descaling process is performed using inorganic acids to remove the corrosion products. Due to acid aggressiveness, inhibitors were used to reduce metal dissolution [1]. The study of corrosion inhibition and mechanistic processes is a key area of research [2]. A large number of organic compounds having nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus were synthesized to reduce the corrosion of metal in aggressive medium. The literature also revealed that the organic compounds containing π-bonds, electron density on the heteroatom, planner structure, and aromaticity have supported the effects of adsorption inhibitor molecules on the metal surface.
\nOver the last few decades, several types of organic compounds have been synthesized and used as corrosion inhibitors to mitigate the corrosion process in different environments [3, 4, 5]. More recently, ionic liquids have been recognized as a better corrosion inhibitor for metal corrosion in an acid environment [6, 7, 8, 9]. Due to their unique properties such as non-flammability, very low vapor pressure, and boiling and melting point, ionic liquids can be considered to be good corrosion inhibitors. Recently, the software development in the theoretical analysis of molecules to describe plausible corrosion mechanisms has increased considerably [10]. Ionic liquids are salts, a combination of (organic) cation and (organic/inorganic) anion as a liquid form at room temperature; in other words, they are called organic salts, which have melting points below room temperature. The electronic configuration of imidazolium (heterocyclic) depends on the heteroatom of the main carbon skeleton and furthermore causes the interaction between the metal surface and ionic liquid [11]. The significant features of its physical and chemical properties such as liquid state, low vapor pressure, viscosity, and inflammability place ionic liquids in the field of corrosion as inhibitors. The various kinds of cation and anion govern the possibility to have property that required. Many ionic liquids are used as solvents for batteries and organic reactions. The application of ionic liquids in the corrosion field was first reported in 1996. The ionic liquid dissociation pattern gave a clue to the adsorption mode on the metal surface. The adsorption combination of ionic liquids depends on the metal nature and temperature.
\nThe literature shows that inhibition effect mainly depends on alkyl chain length substitution on the N1/N2 atoms. A heterocyclic compound containing a longer alkyl chain length would offer better corrosion protection [12]. However, many studies have implied that increasing the carbon chain length on N atoms does not necessarily increase the inhibition effect [13, 14]. Murulana [15] supported the above fact and described that not only does increasing alkyl chain length in the N atom increase protection efficiency but also other atoms close by will enhance the protection effect. The main reason for surface protection is the induction of alkyl substitution on the cationic part of the ionic liquid.
\nSince ionic liquids possess cations and anions, they are adsorbed onto the metal surface anodes and cathodes, respectively. Because of this, metal dissolution considerably decreases. The adsorbing efficiency of the inhibitor purely depends on the electron-donating ability of the ionic liquid active site [16]. Likhanova et al. [17] explained in his research that the electrochemical parameter showed the alkylation of longer chain length on imidazolium and pyridinium and significantly improved charge transfer resistance. Additionally, inhibitor concentration also improved metal dissolution at the metal/solution interface. In the presence of ionic liquid, the anodic and cathodic reactions were affected. ImDC18 Br and PyC18 Br inhibit the anodic area more than the cathodic area, because of the adsorption between HSO4− and Br−, and consequently, the cathodic reaction is also arrested. The increased polarization resistance indicates the adsorption of ionic liquid on the metal surface to block the active area for the mitigation of corrosion. This efficiency has increased due to the presence of ethylbenzene at the N3 atom of the imidazole ring. Delocalization of the electron is much favored in the 3-ethylbenzene form of imidazolium ionic liquid than in the acetyl imidazolium form [18]. On the other hand, the (pyridiazinium ionic liquid, S1) 1-(6-ethoxy-6-oxohexyl) pyridazin-1-ium bromide bears a higher charge transfer resistance value than the (S2) 1-(2-bromoacetyl) pyridiazinium bromide, which is advocated for reasonable corrosion protection at elevated temperatures. The causes behind better corrosion protection were increased frequency of relaxation [19] as the concentration and temperature increased.
\nLong alkyl chain length improves the relaxation time at the interface of the metal/ solution interface. Some authors [20] have reported the influence of negative ions of ionic liquids in electrochemical studies. According to Martin et al., corrosion rate decreased with an ionic liquid with the same alkyl chain length but different counter ion (anionic). The surface coverage area obeys the following order: PF6− > BF4− > Br− > Cl−. Hence, the ionic radius of the anions is increased by the same amount. The larger anionic radius of PF6−turns out to have better protection than the others [14]. The negative ion contribution in the ionic liquid structure could be evaluated through its corrosion protection performance. Saleh et al. discussed the effect of Br− and Cl− ions with cetylpyridinium ions in sulfuric acid over mild steel [8, 21].
\nCorrosion current has decreased considerably compared to the blank medium. The bromide ion has a stronger effect on anodic dissolution than the chloride ion. The anionic radius of bromine atoms is better suited for the bonding and surface coverage area on the metal/solution interface. Likewise, the anionic effect of ethyl sulfate and acetate ions on ethylmethylimidazolium can be deduced by comparing its protection efficiency over mild steel. Among the ionic liquids, [EMIM] [EtSO4] is better at mitigating the anodic curve current than the acetate ion. Most probably, the inhibition efficiency is higher than the acetate ion, and this is attributed to the increased number of electronegative (hetero) atoms in the ionic liquid. On the other hand, the [EMIM] [Ac] ionic liquid showed reduced contribution compared to the [BMIM] [Ac] ionic liquid because of its long alkyl chain length [22].
\nElectrochemical noise is another technique to ensure corrosion protection of the metal surface offered by ionic liquids. When the metal is exposed to the acid medium, the electrochemical reaction commences as fast as it can. As a result, the current is measured in the form of current deviation (
On comparing the noise resistance value of both ionic liquids, it clearly indicates that ethyl-derived ionic liquid has a better tendency to protect the metal surface at the interface than [BMMB]+Br−. [BMEB]+BF4− possesses higher noise value at each concentration than [BMMB]+Br− at the same concentration. Ethyl and BF4 groups were more susceptible to transferring electrons, which resulted in better corrosion protection in acid medium as shown in Figure 1.
\nSchematic representation of electrochemical noise analysis (ENA) of ionic liquids.
On comparing the surface protection effect of any ionic liquid with its alkylated and non-alkylated form, it would help to understand the structure effect of surface protection. Gabler et al. [25] reported that strong binding between metal surface and ionic liquid is key for corrosion reduction. In an electrochemical study of 2-hydroxy- and butylammonium sulfonyl imide, the C▬F bond cleavage was reduced significantly in butyl form compared to the former. On the other hand, Kaczerewska et al. [26] studied the structural effect of inhibition efficiency on metal protection in acid medium. Interconnecting a gemini cation with a bridged oxygen atom showed better surface coverage to avert corrosive ion contact with metal surfaces. The 18-O-18 gemini cationic part of ionic liquid offered improved protection resistance against metal dissolution [27]. Vastag et al. suggested [12] that by increasing the alkyl chain number in N-substituted cations would favor the inhibitor action of organic compounds to isolate metal from further corrosion. Generally, the surface protection of ionic liquid on carbon steel was improved when the N3 atom was alkylated with carbon chain lengths from n-7 to n-9. Infrared spectra also confirmed the shift in wave number [7]. Image examination of metal surfaces exposed to 1-ethyl [12] and 1-allyl [28] 3-butylimidazolium bromide ionic liquid expressed the inhibition effect of ionic liquid. The inductive effect of the allyl group offered increased electrons in its structure in the cation of ionic liquid. Hence, as resonance increased, the adsorption of ionic liquids over the metal surface also increased. Damage to the negative ions in the ionic liquids influenced corrosion protection [29]. HSO4− has greater tendency to render protection on metal surfaces than BF4−. Sometimes, iminium compounds reduce surface heterogeneity, caused by adsorption of ionic liquid over the metal surface. Apparently, elemental analysis of the inhibited metal showed that the inhibitor’s constituents were 15 wt% of carbon and 10 wt% of oxygen, and also corroborated that dodecyl iminium chloride is more favorably adsorbed than the non-alkylated form [30].
\nThe hydrogen gas evolution method is one of the ways to determine the corrosion rate of metal in an aggressive medium. Hydrogen gas evolution is a result of a reduction (cathodic) reaction at the metal surface. The volume of hydrogen gas produced in the medium is gradually reduced in the presence of ionic liquid. The increment in alkyl chain length on N1 atoms of the benzimidazolium cation offers maximum surface coverage on the active site. Thus, a lesser amount of hydrogen gas will be produced than the blank medium [24]. As seen, the volume of hydrogen gas is reduced for both methyl and ethyl benzimidazolium ionic liquid in concentration [23]. Furthermore, it can be understood that each concentration of ethyl benzimidazolium ([BMEB]+BF4−) possesses a very low volume of H2 gas compared to methyl benzimidazolium ([BMMB]+Br−).
\nFrom the above valid point, it is vindicated that the alkyl chain length offers maximum energy or electrons to adhere to the cathode area, which is also the route to sturdy passive film formation between the corrosive medium and the metal surface. The general corrosion mechanism for carbon steel in 1 N HCl acid is described below. As shown in the following equation the ionic liquid is adsorbed onto the anodic and cathodic areas of the carbon steel surface, respectively.
\nAnodic protection reaction of [BMMB]+Br−:
\n[BMEB]+BF4−:
\nLikewise in the cathodic area, the reduction (hydrogen gas formation) reaction was considerably decreased due to the alkylation impact of ionic liquid on the adsorption effect instead of H+, and thus hydrogen gas evolution was reduced.
\nCathodic protection reaction of [BMMB]+Br−:
\n[BMEB]+ BF4−:
\nAs seen in the above equations, the adsorption of the cationic part of ionic liquids is favored in both anodic and cathodic reactive sites. The most favored cationic part among the above three kinds of ionic liquids is [BMEB]+. The (CH3 − CH2−) ethyl group, which effortlessly offered electrons to the metal surface, explains the reason for the occurrence of reduced volume of hydrogen gas in the acid medium. Figure 2 shows the hydrogen gas evolution reaction in the blank and benzimidazolium ionic liquid.
\nPictorial representation of hydrogen gas evolution in the absence and presence of [BMMB]+Br− and [BMEB]+BF4− in 1 N HCl medium.
Quantum chemical studies have been used as an efficient method to evaluate the corrosion inhibition performance of any kind of inhibitor. Since corrosion inhibition is adsorption related, dynamic and quantum studies are used to characterize the electronic properties that help to understand the adsorptive properties of the organic compound [31]. Many factors, including heteroatoms, π-electrons, aromatic rings, and carbon chain length, influence the adsorption properties of the inhibitor with metal surfaces [32]. The adsorption properties of ionic liquids will differ by their structural nature, particularly in HOMO and LUMO energy levels. The higher value of HOMO energy level contributes to the electron offering tendency to the acceptor molecule or lower energy state. Gad et al. [33] reported that increasing alkyl chain length increased HOMO energy level in pyridinium bromide ionic liquid. The maximum HOMO level was attained for (C12) 4-mercapto-1-dodecylpyridinium bromide compared to C8 and C10.
\nLikewise, the LUMO energy level of an inhibitor also depends on the functional group present in the structure. The maximum LUMO value is acquired by (C8) pyridinium bromide ionic liquid compared to the rest. A smaller alkyl chain length will decrease HOMO energy level and increase LUMO energy level. LUMO defines electron-accepting behavior of the molecule from the neighboring environments. Since (C8) ionic liquid has a higher LUMO level, it can withdraw the electron from the metal, and even from feedback bonding, and result in strong adsorption with the metal surface. The change in energy gap is an important factor for measuring reactivity of ionic liquid to adsorb onto the metallic surface. The lower value of ∆
Schematic representation of energy gap difference between various benzimidazolium ionic liquids.
In addition, the binding energies of butyl and ethoxy-substituted phosphonium bromide were 2040.9 and 25505.6 kJ, respectively. Ethoxy-substituted phosphonium bromide possessed more negative than butyl-substituted phosphonium bromide. Hence, the ionic liquid is more stable and there is less chance of spitting in the medium because of better passive film on the metal surface. Still, many researchers are studying the structure impact on its corrosion performance. By introducing an alkyl functional group to imidazoline ionic liquid, the relationship between corrosion protection and structure can be discussed. Apparently, partial atomic charges of each atom in the compound describe structural influence using quantum chemical parameters on corrosion protection in the comparison study of [DMIM][BF4] and [BMIM][BF4] at corrosion inhibition efficiency; the partial atomic charges focus on cationic moiety rather than anionic moiety, because cations possess large molecular size. Finally, the carbon atom of the alkyl chain contains a negative charge. The C5 carbon atom has a higher negative charge in [DMIM][BF4] than in [BMIM][BF4]. This makes DMIM ionic liquid effective in adsorption on the metal surface against corrosion [38].
\nIn addition, Ibrahim et al. noted their point on structural effect in their research [18]. The adsorption of imidazolium ionic liquid took place through the nitrogen atom of the ring. The coordinate bond occurs between nitrogen and iron. On evaluating two ionic liquids (benzyl and ethyl acetate-substituted imidazolium ionic liquids), benzyl-substituted imidazolium ionic liquid has a higher rate of adsorption on the anodic curve area than ethyl acetate-substituted imidazolium ionic liquid, because the former has a higher rate of relaxation of adsorbed ionic liquid from the metal surface.
\nOn the basis of the above discussion of the alkylation effect on ionic liquids in various analyses, it can be concluded that structural effect is a considerable key factor in enhancing corrosion protection performance of metal in acid medium. Alkylation of the heterocyclic cation in the ionic liquid, particularly on N1/N2 of imidazolium, benzimidazolium, or N1 of pyridinium or P1 phosphonium, facilitates the physical/chemical properties of the ionic liquids compared to unalkylated ionic liquid. Not only had the physical/chemical properties changed but also electrochemical properties. This effect has been discussed with respect to various studies, such as electrochemical behavior, surface protection, electronic properties quantum chemical analysis (QCA), and hydrogen gas evolution. Adsorption of ionic liquid is favored mostly when it is being structurally modified as a result of passive film adsorption on the metal surface, which keeps the environment corrosion free. The reason for the extraordinary maturity of the alkylated ionic liquid could be described using theoretical study. This will support the alkylated or structurally modified ionic liquid electronic properties. The electron-donating nature of ionic liquid is being increased by alkylation. As a result, the resonance effect also increased, which contributes to the stability of the ionic liquid compared to the unalkylated form. The use of ionic liquid as a corrosion inhibitor is predominant and more efficient for structural modification.
\nThe author is thankful to his management for their help in assisting his work on this chapter. Dr. P. Kannan is acknowledging Centre for Research, CHRIST (Deemed to be University), Bengaluru for carrying out this work.
\nThe author of this manuscript has no conflict of interest.
I express my heartfelt thanks to my friends Mr. P. Mathavan, Dr. L. Mohan, and Dr. K. Vidya for their constant support and encouragement on this endeavor.
\nHydrogels are three-dimensional polymeric networks that are utilized in various medical applications due to their unique properties: hydrophilicity, biodegradability, non-toxicity, and their controllable mechanical properties to mimic the mechanics of biological tissues [1, 2]. Furthermore, their structural properties exhibit similarities with biological extracellular matrix components which makes them ideal for cell culture and growth [3].
From the mechanical perspective, the concentration of the polymer network in hydrogels controls, to large extent, their mechanical strength allowing them to mimic the mechanics of physiologically loaded tissues [4]. Consequently, due to their availability and relatively low cost, hydrogels have become an attractive option when developing quantitative techniques that measure the mechanics of biological tissues [5, 6, 7, 8].
On structural level, hydrogels can be produced by chemical or physical cross-linking. In chemical (permanent) hydrogels, the network is crosslinked with strong covalent bonds that connect the molecular chains [9]. In physical (reversable) hydrogels, the gel’s molecular chains are connected with weaker forces such as hydrogen-bonding and ionic forces, thus, they can be easily dissolved by altering their environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, ionic strength, or pH of the gels [10]). These crosslinking methods allow the synthesis of multi-network hydrogels. For instance, hydrogels can be fabricated to have highly crosslinked rigid chains that are entangled with weakly crosslinked chains to provide a functional network system used in synthesizing biomaterials for several medical applications [11, 12].
One of the medical applications the hydrogels used in is contact lenses, mainly due to their unique physical properties and ease of processing; for example, Bauman et al. [13] developed Silicone Hydrogel lenses with nano-textured surface that mimics the surface of human cornea. Hydrogel lenses are also known for their wettability, a property necessary to avoid tear deposits [10], thanks to plasma treatment during the synthesis process [14]. Gas permeability is also a key characteristic of contact lenses to provide the cornea with efficient supply of oxygen at sufficient rates. Hydrogel lenses can be designed to meet this requirement thanks to their hydrated polymer matrix [10]. Hydrogels are also commonly used in wound dressing; they have been used in combination with other materials to form composite products efficient for different dressing applications; for example, a gauze impregnated with thermoplastic hydrogels allows for absorbing wound exudate while maintaining relative slimy consistency, as a result, it prevents adherence to the wound that normally results in pain during gauze changes [15]. Moreover, flexibility and transparency of hydrogels also made them an attractive option in wound dressing. While flexibility facilitates easy removal of the dressing products, transparency allows for continuous observation of the wound healing process [16].
Nowadays, delivery and release of drug molecules is receiving significant attention in many fields of medicine in which therapeutic drugs are loaded in polymer-based-carriers. These carriers transport the drugs to the targeted location [17, 18]. The efficacy of gels as drug-carriers relies in their adjustable porosity through controlling the crosslinking density of their matrix. Their porous structure allows for drug loading and releasing with high efficiency [19, 20]. Numerous studies have been published on the potential applications of hydrogels in drug delivery focusing on their mechanism, shape of the gel-carriers, and types of transported drugs. Therefore, this chapter, will discuss different drug loading and releasing mechanisms with respect to their corresponding medical application. Furthermore, the drug dosage is dependent on the design of the hydrogel systems, which in turn depend on the route of the drug administration (e.g., rectal, ocular, peroral, etc.), thus, this chapter will shed the light on the types of hydrogel-based carriers applied via different routes of drug administration. Lastly, this chapter will cover different classifications of the delivered drugs using gel-based delivery systems including small molecular weight drugs; therapeutic proteins and peptides; and vaccines.
Drug loading is an important property of a drug delivery system, and it is defined as the process of incorporating a drug into a carrier. The therapeutic agents can be introduced into gel-carriers by ionic interaction, dipole interaction, hydrogen bonding, physical encapsulation, covalent bonding, precipitation, or surface absorption. It’s common that more than a loading mechanism is used in drug delivery systems, and the ideal loading strategies are determined based on the compatibility between the physicochemical properties of the drug and the carrier.
The drug-loading process can take place during the formation of the carriers, or by incubating carriers into a concentrated drug solution to allow the loading through adsorption on their surface area [21]. However, this method has limited loading capacity, and the incubation time can influence the drug loading efficacy [22, 23]. In general, the entrapment and loading of drug molecules into polymer carriers depend on several characteristics: polymer and crosslinker concentrations, molecular weight of the polymer, and drug-polymer interactions [24, 25, 26]. The higher the polymer concentration the more efficient the drug entrapment is; at a high concentration, the polymer viscosity is increased, which delays the drug diffusion within the polymer particles [27]. Similarly, the high concentration of the crosslinker yields tangible increase in the loading efficiency [28]. Conversely, Fu et al., 2004 reported that the encapsulation efficiency decreases when the molecular weight of the polymer increases [29]. In protein based drugs, the interaction between the polymer and the drug molecules contribute to the entrapment efficiency; it increases if the protein molecules are entrapped into hydrophobic polymers, moreover, ionic interaction between the molecules and the polymer particles increase the efficiency of encapsulation, specifically, in polymers that belongs to carboxylic end groups [30].
The delivery of therapeutics by nanocarriers can be passive: transport of drug-carrying nanoparticles through permeable vessels due to the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect; or active: based on molecular recognition in which peripherally targeting moieties that interact with specific cell receptors [31].
In localized cancer therapy, the mechanism of passive targeting relies heavily on the tumor characteristics; tumor hypoxia causes rapid growth of leaky vessels, which increases the permeation of nano-delivery systems into the tumor, the lack of lymphatic filtration allows for the retention of these systems on the tumor’s interstitial space [32]. Moreover, this targeting strategy also depends on the carriers’ size; delivery systems larger than 50 kDa permeate through leaky vessels and retained in the tumor, smaller molecules are washed out quickly (very short circulation time) from the tumor [33]. The charge and the surface chemistry affect the circulation time of carriers; mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS) cells tend to opsonize largely hydrophobic and charged systems. Thus, water-soluble and neutral (or slightly anionic) compounds (e.g., Polyethylene Glycol) are used to coat the nanocarriers surface [31, 32, 34]. Active targeting also depends on the EPR effect to accumulate the delivery nanocarriers in the tumor region, however, the efficacy of this strategy capitalize on equipping the nanocarriers’ surface with ligands that bind to specific receptors of cancer cells, thus, enhancing the penetration and efficiency of the chemical therapeutics. Figure 1 illustrates passive and active targeting strategies.
Schematic illustration of active and passive delivery of drug molecules.
Biodegradation of the nanocarriers is essential for the release of the drug molecules over extended periods of time (days or weeks). It is also crucial for the removal of delivery systems from the body [35]. The carrier size has an effect on the efficacy of the releasing process; drug molecules loaded at or in proximity to the surface of small particles are released at a fast rate due to the large surface-to-volume ratio. On the other hand, slower release rates are associated with larger particles, nevertheless, more drug molecules can be loaded. Modulation of the drug release can also be controlled by the molecular weight of the gel composition; higher molecular weight tends to exhibit slower release rates [36, 37]. In general, the mechanism of releasing drugs is dependent on three main parameters: drug diffusion and dissolution, gel matrix design, and interaction between the drug and the gel matrix.
The transport of the therapeutic molecules out of the gel matrix is a complex process that depends on the dissolution and diffusion of the drug [38]. Several studies have been conducted to develop mathematical models that describe this process [39, 40, 41]. The basic equation of the dissolution rate as a function of diffusion can be described as [42].
Where dM/dt is the rate of dissolution, A is the surface area of solid in contact with the dissolution milieu, D is the diffusion coefficient,
There are several mechanisms to release the drug, most common strategies are diffusion and swelling controlled. In diffusion-controlled delivery systems, drug molecules diffuse from a region of high drug concentration (reservoir) through the gel matrix or membrane. The design of these systems is commonly available as spheres, cylinders, slabs, or capsules. These systems can have a constant rate of release as described by Eq. (1), or their release rate can be proportional to the square root of time. In the latter case, the drug is usually dispersed or dissolved uniformly through the matrix of the hydrogel [10]. In swelling controlled systems, the drug is dispersed within carriers made of a glassy gel, and upon contact with biofluids, they swell beyond their boundary which results in the diffusion of the drug during the relaxation of the gel chains, this process is known as anomalous transport [10, 44]. Illustrations of the two releasing mechanisms provided in Figure 2. The structure of the nanocarriers’ controls the release of the drugs; using hydrogels alone in synthesizing the nanocarriers can result into fast premature release of drugs and poor tunability [45]. Therefore, using additives can enhance the control of the drug delivery process; using Polydopamine (PDA) as an additive to the hydrogel materials in making the nanocarriers provides an on-demand capability to release the drug. In high glutathione (GSH) and acidic condition, the bond between the drugs and PDA experience weakening. This is a useful property to release the drugs in inflammatory areas or tumor cites where pH levels are low. While at neutral pH levels such as in normal tissues, the bond between the PDA and the therapeutic dugs is not affected [46, 47, 48, 49, 50]. Furthermore, PDA generates heat upon exposure to near infrared (NIR) laser, which makes it ideal for NIR triggered drug delivery [51].
Schemes of drug release systems: (a) from a reservoir system; (b) from a matrix system.
Besides long-term stability and release properties, passing the toxicity screening is essential for hydrogel formulations to be used in drug delivery. This is mainly due to the rise of inflammatory reactions that occur as a result of the degradation of synthetic polymers [52]. Therefore, achieving biocompatibility is necessary to use hydrogels in an environment of living organisms. Most in-vivo tests are conducted on animal models to provide reliable biomedical mimicry. As a result, several hydrogel-based drug delivery systems have been developed and approved for clinical use through different administration routes. Currently, the common accessible routes of these systems are Oral [53], rectal [54], subcutaneous [55], transdermal [56], ocular [57], and intraperitoneal [58]. These administration routes are illustrated in Figure 3. Table 1 provides examples of gel-based products used in drug delivery through different administration routes.
In-vivo hydrogel-based drug delivery in most common routes of administration. The schematic illustration is reproduced from [
Route of administration | Shape | Typical dimensions | References |
---|---|---|---|
Oral | Spherical beads; Discs; Nanoparticles | 1 μm–1 mm Diameters of 8 mm and thickness of 1 mm 10–1000 nm | [35, 60, 61] |
Rectal | Suppositories | Conventional adult suppositories dimensions (32 mm in length) with central cavity of 7 mm and wall thickness of 1.5 mm | [62] |
Transdermal | Dressing | Variable | [63] |
Subcutaneous | Injection (hydrogel spacers in prostate cancer therapy) | N/A | [64, 65] |
Intraperitoneal | Injection (hyaluronic acid hydrogel loaded with chemotherapeutics) | N/A | [66] |
Oral administration currently is the most common and convenient for hydrogel drug delivery systems, thanks to their bioavailability and nontoxicity they provide [67, 68]. However, such systems have limitations due to the metabolic effect these systems have on the living organism including but not limited to denaturation and reduction of epithelial membrane permeability [52]. Delivery systems in this strategy are usually made from caprolactone, MPEG, itaconic acid pH-sensitive hydrogels as they were reported to have no signs of toxicity [68].
This route provides an alternative to intravenous and subcutaneous medication delivery. It has faster absorption of the medication through rectum’s blood vessels, which makes it ideal for therapeutics that have high bioavailability and shorter duration [69, 70]. Moreover, it provides a stable environment in which the drugs are released since this administration strategy bypasses the gastrointestinal tract. As a result, minimal alterations occur to the drug concentration when it reaches the circulation system [71]. Hydrogel-based delivery systems such as catechol-chitosan gels have shown excellent biocompatibility and were reported to have no toxicity in-vitro and in-vivo [54, 72].
This route is very common in studies that involve animal models when developing gel-based injectable biomaterials such as alginate [73], gelatin [74], poly-acrylamide [75], ellagic acid [76], and pectin [77]. While these biomaterials have shown no toxic response when deployed in-vivo into the animal model, the majority of the studies have reported inflammatory effect due to the vascularized nature of the subcutaneous region that is associated with reactions against foreign moieties [78].
In topical delivery, the therapeutics reach the circulation system through penetrating the skin layers; the drug passes through the startum corneum to deeper epidermis and dermis until it is absorbed by the dermal microcirculation [79, 80]. The hydrophilic nature of hydrogels allows them to hold considerable amounts of fluid content that ranges between 10% to 1000 times gels’ dry weight [81], which makes them ideal for carrying drugs such as insulin, theophylline, sodium fluoride, and progesterone and heparin. Transdermal hydrogel patches can provide a controlled rate of drug delivery in addition to providing a cooling effect at the location where they are applied [81]. Hydrogels can also be combined with bio-adhesives to prolong the therapeutic effect of the delivered drug when applied topically [82].
Intraperitoneal injections of hydrogel systems are considered a successful delivery strategy for various therapeutic agents. The injected hydrogels compounds can achieve efficient drug delivery while exhibiting anti-adhesiveness properties on the peritoneum [83]. Although intraperitoneal hydrogels were reported to be non-toxic [84], their hydrophilicity can compromise the concentration of the delivered pharmaceutical agents [58].
Budhian et al. [85] categorized the release of this class of drugs into three stages; (i) initial burst, during which the drugs immediately released into the medium; (ii) induction, in which the release of drugs is gradual; and (iii) slow release, in which the release reaches a steady slow rate [85]. These stages are controlled by three unique properties of the gel in use to synthesize the delivery systems: hydrophobicity, surface coating, and particle size [35]. The lower the hydrophobicity the higher the release of drugs during the burst stage; for example, the percentage of released drugs after 1 day is 45% for 220 nm strongly hydrophobic PLA particles, on the other hand, the release percentage is 70% for the same size of the moderately hydrophobic PLGA particles. The release stages are also affected by the surface coating of the nanoparticles; coating PLGA particles reduces the number of drugs released by 40%. The rate of release and the initial burst are affected by the size of the particles; increasing the size decreases the total surface area which reduces the burst period, furthermore, the larger the size, the longer the pathways the drug molecules take during the diffusion which increases the induction period [85].
Among several peptides- and proteins-based therapeutics that are used in drug delivery, enzymes are the most studied class of drugs [86]; examples of such enzymes include L-asparaginase, cysteine desulfatase, cysteine oxidase, arginase, and arginine decarboxylase [87]. Currently, only a few protein- and peptide-based drugs have been used in medicinal setting. The clinical use of this class of drugs is hindered by several factors: enzymatic degradation, renal filtration, inefficient cell entry, accumulation in nontargeted organs, immune system response that causes allergic reaction, and protein inactivation due to intrinsic properties such as low stability in an environment of physiological pH and temperature [88].
A simple approach to overcome the elimination of this class of drugs is introducing it via injection to the targeted organ. However, this strategy has its own limitations such as difficulty or delocation of the targeted site, drug toxicity, and long-term hospital setting administration [88]. Other delivery strategies were proposed such as microfabricated chips and implantable devices [89, 90]. While these strategies have shown promising results, their deployment and extraction require surgical intervention. To overcome these challenges and to stabilize the therapeutic proteins and peptides in the physiological environment, they are encapsulated into nanocarriers. This technique protects the enzymes from the degradation parameters imposed by the physiological environment while delivering different types of protein-based drugs [88].
Shimizu et al. [91] developed nanocarriers that efficiently encapsulates bone morphogenic proteins (BMPs), which have significant capability to convince bone formation. When BMPs are encapsulated by the developed nanocarriers, they provided sustained delivery of the BMPs over a time period of 14 days. In cancer therapy, polymersomes are used to deliver therapeutics; Danafar et al., 2016 investigated the delivery of drug molecules encapsulated into mPEG-PCL hydrogel nanocarriers in treating breast cancer. Their mPEG-PCL carriers provided suitable pH-dependent delivery of therapeutics to breast cancer cells [92].
Establishing an immunological memory and provoking sufficient immune response are the two primary factors that determine the efficacy of a vaccine delivery system [93, 94]. The main administration routes of vaccine delivery systems are parenteral and non-parenteral. The first is administered using hypodermic needles inserted through subcutaneous, intramuscular, and intradermal routes [95, 96]. On the other hand, non-parenteral delivery systems capitalize on needle-free devices such as jet injectors, liquid, powder, and polymeric (including hydrogel) systems [97]. In hydrogel-based systems, gel particles encapsulate the vaccine molecules and deliver it through intramuscular, oral, and transcutaneous routes [98, 99]. In recent years, different hydrogel delivery systems were developed to increase the efficiency of the vaccine delivery, Table 2 summarizes these systems and their applications.
Hydrogel based system | Applications | References |
---|---|---|
Thermo-sensitive | H5N1 Influenza vaccination; Ebolavirus glycoprotein antigen; prevention of ovine brucellosis | [100, 101, 102] |
Capsules | Oligopeptide antigen delivery | [103] |
Bio bullets | Bacterial vaccines (Brucella Abortus strain RB51 live vaccine) | [104] |
Injections | Swine H1N1 influenza killed vaccine; fibroblast growth factor (bFGF); codelivery of immune check point inhibitor and tumor vaccine | [105, 106, 107] |
Nanogels and peptides | Adjuvant for the vaccine delivery systems for West Nile and respiratory syndrome viruses | [108, 109] |
Micro-scale particles | Oral delivery of bovine serum protein; intramuscular delivery of “transmission blocking malaria” vaccine | [110, 111] |
Gel patches | Tetanus and diphtheria vaccination | [112, 113] |
Micro-needles | Influenza vaccine; DNA vaccine against hepatitis B; Japanese encephalitis vaccine; and rabies vaccine | [114, 115] |
Hydrogel-based delivery systems and their applications.
Drug carriers are revolutionary delivery systems in the field of medicine. While there have been several studies that reported different types of polymers that has been used to synthesize the carriers, hydrogel-based systems seem to be very promising due to their affordability, production simplicity, and their unique ability to load different types of drugs. Although several gel-based systems have been investigated, designed and IP-protected, it seems only limited number of these product has actually reached the market, which indicates the need for further investigations on improving the performance of current products and develop new ones. This chapter addressed different hydrogel-based drug delivery systems from different perspectives including mechanisms (loading, releasing, and targeting), design (shape and route of administration), and the classes of delivery drugs. These elements are essential when designing and investigating state-of-the-art hydrogel-based delivery systems.
The author acknowledges the support of BK21 FOUR Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF), the Ministry of Education.
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On this context, this chapter summarizes the general characteristics of Actinobacteria, its habitat, systematic classification, various biotechnological applications, and negative impact on plants and animals.",book:{id:"5056",slug:"actinobacteria-basics-and-biotechnological-applications",title:"Actinobacteria",fullTitle:"Actinobacteria - Basics and Biotechnological Applications"},signatures:"Ranjani Anandan, Dhanasekaran Dharumadurai and Gopinath\nPonnusamy Manogaran",authors:[{id:"48914",title:"Dr.",name:"Dharumadurai",middleName:null,surname:"Dhanasekaran",slug:"dharumadurai-dhanasekaran",fullName:"Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran"}]},{id:"42319",doi:"10.5772/50364",title:"Lactic Acid Bacteria in Hydrogen-Producing Consortia: On Purpose or by Coincidence?",slug:"lactic-acid-bacteria-in-hydrogen-producing-consortia-on-purpose-or-by-coincidence-",totalDownloads:3796,totalCrossrefCites:32,totalDimensionsCites:89,abstract:null,book:{id:"2796",slug:"lactic-acid-bacteria-r-d-for-food-health-and-livestock-purposes",title:"Lactic Acid Bacteria",fullTitle:"Lactic Acid Bacteria - R & D for Food, Health and Livestock Purposes"},signatures:"Anna Sikora, Mieczysław Błaszczyk, Marcin Jurkowski and Urszula Zielenkiewicz",authors:[{id:"143688",title:"Dr.",name:"Urszula",middleName:null,surname:"Zielenkiewicz",slug:"urszula-zielenkiewicz",fullName:"Urszula Zielenkiewicz"},{id:"146985",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Sikora",slug:"anna-sikora",fullName:"Anna Sikora"},{id:"162424",title:"Prof.",name:"Mieczysław",middleName:null,surname:"Błaszczyk",slug:"mieczyslaw-blaszczyk",fullName:"Mieczysław Błaszczyk"},{id:"162425",title:"Mr.",name:"Marcin",middleName:null,surname:"Jurkowski",slug:"marcin-jurkowski",fullName:"Marcin Jurkowski"}]},{id:"42328",doi:"10.5772/47766",title:"Lactic Acid Bacteria as Source of Functional Ingredients",slug:"lactic-acid-bacteria-as-source-of-functional-ingredients",totalDownloads:7625,totalCrossrefCites:23,totalDimensionsCites:52,abstract:null,book:{id:"2796",slug:"lactic-acid-bacteria-r-d-for-food-health-and-livestock-purposes",title:"Lactic Acid Bacteria",fullTitle:"Lactic Acid Bacteria - R & D for Food, Health and Livestock Purposes"},signatures:"Panagiota Florou-Paneri, Efterpi Christaki and Eleftherios Bonos",authors:[{id:"140984",title:"Prof.",name:"Panagiota",middleName:null,surname:"Florou-Paneri",slug:"panagiota-florou-paneri",fullName:"Panagiota Florou-Paneri"},{id:"142773",title:"Dr.",name:"Efterpi",middleName:null,surname:"Christaki",slug:"efterpi-christaki",fullName:"Efterpi Christaki"},{id:"142774",title:"Dr.",name:"Eleftherios",middleName:null,surname:"Bonos",slug:"eleftherios-bonos",fullName:"Eleftherios Bonos"}]},{id:"42337",doi:"10.5772/50839",title:"Exopolysaccharides of Lactic Acid Bacteria for Food and Colon Health Applications",slug:"exopolysaccharides-of-lactic-acid-bacteria-for-food-and-colon-health-applications",totalDownloads:6385,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:47,abstract:null,book:{id:"2796",slug:"lactic-acid-bacteria-r-d-for-food-health-and-livestock-purposes",title:"Lactic Acid Bacteria",fullTitle:"Lactic Acid Bacteria - R & D for Food, Health and Livestock Purposes"},signatures:"Tsuda Harutoshi",authors:[{id:"141928",title:"Dr.",name:"Harutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsuda",slug:"harutoshi-tsuda",fullName:"Harutoshi Tsuda"}]},{id:"42322",doi:"10.5772/51282",title:"The Current Status and Future Expectations in Industrial Production of Lactic Acid by Lactic Acid Bacteria",slug:"the-current-status-and-future-expectations-in-industrial-production-of-lactic-acid-by-lactic-acid-ba",totalDownloads:9099,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:46,abstract:null,book:{id:"2796",slug:"lactic-acid-bacteria-r-d-for-food-health-and-livestock-purposes",title:"Lactic Acid Bacteria",fullTitle:"Lactic Acid Bacteria - R & D for Food, Health and Livestock Purposes"},signatures:"Sanna Taskila and Heikki Ojamo",authors:[{id:"139705",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Taskila",slug:"taskila",fullName:"Taskila"},{id:"142916",title:"Prof.",name:"Heikki",middleName:null,surname:"Ojamo",slug:"heikki-ojamo",fullName:"Heikki Ojamo"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"49873",title:"An Introduction to Actinobacteria",slug:"an-introduction-to-actinobacteria",totalDownloads:8089,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:101,abstract:"Actinobacteria, which share the characteristics of both bacteria and fungi, are widely distributed in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, mainly in soil, where they play an essential role in recycling refractory biomaterials by decomposing complex mixtures of polymers in dead plants and animals and fungal materials. They are considered as the biotechnologically valuable bacteria that are exploited for its secondary metabolite production. Approximately, 10,000 bioactive metabolites are produced by Actinobacteria, which is 45% of all bioactive microbial metabolites discovered. Especially Streptomyces species produce industrially important microorganisms as they are a rich source of several useful bioactive natural products with potential applications. Though it has various applications, some Actinobacteria have its own negative effect against plants, animals, and humans. On this context, this chapter summarizes the general characteristics of Actinobacteria, its habitat, systematic classification, various biotechnological applications, and negative impact on plants and animals.",book:{id:"5056",slug:"actinobacteria-basics-and-biotechnological-applications",title:"Actinobacteria",fullTitle:"Actinobacteria - Basics and Biotechnological Applications"},signatures:"Ranjani Anandan, Dhanasekaran Dharumadurai and Gopinath\nPonnusamy Manogaran",authors:[{id:"48914",title:"Dr.",name:"Dharumadurai",middleName:null,surname:"Dhanasekaran",slug:"dharumadurai-dhanasekaran",fullName:"Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran"}]},{id:"55303",title:"Classification of Anti‐Bacterial Agents and Their Functions",slug:"classification-of-anti-bacterial-agents-and-their-functions",totalDownloads:9155,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Bacteria that cause bacterial infections and disease are called pathogenic bacteria. They cause diseases and infections when they get into the body and begin to reproduce and crowd out healthy bacteria or to grow into tissues that are normally sterile. To cure infectious diseases, researchers discovered antibacterial agents, which are considered to be the most promising chemotherapeutic agents. Keeping in mind the resistance phenomenon developing against antibacterial agents, new drugs are frequently entering into the market along with the existing drugs. In this chapter, we discussed a revised classification and function of the antibacterial agent based on a literature survey. The antibacterial agents can be classified into five major groups, i.e. type of action, source, spectrum of activity, chemical structure, and function.",book:{id:"5867",slug:"antibacterial-agents",title:"Antibacterial Agents",fullTitle:"Antibacterial Agents"},signatures:"Hamid Ullah and Saqib Ali",authors:[{id:"201024",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamid",middleName:null,surname:"Ullah",slug:"hamid-ullah",fullName:"Hamid Ullah"},{id:"202624",title:"Dr.",name:"Saqib",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"saqib-ali",fullName:"Saqib Ali"}]},{id:"58507",title:"Probiotics and Ruminant Health",slug:"probiotics-and-ruminant-health",totalDownloads:2820,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Probiotics are viable microorganisms with beneficial health effects for humans and animals. They are formulated into many functional foods and animal feed. There is a growing research interest in the application and benefits of probiotics in ruminant production. Several recent studies have evaluated the potential of probiotics in animal nutrition and health. In this chapter, we have reviewed current research on the benefits of probiotics on gut microbial communities in ruminants and their impact on ruminant production, health and overall wellbeing.",book:{id:"6425",slug:"probiotics-current-knowledge-and-future-prospects",title:"Probiotics",fullTitle:"Probiotics - Current Knowledge and Future Prospects"},signatures:"Sarah Adjei-Fremah, Kingsley Ekwemalor, Mulumebet Worku and\nSalam Ibrahim",authors:[{id:"107905",title:"Prof.",name:"Salam",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"salam-ibrahim",fullName:"Salam Ibrahim"},{id:"218786",title:"Dr.",name:'Mulumebet "Millie"',middleName:null,surname:"Worku",slug:'mulumebet-"millie"-worku',fullName:'Mulumebet "Millie" Worku'},{id:"218789",title:"Dr.",name:"Kingsley",middleName:null,surname:"Ekwemalor",slug:"kingsley-ekwemalor",fullName:"Kingsley Ekwemalor"},{id:"223195",title:"Dr.",name:"Sarah",middleName:null,surname:"Adjei-Fremah",slug:"sarah-adjei-fremah",fullName:"Sarah Adjei-Fremah"}]},{id:"49285",title:"Morphological Identification of Actinobacteria",slug:"morphological-identification-of-actinobacteria",totalDownloads:8512,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:45,abstract:"Actinobacteria is a phylum of gram-positive bacteria with high G+C content. Among gram-positive bacteria, actinobacteria exhibit the richest morphological differentiation, which is based on a filamentous degree of organization like filamentous fungi. The actinobacteria morphological characteristics are basic foundation and information of phylogenetic systematics. Classic actinomycetes have well-developed radial mycelium, which can be divided into substrate mycelium and aerial mycelium according to morphology and function. Some actinobacteria can form complicated structures, such as spore, spore chain, sporangia, and sporangiospore. The structure of hyphae and ultrastructure of spore or sporangia can be observed with microscopy. Actinobacteria have different cultural characteristics in various kinds of culture media, which are important in the classification identification, general with spores, aerial hyphae, with or without color and the soluble pigment, different growth condition on various media as the main characteristics. The morphological differentiation of actinobacteria, especially streptomycetes, is controlled by relevant genes. Both morphogenesis and antibiotic production in the streptomycetes are initiated in response to starvation, and these events are coupled.",book:{id:"5056",slug:"actinobacteria-basics-and-biotechnological-applications",title:"Actinobacteria",fullTitle:"Actinobacteria - Basics and Biotechnological Applications"},signatures:"Qinyuan Li, Xiu Chen, Yi Jiang and Chenglin Jiang",authors:[{id:"175852",title:"Dr.",name:"Chen",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"chen-jiang",fullName:"Chen Jiang"}]},{id:"68772",title:"Multidrug-Resistant Bacterial Foodborne Pathogens: Impact on Human Health and Economy",slug:"multidrug-resistant-bacterial-foodborne-pathogens-impact-on-human-health-and-economy",totalDownloads:1043,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The drug abuse known to occur during growth of animals intended for food production, because of their use as either a prophylactic or therapeutic treatment, promotes the emergence of bacterial drug resistance. It has been reported that at least 25% of the foodborne isolates show drug resistance to one or more classes of antimicrobials (FAO 2018). There are diverse mechanisms that promote drug resistance. It is known that the use of sub-therapeutic doses of antibiotics in animals intended for food production promotes mutations of some chromosomal genes such as gyrA-parC and mphA, which are responsible for quinolone and azithromycin resistance, respectively. Also, the horizontal transfer of resistance genes as groups (“cassettes”) or plasmids makes the spread of resistance to different bacterial genera possible, among which there could be pathogens. The World Health Organization considers the emergence of multidrug-resistant pathogenic bacteria as a health problem, since the illnesses caused by them complicate the treatment and increase the morbidity and mortality rates. The complication in the illness treatment caused by a multidrug-resistant pathogen causes economic losses to patients for the payment of long stays in hospitals and also causes economic losses to companies due to the absenteeism of their workers.",book:{id:"8133",slug:"pathogenic-bacteria",title:"Pathogenic Bacteria",fullTitle:"Pathogenic Bacteria"},signatures:"Lilia M. Mancilla-Becerra, Teresa Lías-Macías, Cristina L. 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These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"18",type:"subseries",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",slug:"arli-aditya-parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",slug:"cesar-lopez-camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",slug:"shymaa-enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. 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