\r\n\tThis publication will aim to collect those projects and research that seek to make buildings, including urban environments, self-sufficient in terms of energy, focusing here on the solutions for HVAC and the energy systems they require and doing so from a double point of view: \r\n\t- Complexity. As is the case with the automobile and aeronautics industries, buildings have become human-inhabited spaces with an ever-increasing technological load, which will presumably also be used in other ways, as the pandemic associated with COVID-19 has shown. In these scenarios, will HVAC systems be considered as before, or will new solutions have to be considered for new challenges? \r\n\t- Disruptive technologies. In the coming years, the implementation of technologies such as hydrogen fuel cells, polygeneration of energy, the use of second-use electric batteries in buildings to accumulate energy from renewable energies, or the resolution of constructive solutions with 3D printing will become widespread in buildings. In this scenario, what will be the answers given by those responsible for HVAC systems? \r\n\tIn addition, concepts such as artificial intelligence, technology transfer, biomimicry, or stigmergy will undoubtedly provide high-value solutions to new and refurbished buildings that society demands.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-174-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-173-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-175-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"c911b61042fae2c465f4ee69077e0a4b",bookSignature:"Dr. César Martín-Gómez",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12033.jpg",keywords:"Heating, Cooling, Ventilation, Air-Conditioning, Renewable, Biomass, Hydrogen, Geothermal, Heat-Pump, Engineering, nZEB, Integration",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 25th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 22nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 21st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 9th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 8th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"15 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Gómez (Ph.D. Architect) has been responsible for building services and energy systems in complex buildings such as the Auditorium of Navarra and the Spanish Pavilion at the Saragossa Expo since 2000. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Vitamin D is an integral biological substance used to maintain bone health primarily, but it also plays its importance in several other biochemical pathways within the human body. Vitamin D, at the end of its metabolizing physiology, gets converted into an active hormone metabolite of vitamin D, i.e., calcitriol (1,25(OH)2 vitamin D), which binds to vitamin D receptors (VDR). Vitamin D enzymes present in the central nervous system are responsible for the regulation of cellular function in several tissues located in the body including brain neurons. Vitamin D comes in two main forms: the first form is vitamin D2 also known as ergocalciferol which is obtained from sources like mushrooms grown in UV light, dietary supplements, and fortified food, and the second form of vitamin D is vitamin D3 also known as cholecalciferol, obtained from oily fish and fish oil, liver, egg yolk, butter, and dietary supplements. Vitamin D2 and D3 are not equal when it comes to raising your vitamin D status. Both are effectively absorbed into the bloodstream. However, the liver metabolizes them differently. The liver metabolizes vitamin D2 into 25-hydroxy vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 into 25-hydroxy vitamin D3. These two compounds are collectively known as calcifediol. The main circulating form of vitamin D is Calcifediol. The amount of Calcifediol can be determined by checking its blood levels in the body. However, vitamin D2 seems to yield less calcifediol than an equal amount of vitamin D3 [1, 2].
\n
Vitamin D deficiency is prevalent worldwide. The knowledge of the causes of vitamin D deficiency and community affected by the same causes are prominent, and hence, differentiation in the therapy and supplementation of these populations is focused upon accordingly. Further, in India, the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency ranges from 40–90% in all age groups and high-risk groups alike, with the majority of study responses reporting 80–90% prevalence as reported by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), India [3]. Vitamin D deficiency contributes to a high disturbance in the health/disease ratio and adds to the disease burden of the country [4, 5]. The daily requirement of the human body for vitamin D is not fulfilled by the dietary pattern of the Indian population, and hence, fortification of various foods with vitamin D is emphasized under the initiatives of various national programs [2].
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Vitamin D deficiency can be defined as circulating 25(OH) vitamin D levels below 20 ng/ml, while vitamin D insufficiency is defined by circulating levels below 32 ng/ml [3]. Vitamin D receptors are located in the bone, skeletal muscle, immune cells, and several other body tissues (including brain, prostate, breast, and colon). Deficiency of vitamin D hormone at its receptor site or the enzyme metabolizing site causes disturbed cell signalling, further indicating the increased risk of diseases like autoimmune diseases, cancer, tuberculosis, cardiovascular diseases, bone diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, and mood disorders, specifically discussed in this review. Low 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels less than 20 ng/ml are found to have a higher incidence of mood disorders consisting of premenstrual syndrome (PMS), seasonal affective disorder (SAD), non-specified mood disorder, and major depressive disorder (MDD) [1].
\n
The physiology of vitamin D in the human body involves both synthesizing and catabolizing pathways. Vitamin D is either absorbed by dietary intake or is synthesized in the presence of ultraviolet B (UVB) rays ranging from 290 to 310 nm. In the epidermal layer of the skin, 7-dehydrocholesterol gets converted into pre-vitamin D3 in the presence of UVB rays, which further, under thermal reaction, forms vitamin D3 (also known as cholecalciferol). Vitamin D-binding proteins bind to vitamin D3, and by circulatory transport this protein-bound vitamin D3 reaches the liver, where it is further metabolized into 25(OH) vitamin D (calcifediol) and an inert form of vitamin D. Tightly regulated by parathyroid hormone (PTH), 25(OH) vitamin D converts into 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D (also known as calcitriol), which is an active hormonal form of vitamin D in the kidneys and other extrarenal tissues. This active metabolite binds to vitamin D receptors to regulate the several tissue and cellular functions. When vitamin D deficiency occurs due to inadequate intake of vitamin D through diet or by application of excessive sun-protective agents, it causes dysfunctional regulation of glucocorticoid signalling which is known to be implicated in major depressive disorders and various other mood disorders, together with other body functioning disorders. It is reported to have elevated levels of glucocorticoid (a type of cortisol) for the patients of MDD [1, 6].
\n
This review discusses sources of vitamin D, its association with different types of mood disorders in a different population, and its disease processes, together with the possible downstream molecular and genetic pathways associated with vitamin D deficiency and mood disorders. Further, this review focusses on the vitamin D deficiency causing mood disorders to the childbearing mothers and premenstrual syndrome to the ladies on the onset of their menses.
\n
\n
\n
2. Vitamin D status
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Vitamin D status is determined by assessing serum levels of 25(OH) vitamin D after 3 months of a stable regimen of vitamin D intake. Serum 25(OH) vitamin D is used to measure vitamin D status because it is the major circulating form of vitamin D and the most stable form of vitamin D. The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) III data 8, which used a conservative measure of vitamin D deficiency {25(OH) vitamin D} levels <15 ng/mL, has reported 42.4% of African American women and 4.2% of white women are deficient in vitamin D during their childbearing years [2, 8, 9].
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Toxic states (hypervitaminosis D) may occur when 25(OH) vitamin D levels supersede 100 ng/ml; however, in a study involving individuals diagnosed with multiple sclerosis treated with high doses of vitamin D, there was no evidence of toxicity found in individuals with 25(OH) vitamin D levels above 200 ng/ml [1].
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3. Dietary recommendations of vitamin D
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The dietary recommendations are largely based on bone health and assuming a minimal sun exposure of an individual under study. While the safe upper limit is set at 4000 international unit/day (IU/d) for healthy adults, for pregnant women, doses are higher than 6000 IU/d. Based on limited data from randomized controlled trials, some authors suggest that pregnant women can be supplemented with 1000–2000 IU/d during the second and third trimesters, and a deficiency during pregnancy can be treated with daily doses of 4000 IU [5].
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4. Synthesizing and metabolizing physiology of vitamin D
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Vitamin D is a secosteroid hormone that is either absorbed by dietary intake or manufactured by the ultraviolet beam (UVB) rays ranging from 290 to 310 nm reaching the epidermis of the skin. In the presence of epidermal 7-dehydrocholesterol, the absorbed vitamin D gets converted into pre-vitamin D3. Within the epidermis, a thermal reaction occurs to convert the pre-vitamin D3 into vitamin D3 also known as cholecalciferol [10, 11]. Vitamin D3 further, in process, moves to bind to the vitamin D-binding plasma proteins. Vitamin D3 is transported via vitamin D-binding proteins to the liver where it is metabolized into 25(OH) vitamin D (calcifediol) and an inert form of vitamin D. Calcifediol is tightly regulated by parathyroid hormone and converts it into 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D also known as calcitriol [1]. Calcitriol is the active form of vitamin D, which binds to VDRs in the intestines, bones, and kidney and other extrarenal tissues to enhance the absorption of calcium from the intestines, promotes calcium deposition in bones, and decreases parathyroid hormone concentrations (PTH) [3, 6]. In the process, calcitriol binds to vitamin D receptors, the receptors from the nuclear receptor superfamily that regulates the cellular function in several tissues located in the body including brain neurons [1].
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5. Challenges for estimation of serum vitamin D level
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The estimation of calcitriol is very challenging as calcitriol (1,25(OH)2 vitamin D) has very short t1/2 and thus does not reflect long-term vitamin D status. Also, it is observed that the total 25(OH) vitamin D is the most reliable marker for vitamin D status which measures both vitamin D-binding protein (DBP)-bound and free 25(OH) vitamin D. In the light of widespread variation in measured results and divergent results in response to vitamin D supplementation, there is a need for a distinct method for estimation of vitamin D levels. Further, free 25(OH) vitamin D levels may vary according to genotype and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the DBP gene for which the assays are still not well established [5].
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6. Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency
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Vitamin D receptors are traced throughout the brain explaining the role of vitamin D in psychosomatic disorders, and it was found to have an equivocal call for vitamin D deficiency and depression going hand in hand [12].
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Vitamin D insufficiency/deficiency is a worldwide problem, affecting all ages and races. Optimal 25(OH) vitamin D concentrations for skeletal health are >30 ng/ml. Serum 25(OH) vitamin D concentrations are generally lower in blacks than in whites and people who avoid exposing them to the sun. The increased use of sunscreens is hypothesized to increase the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency. Older adults, as a result of hyperparathyroidism related to renal insufficiency, tend to require more vitamin D to achieve adequate levels of 25(OH) vitamin D. As a result of the change in the definition of adequate concentrations, the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency is higher than previously thought. The prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among older men and women living in the United States and Europe ranges from 40–100%. The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey from 2000 to 2004 found that ~25% of men >50 years of age and 30–35% of women >50 years of age had 25(OH) vitamin D concentrations <0.001. Two studies performed in Colorado and Georgia found that despite reported consumption of more than the required daily intake of vitamin D (400–600 IU/d), the prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency (defined as <32 ng/mL and < 20 ng/ml, respectively) among community-dwelling older adults (mean age, 77.8 and 77.0 years, respectively) ranged from 36.7 to 74.0% [3].
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7. Vitamin D receptor
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7.1 VDR in the brain
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Vitamin D receptors are present on the nervous system tissues and cells especially dopaminergic nerves. In the momentary phase of cerebral development, vitamin D may act like a neurosteroid hormone in the areas of neurotransmission, neuroprotection, and neuroimmunomodulation. Vitamin D receptors belong to a hybrid class of nuclear receptor superfamily, which gets activated by vitamin D, a neurosteroid hormone that plays its major role in the nervous system by following mechanisms of differentiating, regulating Ca2+ ions, homeostasis, modulation of neurotrophins, and release and activation of key brain hormones and enzymes for neurotransmitter metabolism. VDR is a large molecular weight protein molecule weighing 50–60 kilodaltons, which consists of several functional binding domains, specifically and typically for all steroid hormones responsible for ligand binding, DNA binding, heterodimerization, nuclear localization, and ligand activation of transcriptional factors [13].
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VDR detection in the brain tissue has been studied by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and immunohistochemistry to understand the localization of nuclear ligand binding sites for the transcription of phenotypic characters [14].
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7.1.1 VDR gene location
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Two important points of consideration for the production of the active form of vitamin D are 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3, a vitamin D receptor, and an enzyme 1 α-hydroxylase, which are found in the adult human brain. Identification of both the receptor and the enzyme were done in neuronal and glial cells in a regional and layer-specific pattern. The equivalent distribution of VDR regions and 1α-hydroxylase enzyme regions together with their frequent discrete distribution is found in layers and subregions of brain tissue [15].
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7.1.2 Expression of VDR
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Expression of VDR has been documented in tissues, including the brain, heart, skeletal muscle, breast, prostate, colon, activated macrophages, skin, and the areas prone to tumor expression with any devised mutation. The age factor is known to dominantly decrease the VDR expression. Many in vitro studies with human and animal cells have observed the expression of not only VDRs but also an enzyme, 1α-hydroxylase, which is expressed in most of the body tissues and cells, specifically in the kidneys. Therefore, it appears that these cells locally produce the active form of vitamin D by a regulated mechanism, in a paracrine fashion, to be used in various cellular and physiological functions. This structures the strong biologic basis for the association between serum vitamin D concentrations and extra-skeletal physiology [15].
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7.1.3 VDR gene mutations
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VDR gene mutations have been characterized by altered behavior of VDR null mutant mice. A study revealed anxiety-like behavior with decreased exploration when the VDR mutant mice were subjected to anxiety evaluation [16]. Another study focusing on the investigation of anxiety parameters in VDR mutant mice demonstrated unaltered spatial memory, olfaction, gustation, and hedonic responses [17].
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VDR gene mutation is considered to influence the working of vitamin D hormone, which is essential for the growth and differentiation of a variety of organs, including the complete central nervous system. Many studies have suggested the crucial role of vitamin D in the brain, inducing many CNS genes. Inhibition of brain neurotransmission can be seen by VDR gene mutation causing modulation of neuroprotection, neurotrophins release, and activity of key neurotransmitter metabolism enzymes [16].
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7.1.4 Regulation of normal brain neurotransmitters by normal VDR gene
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The active form of vitamin D, i.e., calcitriol has a fast and strong ligand binding to their respective receptors located in the bone, brain, and breast tissues, as well as in immune cells [6]. The upregulation of transient receptor potential (TRP) vanilloid calcium-selective cation channels, such as TRPV5 and TRPV6, is done by positive induction of vitamin D. Vitamin D regulated channels may express the role of the hormone by potential modulation of sensory pathways representing several cellular sensors responding to temperature, touch, pain, osmolarity, taste, and other stimuli [17].
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7.1.5 VDR immunoreactivity
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The immunohistochemical study depicted the distribution of the VDR in multiple brain regions inclusive of neuronal and glial cells and other regions of the substantia nigra in the normal functioning human brain. Further, it also revealed the presence of the VDR and 1α- hydroxylase in the human brain and confirmed the cell expression for either the receptor or the activating enzyme in neuronal or glial origin [14, 15].
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8. Effect of vitamin D on mood and cognition
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Vitamin D receptors and the 1α-hydroxylase enzyme have been isolated and found in the regions of the cerebral cortex and cerebellum, suggesting the conversion of calcifediol into an active form of vitamin D, i.e., calcitriol in the brain for a local cellular response [3, 18]. Several studies discuss the deficiency of vitamin D in the body at its targeted ligand binding sites due to less sunlight exposure or sun blockage, vitamin D receptor mutation causing phenotypic-conformational changes at the ligand binding site, and insufficient vitamin D-fortified diet, all causing major or minor mood disorders and illustrate the effectiveness of vitamin D or sunlight therapy (phototherapy), gene therapy, or supplemented vitamin D diet therapy for the treatment of depression and other mood disorders, demonstrating the associations between 25(OH) vitamin D concentrations and mood alone or mood and cognition in adults of all ages, including pregnant women, older adults, and targeted vitamin D-deficient population globally [3, 10].
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9. Mood disorders
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Vitamin D receptor mutant gene leads to the translation of mutant mRNA into defective vitamin D receptor proteins. Normal VDR is responsible for the regulation of glucocorticoid signalling, which, in this case, gets dysfunctional due to vitamin D deficiency. Dysfunctional glucocorticoid signalling is majorly implicated in several mood disorders like major depressive disorders, seasonal affective disorders, etc. Glucocorticoid, a type of cortisol, is seen to be increased in MDD and decreased in bone disorders. According to the recent diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-IV), a major depressive disorder is diagnosed or said to be present when a person exhibits at least five of the following symptoms during 2 weeks, most of the day or nearly every day:
Depressed mood
Loss of interest or pleasure in daily activities
Significant weight loss or gain
Insomnia or hypersomnia
Psychomotor agitation or retardation
Fatigue or loss of energy
Feelings of worthlessness or inappropriate guilt
Diminished ability to concentrate or make decisions, problem with attention and cognition
Recurrent suicidal thoughts with or without a plan [1]
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Genes are encoding for vitamin D3, 25-hydroxylase, and 1α-hydroxylase (CYP27B1), where CYP27B1 are the enzymes that metabolize vitamin D3 into calciferol hormones, which is further involved in brain functions. These are expressed in neurons and glial cells presenting VDR. Calciferol hormone, being a neuroactive compound, regulates the behavioral functions such as anxiety, hyperactivity, and depression. Hypovitaminosis is a deficient condition that is found to be associated with an increased risk of multiple sclerosis, seasonal affective disorder, schizophrenia, Parkinson’s disease, and Alzheimer’s disease. Vitamin D deficiency could also be associated with autism, explained by a piece of indirectly related evidence. Furthermore, mood and cognitive performance appear to be dependent on plasma vitamin D level to some extent [19].
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10. Types of vitamin D-deficient mood disorders
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10.1 Seasonal affective disorder
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Prevalence of seasonal affective disorder is seen when the vitamin D stored in the body are low with prominent seasonal changes. The disorder occurs during a particular time of a year where the sun exposure to the skin decreases leading to vitamin D deficiency, and the symptoms of the disorder can be resumed spontaneously on sun exposure. The individuals suffering from seasonal affective disorder have typically reported depression-like symptoms mostly in the winter months, where the levels of intensity of sunlight and photoperiod were predominately reduced [19, 20, 21]. Studies in the United Kingdom estimated the prevalence of SAD between 2.4 and 3.5%. The etiology of this disorder has not been fully elucidated, but the mechanisms leading to SAD are understood and linked to reduced sunlight exposure and daylight length. SAD is led via an eye-brain-endocrine system pathway or a skin-vitamin D causal pathway. In the mammalian population, the first stage of in vivo vitamin D synthesis necessitates the irradiation of skin by UVB light, dependently showing the lower vitamin D serum levels in the winter months than that in summer months. It has been also postulated that at cellular or subcellular levels, vitamin D can directly influence the endocrine system of our body via ligand binding on vitamin D receptors present in the entire central nervous system of a human body [21]. A prospective, randomized controlled trial was conducted in a group of 15 subjects with SAD to postulate the hypothesis of the association of vitamin D deficiency and seasonal affective disorder in which eight subjects received 100,000 IU of vitamin D and seven subjects received phototherapy. The Hamilton Depression Scale, Structured Interview Guide for the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, Seasonal Affective Depression version (SIGH-SAD), and the SAD-8 depression scale were administered for the evaluation at two stages of treatment, i.e., first at onset of treatment and second after one month of the therapy. Also, intervention therapy was used to measure serum levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25-OH D) planned in a gap of 1 week before and after the intervention. Improvement in all subjects was seen with the one’s receiving vitamin D. Depression scale measure had no significant results for the phototherapy [1, 22]. Major improvement was seen in both the abovementioned groups, and this improvement in 25(OH)D was intertwiningly associated with the improvement in depression scale score. Hence, it is evident that vitamin D supplementation has an important role in the treatment of SAD [10, 13, 14].
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In order to understand the seasonality of mood change, it is integral to understand the seasonal changes in photoperiod to hypothesize the most vitamin D-deficient mood disorders. Many biological techniques are utilized for detecting photoperiod. For example, initiation of the behavioral changes such as migration patterns and breeding behavior is conserved in many species, primates, and humans which are evident with changes in season and intensity of sunrays. Further, the scientists pointed out that the regulation of circadian phase shift is located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus. The SCN has been shown to be involved in seasonal affective mood disorders. Further it was also presented that the SCN has an inhibitory action to the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis and that this action can be altered by vitamin D dietary and supplementation restrictions [23].
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10.2 Major depressive disorders
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Major depressive disorder is a type of depressive disorder that is most likely to observe an association between vitamin D deficiency and anxio-depressive disorders. This association can be demonstrated with a parallel comparison between the motor and behavioral disorders observed in animal models of depression and VDR-KO mice [13]. Several theories are suggesting seasonal mood swings in humans. The binding of vitamin D on the ligand binding site of VDR present on the hypothalamic core (which plays a crucial role in mood regulation) can be witnessed to have a link between several seasonal changes in photoperiod and seasonal mood swings. Epidemiological data are coherent with such a cross-linking hypothesis. As an instance, the evidence is suggestive that the established low serum 25(OH) vitamin D2 concentrations are closely related to the active experience of mood disorders in 80 subjects aging 65 years and older. Many studies have demonstrated that significant lower serum 25(OH) vitamin D2 and 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 concentrations are observed in depressive sample subjects than healthy controlled subjects. Indirect confirmation was made by studying the association between depression and osteoporosis in around 4000 women aged 67 years [15]. Nevertheless, these results can also be mitigated and potentially related to functional impairment and physical inactivity, both of which reasons to increase with osteoporosis and have an independent correlative associated with depression [16].
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Various clinical trials support the theory of the efficacy of vitamin D supplementation on mood disorders by varied sources like vitamin D-fortified diet, sun-soaking, etc. [17]. Improvement in depression scale experiments was noted, and the improvements were associated with vitamin D supplementation technique, while not much improvement was observed with the phototherapy technique. It is specifically prescribed to have at least 800 IU daily dose of vitamin D which plays a major decisive role in mood disorder case studies [4, 22, 24].
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10.3 Premenstrual syndrome
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Premenopausal women face one of the most common disorders known as premenstrual syndrome. Up to 20% of reproductive-aged women are affected in the range of moderate-to-severe premenstrual syndrome and is associated with significant levels of mood impairment. Irritability, mood swings, anxiety, depression, breast tenderness, bloating, and headaches are some of the most common symptoms included in PMS. Women are reported to have a depressed mood during the last week of the luteal phase which resides within for few days from the onset of menses [9]. Many studies have postulated that blood serum calcium levels and vitamin D levels are lower in women with PMS and that vitamin D supplementation and calcium supplementation may reduce the severity of the symptoms [25].
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It is hypothesized that the dysregulation of calciotropic hormone is seen to be a major provocative factor in premenstrual syndrome. The severity of the symptoms of PMS is directly linked to calcium homeostasis, regulated directly by vitamin D and parathyroid hormone as the key factors. However, low dietary vitamin D intake and inhibited induction of parathyroid hormone have been directly associated with the development of premenstrual symptoms [8].
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10.4 Postpartum depression (PPD)
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Vitamin D insufficiency is common in its most vulnerable pregnant population, and several studies have demonstrated the association of diminished levels of 25(OH) vitamin D with depressive symptoms [4]. Further, the diagnosis of low levels of 25(OH) vitamin D in maternal serum during pregnancy is associated with a higher incidental risk of postpartum depressive symptoms [26, 27]. Serum 25(OH) vitamin D levels for pregnant and postpartum women with major depressive episode, beginning within the first 4 weeks after childbirth, can be influenced by a multitude of factors like age, race/ethnicity, marital status, type of insurance, educational level, feeding type, and others. In addition, the season that accounts for the amount and strength of UVB exposure, i.e., photoperiod and vitamin D supplementation, also are found to be responsible for the episodes of major depression [28]. Vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy increases maternal serum 25(OH) vitamin D levels and thereby ensures higher availability for the offspring neuronal development. Vitamin D levels can also be inversely associated with infertility parameters, preeclampsia, blood glucose, bacterial vaginosis, primary caesarean section, and postpartum depression, but direct correlation is seen in pregnancy associated with breast cancer [28, 29].
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The core symptoms of PPD are similar to that of any major depressive disorder like depressed mood or loss of interest in normal activities, sleep and appetite disturbances, loss of energy, feelings of guilt, and suicidal thoughts. Hence, the diagnosis of PPD becomes challenging as the sleep pattern changes and weight changes are also often observed in the normal postpartum period. It is further also exhibited that the lower maternal 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D levels have been found to be associated with higher levels of postpartum depressive symptoms as per the Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale scores. The promising results were observed by only one randomized clinical trial wherein the assessment was done by administration of high-dose vitamin D therapy in depressed subjects [6, 7].
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Following birth in the first few days, the lower levels of 25(OH) vitamin D are reported for a greater risk of postnatal depressive symptoms and are also linked to serum vitamin D level in the second trimester of pregnancy. Further, the association of low 25(OH) vitamin D level was established with a continuous enhancing risk of reported level of symptoms that may indicate any one type of mood disturbance. Thus, it is confirmed that adequate intake of vitamin D is essential during pregnancy not only for the positive impact on the health and development of the offspring but also is a way to protect against postpartum mood disturbance in mothers [26]. Also, estrogen supplementation and vitamin D therapies have beneficiary effects on inflammatory response and related factors in women suffering from PPD [6, 29, 30].
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When accounting the cortisol levels and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis reactivity in postpartum women, during the third trimester, maternal cortisol levels reach approximately three times that of nonpregnant levels. While the basal levels of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), adrenocorticotropic hormone, and cortisol are high, the HPA axis reactivity to stressful stimuli is dampened in late pregnancy. Furthermore, while the baseline cortisol levels return to normal within a couple of days after parturition, the hyporesponsiveness of HPA axis is found to be persistent in breastfeeding women [6].
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The HPA axis hyperactivation or hypoactivation has always been associated with depressive states. It has also been hypothesized that depression during pregnancy and postpartum depression may have different pathogenesis; the first is found to be dejected with hyperactivity in the HPA axis and the second being atypical. The activity of the HPA axis is usually reduced in seasonal affective disorder, atypical depression, and PPD, which could point to a similar pathologic mechanism in all the three conditions mentioned. Furthermore, the physiological excess production of CRH at the end of pregnancy leads to a transient downregulation of hypothalamic CRH postpartum, which could possibly lead to an elevated risk for depression. Indeed, the hypothesis of PPD being related to hypoactivation of the HPA axis has been substantiated by a number of studies where women with PPD display lower baseline or reduced HPA responsiveness than controls, although conflicting data are available. In addition, women with a history of PPD appear to have increased levels of corticotropin-releasing hormone which further stimulates the dependent cortisol response in the experimental conditions of pregnancy. PPD can also be predicted by increased stress-induced cortisol levels or CRH levels [6, 20].
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Together with SAD, PPD has also been classified, under the depressive states characterized by hypoactivation of the HPA axis. Increased serum concentrations of biomarkers detecting the inflammatory response, for example, IL-6, a pro-inflammatory cytokine with a variety of endocrine and metabolic actions, have been observed in major depressive conditions. In this, IL-6 interacts with the HPA axis, and the interacted complex has significant higher serum levels in women with postpartum depressive symptomatology. Conclusively, vitamin D affects monoamine functional groups, the HPA axis, and immune responses to stress and symptom production [20, 38].
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10.5 Aging depressive symptoms
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Aging depressive symptoms are noticed for both hypervitaminosis D3 and hypovitaminosis D3, which leads to premature aging of fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF-23) that is emerging as a significant mediator/hormone for early aging symptoms, and its FGF-23 effects are dominated by vitamin D-mediated excess of calcitriol. The early aging phenotypic features include thin skin, intestinal atrophy, spleen atrophy, muscle atrophy, weight loss, short life prognosis, osteoporosis, and atherosclerosis. There is a tight physiological regulation of 24-hydroxylase, the hormonal form of vitamin D3, which can be modulated by physiological serum concentrations of calcidiol. This regulation of hormonal form of vitamin D3 explains the development of aging depressive symptoms [31]. However, some intoxications occur during the early period of synthesis and distribution of vitamin D3 with its substitution/fortification. After the Second World War, the children in many parts of Europe were administered with extremely high oral doses of vitamin D3 and suffered from hypercalcemia, nephrocalcinosis, early aging, cardiovascular complications, and early death, supporting the possibility of hypothesizing that the hypervitaminosis D3 can accelerate aging symptoms [19, 24, 31].
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Calciferol hormone insufficiency may accelerate the risk of diseases of CNS. A recent study postulated that the hypovitaminosis D3, also famously known as vitamin D deficiency, may cause premature or immature aging of cognitive functions. Thus, both a lack and an excess of calciferol hormones enhance aging in major dependency [32]. Initial events affect the genome, causing telomere shortening or accumulation of DNA damages, which are modulated by the tumor suppressor protein, p53. Hormonal forms of vitamin D3 appear to control the basic mechanisms of aging and related diseases [19].
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The hypothesis of the role of vitamin D in aging is considered based on three axial parameters, namely, calciferol hormone serum concentrations, risk of disease, and onset of aging. The former two parameters are seen based on lower and higher values, and the latter parameter is seen as the typical or premature onset of aging. It is observed that both low and high action of calciferol hormones trigger premature aging, including diseases of CNS. Hence, an optimal serum concentration appears to delay aging [19].
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10.6 Suicidal attempts due to vitamin D deficiency
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Significant lower levels of vitamin D are seen in patients with suicidal tendencies than both non-suicidal depressive patients and healthy control individuals. Deficiency of vitamin D was found in 58% of cases of all the reported cases of suicides, compared to around 30% cases found for the healthy controlled cases and the non-suicidal depressed patient cases [33, 34, 35].
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Accumulating studies indicate that a dysregulated immune system could be a contributing factor to depression and possibly specifically to suicidal tendency. Direct evidence of causality comes both from animal models, where induction of peripheral inflammation is known to lead to depressive changes, and from the so-called cytokine-induced depression in humans, where treatment with interferons (IFN) of patients with hepatitis increases the risk for development of both depression and suicidal tendency [32]. Thus, an indirect proportional relationship between serum vitamin D concentration and inflammatory cytokines is seen to be established, i.e., the lower the vitamin, the higher are the levels of the inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-1β in the blood. The future prospective must be seen to compare vitamin D levels between other groups of psychiatric patients and groups of patients with personality disorders [7, 34, 36].
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10.7 Schizophrenia
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A study conducted in the year 2006 on the psychiatric population to understand the association between lower plasma levels of 25(OH) vitamin D3 and mood disorders revealed that all 82 subjects were suffering from psychiatric disorders. Further, 53 patients were suffering from mood disorders, and the remaining 29 patients were diagnosed with schizophrenia. All these patients were found to have low vitamin D3 plasma concentration which confirms the significant association of low vitamin D3 plasma concentration with mood disorders and related disease symptoms. Additionally, significant hypovitaminosis D was also witnessed in mood disorders like major depression, bipolar disorder, and dysthymia than with schizophrenia [37]. Also, according to one of the neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia, it was revealed that the prenatal vitamin D deficiency in a mother could be a high-risk factor for schizophrenia in an offspring [24].
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is an early-onset, chronic, a neurodevelopmental disease characterized by attention deficit, hyperactivity, and impulsivity mostly in children, affecting nearly 2–18% of children worldwide, and is found to be one of the most common psychiatric disorders in childhood stage [32]. Learning like basic skills can be affected in childhood and can also cause various psychological and social interaction problems in children and the adult population. The neurotransmitters like dopamine (DA) and noradrenaline (NA) play a crucial role in maintaining attention, concentration, motivation, awareness, and cognition. With the major role of vitamin D in cerebral function, it might have a direct role in the etiopathogenesis of ADHD in children and young adolescence. Further, vitamin D is also responsible for the regulatory synthesis of neurotrophic factors such as neurotrophin (NT), NT 3 and NT 4, nerve growth factor (NGF), and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), known to be significantly involved in cell differentiation and survival. Thus, ADHD is etiopathologically connected to vitamin D deficiency. In initial years of growth and development of life, vitamin D deficiency or extensive insufficiency can be harmful to neuronal development and function, resulting in stimulation of neurogenesis [7, 10].
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11. Conclusion
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To summarize, vitamin D deficiency is associated with several types of mood disorders involving various molecular and genetic mechanisms related to vitamin D receptors and VDR gene. The VDR gene mutation alters vitamin D binding capacity to vitamin D receptor, preventing vitamin D activation into calcitriol which regulates synthesis of neurotrophic factors. Failing to maintain these neurotrophic factors in the presence of vitamin D deficiency leads to cerebral dysfunction and thereby contributes to mood disorder symptoms. Further, vitamin D deficiency is also associated with cognitive reasoning and mind disturbance that trigger off mood disorders like major depressive disorders, seasonal affective disorder, suicidal tendency, postpartum depression to the childbearing mothers, premenstrual syndrome to the ladies on the onset of their menses, ADHD, schizophrenia, and aging depressive symptoms. Futures studies and clinical trials can also be structured to establish a better understanding of the effects of the vitamin D deficiency on several mood disorders, behavioral disorders, and cognition.
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Conflict of interest
None.
\n',keywords:"vitamin D, VDR receptors, mood disorders, deficiency, insufficiency, cognition",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/70606.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/70606.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70606",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70606",totalDownloads:1006,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,totalAltmetricsMentions:2,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:57,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"August 27th 2019",dateReviewed:"November 22nd 2019",datePrePublished:"December 24th 2019",datePublished:"February 26th 2020",dateFinished:"December 24th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The cells of our body comprise calcitriol (1,25(OH) vitamin D2), the active form of vitamin D, an integral biological substance that has an impact on a large number of biological processes. While high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency is detected in population worldwide, the reports from sun-soaked countries like India are also alarming to note that the deficiency of vitamin D as high as 70 to 90% is observed leading to several chronic diseases in the majority of people. Deficiency of vitamin D is observed not only because of low levels of vitamin D in the diet, less exposure to sunlight, reduced cutaneous vitamin D synthesis, but also due to consumption of particular medicines, undue alcohol intake, and tobacco smoking. Vitamin D is known to affect estradiol, dopamine, and pro-inflammatory cytokine levels, besides being involved in the regulation of mechanisms pertaining to hormones like glucocorticoids. When vitamin D binds to vitamin D receptors (VDR) present in the central nervous system, it is noted to be responsible for the regulation of brain neuronal functions. Low 25-hydroxy vitamin D levels are found to have a higher incidence of various mood disorders. This review focusses on vitamin D receptors, VDR gene mutations, and pathophysiology causing vitamin D deficiency disorders.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/70606",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/70606",book:{id:"7038",slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency"},signatures:"Jigna Shah and Sakshi Gurbani",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Vitamin D status",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Dietary recommendations of vitamin D",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Synthesizing and metabolizing physiology of vitamin D",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Challenges for estimation of serum vitamin D level",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Vitamin D receptor",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"7.1 VDR in the brain",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"7.1.1 VDR gene location",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"7.1.2 Expression of VDR",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"7.1.3 VDR gene mutations",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"7.1.4 Regulation of normal brain neurotransmitters by normal VDR gene",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"7.1.5 VDR immunoreactivity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14",title:"8. Effect of vitamin D on mood and cognition",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"9. Mood disorders",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"10. Types of vitamin D-deficient mood disorders",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"10.1 Seasonal affective disorder",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"10.2 Major depressive disorders",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"10.3 Premenstrual syndrome",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"10.4 Postpartum depression (PPD)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"10.5 Aging depressive symptoms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"10.6 Suicidal attempts due to vitamin D deficiency",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"10.7 Schizophrenia",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"10.8 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25",title:"11. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_29",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Murphy PK, Wagner CL. Vitamin D and mood disorders among women: An integrative review. Journal of Midwifery & Women’s Health. American College of Nurse-Midwives. Elsevier Inc. 2008;53(5). 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DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-810422-4.00024-5\n'},{id:"B33",body:'Khoraminya N, Tehrani-doost M, Jazayeri S, Hosseini A, Djazayery A. Therapeutic effects of vitamin D as adjunctive therapy to fluoxetine in patients with major depressive disorder. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. The Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists. 2013. DOI: 10.1177/0004867412465022\n'},{id:"B34",body:'Högberg G, Gustafsson SA, Hällström T, Gustafsson T, Klawitter B, Petersson M. Depressed adolescents in a case-series were low in vitamin D and depression was ameliorated by vitamin D supplementation. Acta Pædiatrica, Nurturing the Child. Foundation Acta Pædiatrica. 2012:779-783. DOI: 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2012.02655.x\n'},{id:"B35",body:'Lupo M, Siciliano L, Leggio M. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews From cerebellar alterations to mood disorders: A systematic review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 2019;103:21-28. DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.06.008\n'},{id:"B36",body:'Grudet C, Malm J, Westrin A, Brundin L. Suicidal patients are deficient in vitamin D, associated with a pro-inflammatory status in the blood. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2014;50:210-219. DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.08.016\n'},{id:"B37",body:'Belzeaux R, Boyer L, Chérif E, Féron F, Leboyer M, Fond G. Mood disorders are associated with a more severe hypovitaminosis D than schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research. Elsevier Inc. 2015:1-4. DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2015.04.039\n'},{id:"B38",body:'Gracious BL, Finucane TL, Friedman-campbell M, Messing S, Parkhurst MN. Vitamin D deficiency and psychotic features in mentally ill adolescents: A cross-sectional study. BMC Psychiatry. BioMed Central Ltd. 2012. DOI: 10.1016/S978-0-12-810422-4\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Jigna Shah",address:"jigna.shah@nirmauni.ac.in;, jignashah74@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacy, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacy, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
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1. Introduction
The word char, is a common terminology used for the solid product of the combustion of carbonaceous material [1]. Generally, char product is rich in carbon content; an example is charcoal, which is almost the earliest invention of humans from fire or heat creation. Another vivid example of char is biochar. In this case, the study, is made from organic compounds such as forest, agricultural or animal products but in the absence/limited supply of oxygen compared to charcoal. Therefore, biochar is derived from biomass combustion in the presence of a limited oxygen supply and at relatively low temperatures below 700°C. The earliest known purpose for creating biochar was specifically for soil application such as carbon storage or sequestration in soil; improvement of soil performance such as increase in nutrient availability, reduction of compactness in soil, soil pH improvement; soil water filtration. Recent applications involve energy production, biochemical process stability and improvement, climate change mitigation, and construction additive [1, 2, 3]. The raw material determines carbonized organic matter properties and the operational parameters used during it production. Pyrolysis (slow or fast) and gasification are the main methods for the production of biochar. The physical nature of the biochar produced is directly affected by the chemical composition of the biomass feedstock. Most organic matter begin to thermally decompose at temperatures above 120°C. Hemicelluloses degrade between 200 and 260°C, cellulose between 240 and 350°C, and lignin between 280 and 500°C. As a result, the proportions of these components will affect the degree of reactivity and, as a result, the extent to which the physical structure is modified during processing [4]. Biochar is characterized with high porosity with pores ranging in size from micro to macropores. Large holes, which originate from the raw biomass’s vascular bundles, are critical for increasing soil quality because they can serve as habitats for symbiotic microbes. Biochar major components are carbon, volatile matter, mineral matter (ash), and moisture. The percentage composition of each components varies based on the feedstock material and the operating parameters [1]. Biochar from plant-based materials have higher carbon composition which range from as low as 51% to as high. The understanding of the key mechanisms for changes in physicochemical properties of biochar during processing for various feedstock types and operating parameters is required to determine biochar’s potential for application both now and in future. Therefore, this chapter explains biochar production techniques, factors affecting its properties and compositions and its application.
2. Biochar production techniques
An ever-growing appetency for using biochar for various applications has orchestrated an increase in converting it into biochar. Thermochemical conversion is a common technology for making biochar. Thermochemical conversion techniques are pyrolysis, hydrothermal carbonization (HTC), gasification, torrefaction, and hydrothermal liquefaction [5, 6].
2.1 Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is a thermochemical technique that produces biochar, bio-oil, and syngas derived from biomass [7]. The process involves heating and thermally decomposing biomass under anaerobic conditions or limited oxygen supply (low stoichiometric oxygen atmosphere) with temperatures ranging between 400°C and 1200°C [2]. The absence of oxygen enables biomass heating beyond its thermal stability limit, causing the creation of more robust products, including solid residues. By creating an anaerobic atmosphere, it is also ensured that combustion will not occur when the biomass is heated. It is a highly complex process involving many distinct reactions in the reacting zone [8]. In another study, a low-temperature range for pyrolysis was recorded between 250°C and 900°C. Biomass from Agriculture comprises lignin, cellulose, hemicelluloses, and silica. Typically, cellulose pyrolyzes at 350°C, whereas the melting point of lignin is well above 350°C [6]. Although the product yield depends on various operating variables, char formation is generally favored by low temperatures and long residence times [9]. Therefore, it can be decoded that the effective temperature range for pyrolysis was between 300 and 700°C. The cracking of heavy chemicals happens in secondary pyrolysis and converts biomass into biochar or gases. Figure 1 is a summary of the pyrolysis technique and the operating variables affecting pyrolysis.
Figure 1.
Schematic representation of pyrolysis process [3].
In essence, this is an alternative way to valorize biomass into various products such as bio-oil, syngas and biochar. Depolymerization, fragmentation, and cross-linking are chemical mechanisms that occur during the process at specific temperature points, resulting in a different product state for lignocellulosic components, including cellulose and hemicellulose (solid, liquid and gas). Biochar and bio-oil are the solid and liquid products, whereas CO2, CO, H2, (collectively known as syngas) are evolved as the gaseous by-products (C1-C2 hydrocarbons) [3]. Biochar is made in a different type of reactors, such as paddle kiln, bubbling fluidized bed, wagon reactor, and agitated sand rotating kiln. The biomass nature and employed type determine the biochar yield during the pyrolysis route. The major operating parameter that impacts product efficiency is the temperature [10, 11]. When the pyrolysis temperature is increased, biochar’s yield decreases and the generation of syngas increases. The gas yield is represented by the initial section of the product side (as shown in Eq. (1)), with various gases created during the process.
C6H6O6n→H2+CO+CH4+…+C5H12+H2O+CH3OH+CH3COOH+…+CE1
The mixture of multiple sorts of liquid outputs is shown in the second part of the products’ side, and the solid yield is represented in the last component [12]. One of the most significant masteries of this technology is that it may be optimized to achieve the desired outcomes. Slow pyrolysis, for example, can be utilized to produce a considerable amount of biochar, whereas fast pyrolysis is better for dominantly producing bio-oil [13].
2.1.1 Types of pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is strongly dependent on the operating parameters, namely temperature, heating rate, and residence time [14]. These operating conditions further help to categorize pyrolysis into other six subclasses. These subclasses are slow pyrolysis, fast pyrolysis, flash pyrolysis, vacuum pyrolysis, intermediate pyrolysis, and hydropyrolysis [15]. Each classification of pyrolysis has its own documented benefits and drawbacks. The subclasses in question foster an environment for different reaction conditions and mechanisms to have various products. The pyrolysis technology mechanism is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Representation of a pyrolysis process [6].
2.1.1.1 Slow pyrolysis
As indicated by the name, to complete the process, slow pyrolysis has a long residence time (more than 1 hour), and biochar is produced as a major product [16]. Slow pyrolysis is dubbed conventional pyrolysis, where biomass is heated at temperatures ranging between 300 and 600°C accompanied by a heating rate of 5–7°C/min [12, 17]. A lower heating rate and longer vapor residence time provide a suitable environment and adequate time for the secondary reactions to proceed. Furthermore, a prolonged residence period permits vapors created during the secondary reaction to be evacuated [15, 18]. This leads to the creation of solid carbonaceous biochar in the end. Slow pyrolysis favors char development, but liquid and gaseous products are also created in modest quantities. Biochar is formed as a primary product (35–45%) together with other products such as bio-oil (25–35%) and syngas (20–30%), as indicated in Eq. (1) [6, 19].
2.1.1.2 Fast pyrolysis
Fast pyrolysis is a direct thermochemical process for converting solid biomass into high-energy liquid bio-oil. A high-efficiency thermochemical technique to produce biomass-derived biofuels, with reduced amounts of solids and gases produced [20, 21]. Fast pyrolysis is carried out without oxygen at temperatures above 500°C and a heating rate of over 300°C/min. Fast pyrolysis is a rapid biochar generation technique that takes only a few seconds. Fast pyrolysis produces 60% bio-oil, 20% biochar, and 20% syngas, as reported in other studies [21, 22]. Even higher temperatures in the range of 850–1250°C with a heating rate of 10–200°C for a short residence time ranging from 1 to 10 s have been reported in several experiments. 60%-75% of liquid products, 15%-25% of biochar and 10–20% of non-condensable gaseous products are produced by a typical pyrolysis process [23]. Fast pyrolysis takes biomass to temperatures in which thermal cracking can occur and minimizes the exposure time, which supports biochar production [24].
2.1.1.3 Flash pyrolysis
This is dubbed to be an enhanced and modified version of fast pyrolysis. Biomass decomposes quickly, usually in less than a minute, at 1000°C and even higher temperatures. Heating rates of above 1000°C/sec have been recorded on occasion. Flash pyrolysis is carried out at temperatures between 900 and 1200°C, which can be reached in less than one second (usually between 0.1 and 1 s) [25, 26]. A high bio-oil yield combines a high heating rate with a high temperature and a short vapor residence time. However, the yield of biochar is reduced because of the process [27, 28]. In flash pyrolysis, heat and mass transfer processes, reaction chemical kinetics and biomass phase transition behavior all play a role in product distribution. Although flash pyrolysis is performed in a fluidised bed reactor and a twin-screw mixing reactor, it has limited industrial applicability because of the reactor’s architecture, which requires it to run at a high temperature with a very high heating rate [12].
2.1.1.4 Vacuum pyrolysis
This is the thermal decomposition of biomass under vacuum or relatively low pressure in an isolated oxygen environment [15, 29]. Pressure is usually regulated in the region between 0.5 and 2 bar, and temperature is maintained at 450–600°C [30]. Like slow pyrolysis, vacuum pyrolysis has comparably low heating rates. However, these two techniques, in comparison, yield significantly different products. This owes to the constant and effective discharge of the vapor produced during vacuum pyrolysis through condensation train. The rapid evacuation of organic vapors created during the primary pyrolysis also considerably minimizes the vapor residence time, which in turn minimizes the occurrence of secondary reactions and assures a high liquid product yield during the secondary pyrolysis [31]. As a result, only vacuum or low-pressure extraction is utilized to remove vapor evolved during pyrolysis, which substantially affects product quality and yield by preventing inorganic devolatilisation.
2.1.1.5 Intermediate pyrolysis
As the name suggests, this is a combination of slow and fast pyrolysis processes, and it is crucial when there is a need to balance solid and liquid products. This means that slow pyrolysis is more efficient at producing large amounts of char, but it also results in lower amounts of liquid products, while it is vice versa with fast pyrolysis. Generally, pressure is kept at 1 bar during the process. Intermediate pyrolysis has temperatures ranging between 500 and 650°C, with heating rates between 0.1 and 10°C/min and residence time between 5 and 17 mins [32]. 40–60% liquid, 20–30% non-condensable gases, and 15–25% biochar are typical constituents of finished products [33, 34]. Using intermediate pyrolysis conditions prevents the synthesis of high molecular reactive tars and results in dry biochar, which can be utilized for agricultural purposes or directly in boilers and engines in conjunction with high-quality bio-oil [2].
2.1.1.6 Hydropyrolysis
It relatively a novel technique that is used for the conversion of biomass into high quality products by injection of hydrogen or hydrogen based material into the reactor under high pressure, typically above the atmospheric pressure, stretching from 50 bar to 200 bar [15, 35]. The heating rate (10–300°C/s), residence time (over 15 sec) and temperature (350–600°C) are not highly deviated from fast pyrolysis [36]. In essence, hydropyrolysis can be considered a special type of fast pyrolysis subjected to high pressure in an atmosphere infused with hydrogen or hydrogen-based material. This method is not ideal for the production of biochar as the introduction of hydrogen under high temperature and pressure acts as a reducing agent, hence reducing oxygen content in the bio-oils produced and synchronously inhibiting the production of biochar [37, 38]. The employment of a catalyst to eradicate oxygen, water, and COx from the liquid product is typically linked with hydropyrolysis. Catalysts also reduce depolymerisation and coking reactions [39]. However, developing the catalyst for this intention remains a notable example of the difficult aspects of catalytic hydropyrolysis.
2.2 Carbohydrate decomposition
The majority of the material used in biochar production via pyrolysis contain carbohydrates in various forms (cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin), and these react differently based on the operating conditions they are subjected to, thus influencing the product yield of pyrolysis [15]. More specifically, lignin and cellulose are the major parts of biomass, making up its bulk [40]. On pyrolysis, cellulose mostly creates tar, a mixture of discrete ketones, aldehydes, organic liquids, and char, whereas lignin essentially produces char and a minimal amount of water. As the cellulose content grows but the char and tar content decreases, the yield of gaseous content increases. It’s also been discovered that structural differences in biomass cause changes in the pyrolysis product’s composition [41].
2.2.1 Cellulose decomposition
By lowering the extent of polymerization, the process of cellulose degradation is determined, which consists of two principal reactions:
Slow pyrolysis involves cellulose degradation over a prolonged period with a lower heating rate.
Fast pyrolysis occurs at high heating rates through speedy volatilization and leads to levoglucosan formation.
In addition to producing the solid product biochar, levoglucosan is dehydrated to generate hydroxymethylfurfural, which can break down to produce liquid and gaseous products such as bio-oil and syngas, respectively. Furthermore, the hydroxymethylfurfural can undergo several processes, including aromatization, condensation, and polymerization, to generate solid biochar [42, 43]. At low temperatures, cellulose degrades to a reasonably stable anhydrocellulose that produces a lot of char, but it decomposes into volatiles [25, 44].
2.2.2 Hemicellulose decomposition
The hemicellulose degradation mechanism is like that of cellulose. Depolymerisation of hemicellulose leads to oligosaccharides production [45]. Decarboxylation, intramolecular rearrangement, depolymerisation, and aromatisation reactions can be used to synthesize biochar or the compound can degrade into syngas and bio-oil [46]. The volatile products and lignin are responsible for the char yield of the cellulose and hemicellulose components in biomass [40].
2.2.3 Lignin decomposition
Unlike the degradation of cellulose and hemicellulose, lignin decomposition is more complicated [47]. The creation of a more condensed solid structure and the shattering of relatively weak bonds result in the formation of char from lignin [48]. The β-O-4 lignin bond is broken and causes free radicals to be released. The protons emanating from other particles are captured by these free radicals, causing the production of degraded substances or compounds. Chain propagation is accomplished by free radicals moving to other molecules. Different amounts of lignin related to variable wood types bring about different breakdown rates. Coniferous lignin has been discovered to be more stable than deciduous lignin, and the former creates more char [49, 50].
2.3 Gasification
This is a thermochemical process that decomposes carbon-rich materials into gaseous products, including CO, CO2, CH4, H2, and traces of hydrocarbons; these gases are referred to as syngas [51, 52]. Gasification happens at high temperatures between 700 and 900°C in an environment with restricted oxidizing agents such as oxygen, air, nitrogen, steam, carbon dioxide, or a mixture of these gases. It was discovered that when the temperature rose, carbon monoxide and hydrogen production increased, while other components such as methane, carbon dioxide, and hydrocarbons declined [53]. The main product of this process is syngas (mostly hydrogen), while char is referred to as a by-product (or waste) with a lower yield, along with ash, tar, and some oil [51]. Partial oxidation of biomass, unlike combustion, takes the energy available in the biomass and bundles it into chemical bonds in the form of gaseous products. The intrinsic chemical energy of carbon in biomass is transformed into combustible fuel gases, which are more efficient and convenient to utilize than raw biomass [54]. Commercial use of the gasification technique has also been documented. Because of its lower Levelised emissions and higher volume of syngas, gasification outperforms other traditional techniques including pyrolysis, combustion, and fermentation. The O/C ratio is critical to achieving high gasification efficiency. High gasification efficiency is achieved by using biomass with a low O/C ratio during gasification. Biomass can be reduced in its O/C ratio by the process of torrefaction. Before conventional gasification, torrefaction might be regarded as a pretreatment for better product quality. It is a low-temperature process between 200 and 300°C with a heating rate of roughly 50°C/min depending on the biomass composition and type [55, 56]. Pyrolysis and gasification are closely related processes. When gasification and pyrolysis are combined, there is no apparent separation between the two approaches [57, 58]. The little composition of oxygen used in gasification causes the biomass to undergo partial oxidation, changing the final product’s characteristics. The product type is one of the most significant variations between pyrolysis and gasification. Gasification produces around 85% gaseous products, 10% solid char, and 5% liquid products [15, 58]. The schematic of the gasification process is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Process diagram for gasification [54].
The gasification mechanism can be sub-divided into many steps as follows [5]:
2.3.1 Drying
Biomass moisture is entirely removed from the material, and no energy is recovered in the process. Different types of biomass have varying moisture contents. When the biomass has a high moisture content, drying is used as a distinct step during gasification.
2.3.2 Pyrolysis
The biomass is heated from 200 to 700°C with restricted oxygen or air during the pyrolysis process. The volatile components of the biomass are evaporated under these circumstances. The volatile vapor contains CO, CO2, CH4, H2, tar (heavier hydrocarbon) gases, and water vapor [59]. Tar and char are also formed [60].
2.3.3 Oxidation/combustion
The oxidation and combustion reactions of the gasification agents are the primary energy sources for the gasification process. These gasification agents react with the gasifier’s combustible species to create CO2, CO, and water.
2.3.4 Reduction
The CO2 and H2O are produced when the oxygen provided to the gasifier combines with the combustible elements. Upon contact with the char formed by pyrolysis, some of this CO2 and H2O are converted to CO and H2 [60, 61]. Furthermore, the hydrogen in the biomass can be oxidized, resulting in the production of water. The reduction reactions that take place inside the gasifier are endothermic, and the energy necessary for them comes from the combustion of char and volatiles. Through a series of reactions, biomass reduction produces combustible gases such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and methane [62, 63].
2.3.5 Cracking
Furthermore, during the gasification process, the tar gases formed during the pyrolysis step are cracked, resulting in non-condensable gasses, light hydrocarbons, and unconverted tar [64]. The cracking stage follows more or less Eq. (2).
aCnHx→bCmHy+CH2E2
Where CnHx is tar and CmHy is dehydrogenated hydrocarbons; a, b and c are mole ratios.
3. Factors affecting the properties of biochar
3.1 Feedstock
Biomass is a composite solid substance made up of organic, inorganic and biological material produced from living or non-living creatures/organisms. There are two main categories of biomass, namely Woody and Non-woody biomass. Woody biomass is mainly forestry and tree residue [1]. It is characterized by low moisture and ash content, high calorific and bulk density values, and low voidage; in contrast, Non-woody biomass is made up of agricultural crop residue, animal waste, and municipal and industrial solid waste [1]. Non-woody biomass is characterized by high moisture and ash content, decreased calorific value, low bulk density, and increased voidage compared to woody biomass [1]. The moisture content of the biomass has been shown to have a significant effect on the physicochemical characteristics of the derived biochar [2]. A study conducted by [3] comparing the pyrolytic charcoals produced from hard and softwood bark samples reported a direct correlation between initial sample moisture content and the surface chemistry derived charcoal; the study found that a decrease in the moisture content of maple bark resulted in charcoal surface becoming more graphite-like and polyaromatic attributed to prolonged pyrolysis time. The effect of feedstock lignin and cellulose content on biochar formation is a well-researched area [4]. Lignin is an amorphous, high molecular weight polymer that is hydrophobic in nature and has several aromatic functional groups in comparison; cellulose and hemicelluloses are made up of simple sugar monomers that disintegrate at temperatures below 450 degrees Celsius [5]. Studies conducted by Tripathi et al. 2016 and Yu et al. 2014 [2, 6] showed that the cellulose content of feedstock aided the formation of tar (which comprises aldehydes, organic liquids, ketones, and char); while a high lignin concentration is beneficial to the formation of char during pyrolysis. According to Demirba (2004) [7], high feedstocks lignin content will increase char formation. It has been shown that increased lignin content in plant biomass promotes carbonization and increases biochar carbon and ash content [8, 9].
3.2 Residence time
Residence (pyrolysis time) has been shown to affect the degree of carbonization and biochar yield of feedstock; this effect is particularly pronounced at low temperatures [18]. According to Zornoza et al. (2016), increased residence time during pyrolysis results in a higher degree of carbonization, reducing the liable organic matter mitigation the vulnerability of the biochar to microbial attack [19]. Residence time has also been shown to influence the specific surface area of biochar produced. A study conducted by Wang et al. (2019) found that the surface area of biochar’s derived from the co-pyrolysis of sewage sludge and cotton stalks increased as residence time increased from 30 minutes to 90 minutes [20]. This was attributed to the formation and extension of pore structures of the biochar caused by the increased thermal decomposition of organic matter and volatiles released from etching pores during the increased residence time [21]. The same study noted a decrease in the surface area of the biochar’s as the residence time was increased from 90 minutes to 150 minutes; this reduction was accounted for by the collapse of the pore structure of the biochar during the extended residence time [20]. Residence time has also been shown to affect the calorific value of the biochar produced; a study conducted by Ahmad et al. (2020) on coconut shell derived biochar showed an increase in calorific value from 25.99 MJ/kg to 29.54 MJ/kg as residence time increased for 45 minutes to 75 minutes [22].
3.3 Biomass pretreatment
The pre-treatment of biomass before the pyrolysis has been shown to influence biochar characteristics. Pre-treatment is primarily divided into four categories: physical, physiochemical/thermal, chemical, and biological. Physical pre-treatment describes methods (milling, grinding etc.) that use mechanical energy to alter biomass properties. The most common form of physical pre-treatment is particle size reduction via mechanical comminutions. The effect of particle size reduction and fractionation of ash content is well researched. A study conducted by Liu et al. showed that the ash content of switchgrass and pine bark varied considerably with particle size fractions [22]. The study also reported the potential 20% removal of inorganic constituents from switchgrass and a 30% removal of inorganic constituents from raw pine bark. A similar study conducted by Bridgeman et al. found that the ash content of switchgrass and reed canary greatly increased in fines with particle sizes smaller than 90 micrometers, increasing to 3.62 wt. % to 6.0 wt. % for reed canary grass and 3.12 wt. % to 6.88 wt. % (dry basis) for switchgrass [23]. Besides the ash content, feedstock particle size is also correlated to biochar particle size, with finer feedstocks producing finer biochar particle sizes [18]. Studies have found that biochar’s derived from finer feedstocks exhibit lower nitrogen content as well as increased surface area, electrical conductivity, and pH [24, 25]. A study conducted by Sun et al. (2012) evaluating the properties of fine apple wood and corn stover-derived biochar (feedstock = 0.25 mm) reported a higher surface area when compared to applewood or corn stover-derived biochar stover-derived biochar of feedstock particle size = 1.5 mm [27]. Thermal pre-treatment describes methods that make use of thermal energy to produce changes in biomass properties; the most common forms of thermal pre-treatment are steam explosion, HTC and hot water extraction. Steam explosion involves the subjection of biomass to high temperatures and pressures between (160-260°C) and (0.69–4.83 MPa); the biomass subsequently undergoes sudden decompression scattering the fiber material and breaking the covalent bonds between the hemicellulose and lignin [28, 29]. Steam explosion increases the lignin content of the biomass by facilitating the depolymerisation of lignin into lower molecular weight molecules, which then condense with other degradation products [30]. A study conducted by Chen et al. 2017 [46] evaluating the effect of the steam explosion of crop straws before pyrolysis reported a change in the surface structure of the derived biochar; exhibiting a rougher surface when compared to the smoother, clearer and distinct pore structure of the untreated crop straw [31]. The same study also showed an approximate increase in the specific surface area of oil-rape straw-derived biochar 16 times greater than that on the untreated sample.
4. Biochar characterization
Properties of biochar produced depend on the composition, type of biomass and the conditions under which it is carbonized. Both physical and chemical characterizations are necessary when identifying the basic properties of biochar and predicting the various application uses. Biochar serves as a promising alternative to its surface area, charged surfaces and functional groups. Figure 4 below displays the different physical and chemical methods used for biochar characterization, focusing on BET and FTIR, belonging to the chemical characterization and SEM as physical characterization.
Figure 4.
Overview of a proposed characterization techniques for biochar [65].
The main aim of quantification to distinguish biochar from organic matter and other forms of black carbon produced. Majority of the potential technology is dependent on spectroscopic characteristics rather than physical separation or isolation.
Biochar being produced from a range of biomass that has different chemical and physical properties results in materials of different properties. Properties of each biomass are important during thermal conversion processes, proximate analysis (ash and moisture content); calorific value; fractions of fixed carbon; volatile components; fractions of lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose; inorganic substances; true density; particle size and moisture content.
4.1 Porosity and surface area
Chemical composition of biomass feedstock and biomass is subjected to a range of analyses to achieve the basic physicochemical characteristics of each raw material. Figure 5displays the physiochemical characteristics of biochar. Biochar production is often assessed through changes in the elemental concentrations of C, H, O, S and N and the associated ratios. The fixed carbon is the solid residue that remains after the particle size is carbonized and the volatile matter is expelled. The H/C and O/C ratios are used to determine the degree of aromaticity and maturation. Elemental ratios of O/C, O/H and C/H have been used to provide a reliable measure of the extent of pyrolysis and the level of oxidative adjustment of the biochar. Irrespective of the pyrolytic temperature, the BET areas increased with an increase in carbon burn off, indicating that the carbon burns off had a significant role in increasing pore volume and surface area while the average pore size increased with residence time and pyrolytic temperature. The BET surface area of biochar value of (1057 m2 .g − 1) has been reported, which appears slightly higher than that of activated carbon (970m2 .g−1). Biochar micropore volume of (0.24 mL .g−1) also appeared smaller than that of activated carbon, having a value of (0.32 mL .g−1), however having an average pore diameter of (5.2 nm).
Figure 5.
Fourier-transform infrared spectra (FTIR) of the biochar samples [66].
4.2 Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
Scanning electron microscopy is categorized as a physical characterization technique used to determine the samples macroporosity and the physical morphology of solid substance (Figure 6). A study by Amin 2016 [1] approximated that the biochar produced from cellulose plant materials had a pore diameter of 1 𝜇m. This characteristic is highly dependable in the intrinsic architecture of the feedstock use.
Figure 6.
SEM micrograph of biochar with magnification of 500x [67].
SEM micrographs displayed that the biochar produced at different pyrolytic temperatures has a distinguishable and clear honeycomb structural appearance due to the original tubular structures present in plant cell materials (Figure 6). The well-developed pores have a direct impact on the high surface area. According to Cantrell et al. (2012), biochar produced at lower temperatures is appropriate for regulating fertilizer nutrients and absorbing pollutants from the soil. Higher temperatures lead to material analogous to activated carbon and environmental remediation. SEM micrographs of biochar displayed a clean surface as the pyrolysis process had stabilized the volatile hydrocarbons, therefore smoothening the surface of the biochar. Pyrolysis at lower temperatures displays molded structures with small pores and uneven surface structure. In general, it is safe to say that since the biomass wastes contain lignin and high volatile matter content, the pore creation in biochar is directly affected.
FTIR spectroscopy serves as a great tool to observe the shift change of chemical compositions. The commonly used technique for biochar characterization using the FTIR is the pellet technique, which mixes 1 mg of dried biochar with 300 mg of pre-dried and pulverized spectroscopic grade KBr. Novak ae al. (2012) used the pellet technique to conclude 3400to 3410 cm−1, H-bonded O–H stretching vibrations of hydroxyl groups from alcohols, phenols, and organic acids, 2850 to 2950 cm−1, C–H stretching of alkyl structures; 1620–1650 cm−1, aromatic and olefinic CDC vibrations, CDO in amide (I), ketone, and quinone groups; 1580 to 1590 cm−1, COO- asymmetric stretching; 1460 cm−1, C–H deformation of CH3 group; 1280–1270 cm−1, O–H stretching of phenolic compounds; and three bands around 460, 800, and 1000–1100 cm−1, bending of Si–O stretching [68]. Figure 5 illustrates the FTIR spectra of biochar collected during different stages of the production, i.e. (Biochar: Original, −1: pre-incubation, −2: jointing, −3: Heading; −4: Mature).
5. Applications of biochar and future perspective
Biochar is a product (together with bio-oil and gases) resulting from biomass pyrolysis. Biochar usage has increased because it reduces the negative impacts of biomass on the environment [69]. The physicochemical properties of biochar are what govern the applications of this material. Depending on the feedstock type, production technology and process conditions [70]; the quality, yield and toxicity of the resulting biochar differs (as shown in Table 1) [72, 73]. These applications (including potential applications) range from adsorption for water and air pollutants [74], activated carbon [75], anaerobic digestion promoter/catalyst [76], construction material [77], agriculture and horticulture use such as soil conditioning, compost additive [78], carbon sequestration, etc. [73]. Figure 7 demonstrates these applications and how biochar contributes to the circular economy through its uses in agriculture and horticulture. Also, these numerous biochar benefits show a great potential to contribute to the economic sustainability of emerging cellulosic bioenergy production systems [79, 80]. It is worth noting that as the number of applications of biochar increases, so does the number of manufacturers, leading to a need for regulated standards and guidelines for the production of this material (see Table 2) [81, 82].
Type of characterization
Determination method
Results and remarks
Elemental analysis
C, H, O, S and N associated ratios
The H/C, O/C and N ratios are used to determine the aromaticity and maturity of the biochar
BET
Surface area, pore structure, average pore diameter, pore volume and average pores of biochar
Changes which occur in the biochar preparations as well as its functional groups present from the original biochar.
Changes include dehydration, pyrolysis, graphene nucleation, and finally carbonization; O–H (3600–3100 cm − 1), C=C and C=O stretching (1740–1600 cm − 1), C–O–C symmetric stretching (1097 cm − 1), –COOMe (1400–1500 cm − 1), and so on
Table 1.
List of notable chemical characterisations of biochar.
Figure 7.
Biochar uses in agriculture and horticulture and its contribution to the circular economy [78].
Process
Process temperature
Residence time
Solid product yield on a dry wood feedstock basis (mass %)
Comparison of typical operating conditions and product properties of various biochar production processes [81].
5.1 Biochar in agriculture and horticulture
Biochar application in agriculture and horticulture has been explored both on a laboratory scale and in the field. These applications include being used as a component of chemical fertilizer [83], soil microbial activity, soil amendment for crop productivity improvement through nutrient availability [84, 85] as well as water holding capacity [86]. Biochar has also been reported to alleviate heavy metals release in the soil while having a limiting effect that aids in increasing the pH of highly acidic soils [87, 88]. Though biochar is another soil conditioner type, it differs from compost by production pathways. Biochar is produced by thermal decomposition of food, horticultural and municipal solid waste in the absence of oxygen, while natural biodegradation of organic substrates produces compost by the microbial community under aerobic conditions. Another difference is that; compost degrades fast, making its benefits relatively short-lived compared to biochar which persists in the soil for more prolonged periods [78, 89].
5.1.1 Biochar as a compost additive
Low soil organic carbon and fertility are challenges faced by many agricultural farmers around the globe. Biochar offers a solution to this challenge because it gives two options, i.e. returning nutrients and carbon to the soil while producing energy [90]. Also, the compositing rate can be increased by using biochar as an additive. Zhang and Sun [91] have examined spent mushroom compost and biochar co-composting. Their results showed a great increase in nutrients content of the resultant compost product and an improved composed quality while reducing the composting time from 90 to 270 days to only 24 days. Also, the large porosity of biochar enables it to facilitate microbial growth in the compost pile, leading to accelerated nutrient recycling [92]. The addition of biochar to poultry manure has been found to increase the maximum temperature reached and shorten the thermophilic phase [93].
5.1.2 Biochar as an adsorbent
An issue of heavy metals/metalloids (HMS) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soil and water poses detrimental environmental problems and poor quality of agriculture, affecting all forms of life [94, 95]. These pollutants are toxic, persistent, non-biodegradable and potentially bioaccumulate [96]. Among other bioremediation technologies used to solve the HMS and PAHs issue, biochar is one of the best solutions due to its advantages [97]. These advantages include sustainability, low costs, sequestration of carbon, etc. [94]. Various physical and chemical characteristics of biochar, such as pore structure, specific surface area and functional groups, have been used to adsorption different pollutants [98]. For instance, Mahmoud, et al. [99] have used modified Switchgrass biochar for efficient decolorization of reactive red 195 A dye from aqueous and wastewater samples. Other biomass materials such as rice husks and dairy manure have also been used for biochar production with varying adsorption capacities according to the biomass used upon other factors [100].
5.2 Biochar in construction
Biochar has been used in road construction and as a concrete admixture. Wang, et al. [77] assessed this where a novel production of fill material and pedestrian/vehicle paving blocks were done. In this study, biochar addition was found to be beneficial to cement hydration even though it was noticed that the studied particle sizes could incur microcracks and strength degradation. Also, biochar’s incorporation resulted in enhanced immobilization of potentially organic contaminants and toxic elements in the sediment product, which is significant for moderately to heavily contaminated products. Therefore, biochar from wood can be used as a green combination for cement-based recycling procedures for highly contaminated waste. The use of biochar in construction material to trap atmospheric carbon dioxide in buildings also offers the potential to reduce greenhouse gasses by 25%. High pH and high water retention rate of biochar enable it to absorb some of the mixing water used in concrete mixing, thereby reducing the amount of free water in the concrete [101].
5.3 Future perspective
Since biochar’s applications depend greatly on its properties, future research must elucidate the production process effects on biochar’s properties. Biochar used in water treatment would differ from the one used in energy/agriculture. Likewise, there are diverse literature findings on the effects of biochar on agriculture, particularly on crop production caused by soils being different. For instance, crop yields may be increased or decreased by adding biochar depending on the soil type and fertilizer management [90, 102]. Also, the chemical behavior of biochar with heavy metal ions has been found to be inconsistent [103]. It is apparent that the interaction mechanisms between biochar, soil and plants are critical and yet not thoroughly known. Therefore, more efforts are still needed concerning biochar properties to soil and crop responses equally in the field and climate-controlled environment.
6. Conclusion
Biochar has been applied to remediate contaminated agricultural soil and improve soil fertility by reducing acidity and increasing the availability of nutrients. Thus, the addition of biochar to soils can be one of the best practices to overcome any biotic stress in soil and increase crop productivity, mainly in the agricultural sector. The properties of biochar have significantly been influenced by processes such as pyrolyscould, which have been discussed in this chapter. Thus, biochar appears as a highly promising option for pollutant removal. Economic impacts and recyclability should be considered in developing recoverable biochar for wide environmental applications. The relationship between various solutions for waste management and energy production differs in parameters and multiple techniques for its production and economic, social and ecological constraints. This review paper detailed the state-of-art information that would be helpful to find new opportunities in scientific innovation in the field of biochar research.
Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful to the Green Engineering and Sustainability research group in the Department of Chemical engineering at the Durban University of Technology, South Africa.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"biochar, biomass, characterization, future perspective, pyrolysis, pretreatment",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82129.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/82129.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82129",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82129",totalDownloads:19,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 19th 2022",dateReviewed:"April 26th 2022",datePrePublished:"June 6th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"June 6th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Biochar, or carbon obtained from biomass, is a particularly rich source of carbon created by thermal burning of biomass. There is a rise of interest in using biochar made from waste biomass in a variety of disciplines to address the most pressing environmental challenges. This chapter will provide an overview on the methods employed for the production of biochar. Biochar has been considered by a number of analysts as a means of improving their ability to remediate pollutants. Process factors with regards to biochar properties are mostly responsible for determining biomass production which is discussed in this present chapter. Several characterization techniques which have been employed in previous studies have received increasing recognition. These includes the use of the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and the Scanning electron microscope which duly presented in this chapter. This chapter also discusses the knowledge gaps and future perspectives in adopting biochar to remediate harmful contaminants, which can inform governmental bodies and law-makers to make informed decisions on adopting this residue.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82129",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82129",signatures:"Edward Kwaku Armah, Maggie Chetty, Jeremiah Adebisi Adedeji, Denzil Erwin Estrice, Boldwin Mutsvene, Nikita Singh and Zikhona Tshemese",book:{id:"11537",type:"book",title:"Biochar - Productive Technologies, Properties and Application",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Biochar - Productive Technologies, Properties and Application",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mattia Bartoli, Dr. Mauro Giorcelli and Prof. Alberto Tagliaferro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11537.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-252-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-251-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-253-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"188999",title:"Dr.",name:"Mattia",middleName:null,surname:"Bartoli",slug:"mattia-bartoli",fullName:"Mattia Bartoli"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Biochar production techniques",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Pyrolysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 Types of pyrolysis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_2_4",title:"2.1.1.1 Slow pyrolysis",level:"4"},{id:"sec_3_4",title:"2.1.1.2 Fast pyrolysis",level:"4"},{id:"sec_4_4",title:"2.1.1.3 Flash pyrolysis",level:"4"},{id:"sec_5_4",title:"2.1.1.4 Vacuum pyrolysis",level:"4"},{id:"sec_6_4",title:"2.1.1.5 Intermediate pyrolysis",level:"4"},{id:"sec_7_4",title:"2.1.1.6 Hydropyrolysis",level:"4"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"2.2 Carbohydrate decomposition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.2.1 Cellulose decomposition",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.2.2 Hemicellulose decomposition",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"2.2.3 Lignin decomposition",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"2.3 Gasification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"2.3.1 Drying",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"2.3.2 Pyrolysis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"2.3.3 Oxidation/combustion",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"2.3.4 Reduction",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"2.3.5 Cracking",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21",title:"3. Factors affecting the properties of biochar",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"3.1 Feedstock",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"3.2 Residence time",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"3.3 Biomass pretreatment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25",title:"4. Biochar characterization",level:"1"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"4.1 Porosity and surface area",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"4.2 Scanning electron microscope (SEM)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_27_2",title:"4.3 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29",title:"5. Applications of biochar and future perspective",level:"1"},{id:"sec_29_2",title:"5.1 Biochar in agriculture and horticulture",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29_3",title:"5.1.1 Biochar as a compost additive",level:"3"},{id:"sec_30_3",title:"5.1.2 Biochar as an adsorbent",level:"3"},{id:"sec_32_2",title:"5.2 Biochar in construction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_33_2",title:"5.3 Future perspective",level:"2"},{id:"sec_35",title:"6. 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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Steve Biko Campus, Green Engineering and Sustainability Research Group, South Africa
Department of Applied Chemistry, C.K. Tedam University of Technology and Applied Sciences, School of Chemical and Biochemical Sciences, Ghana
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Steve Biko Campus, Green Engineering and Sustainability Research Group, South Africa
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Steve Biko Campus, Green Engineering and Sustainability Research Group, South Africa
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Steve Biko Campus, Green Engineering and Sustainability Research Group, South Africa
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Steve Biko Campus, Green Engineering and Sustainability Research Group, South Africa
Faculty of Applied Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Durban University of Technology, Steve Biko Campus, South Africa
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The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Physiological and biochemical changes followed by morphological changes during germination are strongly related to seedling survival rate and vegetative growth which consequently affect yield and quality. This study is aimed to focus on proceeding of the most vital metabolic processes namely reserve mobilization, phytohormonal regulation, glyoxylate cycle and respiration process under either stressful or non-stressful conditions that may be led to suggest and conduct the more successful experimental improvements. Seed imbibition triggered the activation of various metabolic processes such as synthesis of hydrolytic enzymes which resulted in hydrolysis of reserve food into simple available form for embryo uptake. Abiotic stresses potentially affect seed germination and seedling establishment through various factors, such as a reduction in water availability, changes in the mobilization of stored reserves, hormonal balance alteration and affecting the structural organization of proteins. Recent strategies for improving seed quality involved classical genetic, molecular biology and invigoration treatments known as priming treatments. H2O2 accumulation and associated oxidative damages together with a decline in antioxidant mechanisms can be regarded as a source of stress that may suppress germination. Seed priming was aimed primarily to control seed hydration by lowering external water potential, or shortening the hydration period.",book:{id:"6096",slug:"advances-in-seed-biology",title:"Seed Biology",fullTitle:"Advances in Seed Biology"},signatures:"Awatif S. Ali and Alaaeldin A. Elozeiri",authors:[{id:"207241",title:"Dr.",name:"Awatif",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"awatif-ali",fullName:"Awatif Ali"}]},{id:"56506",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70244",title:"Seed Transmission of Tobamoviruses: Aspects of Global Disease Distribution",slug:"seed-transmission-of-tobamoviruses-aspects-of-global-disease-distribution",totalDownloads:2923,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:42,abstract:"Global seed trade contributed to development and improvement of world agriculture. An adverse effect of global seed trade is reflected in disease outbreaks in new growing areas, countries, and continents. Among the seed-borne viruses, Tobamovirus species are currently considered a peril for crop production around the world. The unique tobamoviral particles confer stability to the RNA genome and preserve their infectivity for years. High titer of Tobamovirus species accumulates in reproductive organs leading to viral particles adsorbed to seed coat, which potentially establish a primary infectious source. Tobamovirus-contaminated seeds show very low virus transmission in grow-out experiments as detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis. Interestingly, in situ immunofluorescence analysis of Cucumber green mottle mosaic virus (CGMMV) reveals that the perisperm-endosperm envelope (PEE) is contaminated as well by the Tobamovirus. Indeed, chemical seed disinfection treatments that affect primarily the seed coat surface are efficient for several Tobamovirus species but apparently do not prevent seed transmission of CGMMV to occur. Tobamovirus infection of the seed internal layers, which rarely includes the embryo, may partially follow the direct invasion pathway of Potyviruses such as Pea seed-borne mosaic virus (PSbMV) to pea embryo.",book:{id:"6096",slug:"advances-in-seed-biology",title:"Seed Biology",fullTitle:"Advances in Seed Biology"},signatures:"Aviv Dombrovsky and Elisheva Smith",authors:[{id:"207747",title:"Dr.",name:"Aviv",middleName:null,surname:"Dombrovsky",slug:"aviv-dombrovsky",fullName:"Aviv Dombrovsky"}]},{id:"62227",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79006",title:"Cowpea: A Strategic Legume Species for Food Security and Health",slug:"cowpea-a-strategic-legume-species-for-food-security-and-health",totalDownloads:3011,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"In this chapter, several characteristics of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), including nutritional and nutraceutical properties, and economic and social aspects of production were analysed with the objective to demonstrate that cowpea is a culture suitable for inclusion in food security programs. Cowpea is rich in diverse nutrients, highlighting high levels of protein. Cowpea also is rich in nutraceuticals compounds such as dietary fibre, antioxidants and polyunsaturated fatty acids and polyphenols. Widely cultivated and consumed cowpea is the very important legume for the nutrition and health of millions of people in many countries. In addition to being nutritious and safe, cowpea has high relative productivity, production stability and high tolerance to environmental stresses such as drought. Cowpea also has economic viability, low environmental impact and contributes to the conservation of natural resources and the sustainability of production systems. Cowpea is a safe food, always available in most regions, low priced compared to other sources of protein. Based on the analyses performed, it is possible to infer that cowpea is a strategic culture for the promotion of food security and health of populations on all continents.",book:{id:"7337",slug:"legume-seed-nutraceutical-research",title:"Legume Seed Nutraceutical Research",fullTitle:"Legume Seed Nutraceutical Research"},signatures:"Alexandre Carneiro da Silva, Dyego da Costa Santos, Davair Lopes\nTeixeira Junior, Pedro Bento da Silva, Rosana Cavalcante dos Santos\nand Amauri Siviero",authors:null},{id:"62638",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78799",title:"Nutraceutical Properties of Legume Seeds and Their Impact on Human Health",slug:"nutraceutical-properties-of-legume-seeds-and-their-impact-on-human-health",totalDownloads:1624,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Legume seeds known to produce richer quality of proteins than cereals provide nutritious food for people around the world. Legume seeds contain around 20–40% protein. Apart from protein, it is also composed of carbohydrates, fiber, amino acids, micronutrients including several vitamins and minerals. Legume seeds can be considered a potent nutraceutical as it provides beneficial effects on human health as well as it helps in the prevention or treatment of certain diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, digestive tract diseases, overweight, obesity, cancer, etc. Legume seeds also contain anti-nutritional compounds which may be toxic when consumed raw, but when processed and treated may play a positive role on human health. There are many more underutilized food legume seeds that may be a potential source of nutraceutical food. The main aim of this chapter is to describe the nutraceutical properties of legume seeds and their impact on human health.",book:{id:"7337",slug:"legume-seed-nutraceutical-research",title:"Legume Seed Nutraceutical Research",fullTitle:"Legume Seed Nutraceutical Research"},signatures:"Arindam Barman, Chinky M. Marak, Rituparna Mitra Barman and\nCheana S. Sangma",authors:null},{id:"57027",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70743",title:"Genetic Improvement of Oilseed Crops Using Modern Biotechnology",slug:"genetic-improvement-of-oilseed-crops-using-modern-biotechnology",totalDownloads:2427,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"In 2009, big challenges facing the agricultural sector in the twenty-first century were presented to the world. Human population growth, increased life expectancy, loss of biodiversity, climate change and accelerated land degradation are the main factors contributing to rethink agriculture system production. In that scenery, modern biotechnology has set a stage for the advancement of agricultural practices and it is clearly an important ally to apply a broad array of technologies and innovative systems where they are most needed, such as enhancing crop productivity, increasing yields, and ultimately ensuring food security. One of the biggest challenges is related to technify production systems, but with no doubt, developing genetic improvement toward getting an efficient and sustainable agriculture, generating new seed qualities (new traits), such as, among others, to upset fatty acids content in oilseed crops have been growing up significantly due to industry interest. In this study, a review about the main advances in genetic improvement of some oilseed crops, starting with omics to understand metabolic routes and to find out key genes in seed oil production, and also, getting in use of modern biotechnology to alter the production of fatty acids, and to face biotic challenges in oilseed crops is presented.",book:{id:"6096",slug:"advances-in-seed-biology",title:"Seed Biology",fullTitle:"Advances in Seed Biology"},signatures:"Diego Villanueva-Mejia and Javier Correa Alvarez",authors:[{id:"206827",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",middleName:"F.",surname:"Villanueva-Mejía",slug:"diego-villanueva-mejia",fullName:"Diego Villanueva-Mejía"},{id:"214479",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Correa Alvarez",slug:"javier-correa-alvarez",fullName:"Javier Correa Alvarez"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56975",title:"Metabolic Processes During Seed Germination",slug:"metabolic-processes-during-seed-germination",totalDownloads:6169,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:"Seed germination is crucial stage in plant development and can be considered as a determinant for plant productivity. Physiological and biochemical changes followed by morphological changes during germination are strongly related to seedling survival rate and vegetative growth which consequently affect yield and quality. This study is aimed to focus on proceeding of the most vital metabolic processes namely reserve mobilization, phytohormonal regulation, glyoxylate cycle and respiration process under either stressful or non-stressful conditions that may be led to suggest and conduct the more successful experimental improvements. Seed imbibition triggered the activation of various metabolic processes such as synthesis of hydrolytic enzymes which resulted in hydrolysis of reserve food into simple available form for embryo uptake. Abiotic stresses potentially affect seed germination and seedling establishment through various factors, such as a reduction in water availability, changes in the mobilization of stored reserves, hormonal balance alteration and affecting the structural organization of proteins. Recent strategies for improving seed quality involved classical genetic, molecular biology and invigoration treatments known as priming treatments. H2O2 accumulation and associated oxidative damages together with a decline in antioxidant mechanisms can be regarded as a source of stress that may suppress germination. Seed priming was aimed primarily to control seed hydration by lowering external water potential, or shortening the hydration period.",book:{id:"6096",slug:"advances-in-seed-biology",title:"Seed Biology",fullTitle:"Advances in Seed Biology"},signatures:"Awatif S. Ali and Alaaeldin A. Elozeiri",authors:[{id:"207241",title:"Dr.",name:"Awatif",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"awatif-ali",fullName:"Awatif Ali"}]},{id:"57027",title:"Genetic Improvement of Oilseed Crops Using Modern Biotechnology",slug:"genetic-improvement-of-oilseed-crops-using-modern-biotechnology",totalDownloads:2423,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"In 2009, big challenges facing the agricultural sector in the twenty-first century were presented to the world. Human population growth, increased life expectancy, loss of biodiversity, climate change and accelerated land degradation are the main factors contributing to rethink agriculture system production. In that scenery, modern biotechnology has set a stage for the advancement of agricultural practices and it is clearly an important ally to apply a broad array of technologies and innovative systems where they are most needed, such as enhancing crop productivity, increasing yields, and ultimately ensuring food security. One of the biggest challenges is related to technify production systems, but with no doubt, developing genetic improvement toward getting an efficient and sustainable agriculture, generating new seed qualities (new traits), such as, among others, to upset fatty acids content in oilseed crops have been growing up significantly due to industry interest. In this study, a review about the main advances in genetic improvement of some oilseed crops, starting with omics to understand metabolic routes and to find out key genes in seed oil production, and also, getting in use of modern biotechnology to alter the production of fatty acids, and to face biotic challenges in oilseed crops is presented.",book:{id:"6096",slug:"advances-in-seed-biology",title:"Seed Biology",fullTitle:"Advances in Seed Biology"},signatures:"Diego Villanueva-Mejia and Javier Correa Alvarez",authors:[{id:"206827",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",middleName:"F.",surname:"Villanueva-Mejía",slug:"diego-villanueva-mejia",fullName:"Diego Villanueva-Mejía"},{id:"214479",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Correa Alvarez",slug:"javier-correa-alvarez",fullName:"Javier Correa Alvarez"}]},{id:"62227",title:"Cowpea: A Strategic Legume Species for Food Security and Health",slug:"cowpea-a-strategic-legume-species-for-food-security-and-health",totalDownloads:3006,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"In this chapter, several characteristics of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), including nutritional and nutraceutical properties, and economic and social aspects of production were analysed with the objective to demonstrate that cowpea is a culture suitable for inclusion in food security programs. Cowpea is rich in diverse nutrients, highlighting high levels of protein. Cowpea also is rich in nutraceuticals compounds such as dietary fibre, antioxidants and polyunsaturated fatty acids and polyphenols. Widely cultivated and consumed cowpea is the very important legume for the nutrition and health of millions of people in many countries. In addition to being nutritious and safe, cowpea has high relative productivity, production stability and high tolerance to environmental stresses such as drought. Cowpea also has economic viability, low environmental impact and contributes to the conservation of natural resources and the sustainability of production systems. Cowpea is a safe food, always available in most regions, low priced compared to other sources of protein. Based on the analyses performed, it is possible to infer that cowpea is a strategic culture for the promotion of food security and health of populations on all continents.",book:{id:"7337",slug:"legume-seed-nutraceutical-research",title:"Legume Seed Nutraceutical Research",fullTitle:"Legume Seed Nutraceutical Research"},signatures:"Alexandre Carneiro da Silva, Dyego da Costa Santos, Davair Lopes\nTeixeira Junior, Pedro Bento da Silva, Rosana Cavalcante dos Santos\nand Amauri Siviero",authors:null},{id:"56820",title:"Seed Dormancy",slug:"seed-dormancy",totalDownloads:3537,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Dormancy is when there is a lack of germination in seeds or tubers even though the required conditions (temperature, humidity, oxygen, and light) are provided. Dormancy is based on hard seed coat impermeability or the lack of supply and activity of enzymes (internal dormancy) necessary for germination. Dormancy is an important factor limiting production in many field crops. Several physical and chemical pretreatments are applied to the organic material (seeds/tubers) to overcome dormancy. Physical and physiological dormancy can be found together in some plants, and this makes it difficult to provide high-frequency, healthy seedling growth, since the formation of healthy seedlings from the organic material (seeds/tubers) sown is a prerequisite for plant production. This chapter will focus on the description of four different methods we have not seen reported elsewhere for overcoming dormancy.",book:{id:"6096",slug:"advances-in-seed-biology",title:"Seed Biology",fullTitle:"Advances in Seed Biology"},signatures:"Mustafa Yildiz, Ramazan Beyaz, Mehtap Gursoy, Murat Aycan,\nYusuf Koc and Mustafa Kayan",authors:[{id:"141637",title:"Prof.",name:"Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Yildiz",slug:"mustafa-yildiz",fullName:"Mustafa Yildiz"},{id:"188656",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Aycan",slug:"murat-aycan",fullName:"Murat Aycan"},{id:"203524",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramazan",middleName:null,surname:"Beyaz",slug:"ramazan-beyaz",fullName:"Ramazan Beyaz"},{id:"206401",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Koç",slug:"yusuf-koc",fullName:"Yusuf Koç"},{id:"210589",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehtap",middleName:null,surname:"Gursoy",slug:"mehtap-gursoy",fullName:"Mehtap Gursoy"},{id:"214514",title:"MSc.",name:"Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Kayan",slug:"mustafa-kayan",fullName:"Mustafa Kayan"}]},{id:"62638",title:"Nutraceutical Properties of Legume Seeds and Their Impact on Human Health",slug:"nutraceutical-properties-of-legume-seeds-and-their-impact-on-human-health",totalDownloads:1619,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Legume seeds known to produce richer quality of proteins than cereals provide nutritious food for people around the world. Legume seeds contain around 20–40% protein. Apart from protein, it is also composed of carbohydrates, fiber, amino acids, micronutrients including several vitamins and minerals. Legume seeds can be considered a potent nutraceutical as it provides beneficial effects on human health as well as it helps in the prevention or treatment of certain diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, digestive tract diseases, overweight, obesity, cancer, etc. Legume seeds also contain anti-nutritional compounds which may be toxic when consumed raw, but when processed and treated may play a positive role on human health. There are many more underutilized food legume seeds that may be a potential source of nutraceutical food. 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:301,paginationItems:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. 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