Practices and different activities taking place in communities of practice.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3723",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Management and Services",title:"Management and Services",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'Management in all business areas and organisational activities are the acts of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives. Service is intangible, therefore, it is not too easy to define the theory application in varieties of service industries. Service Management usually incorporates automated systems along with skilled labour; it also provides service development. Due to enormous demand of service industries and management development, the book under the title "Management and Services" would create a milestone in management arena for all categories of readers including Business Administration, Engineering and Architecture. This book covers educational service development, service-oriented-architecture and case research analysis, including theory application in network security, GRID technology, integrated circuit application.\r\nThe book is comprised of five chapters and has been divided into two parts. Part A contains chapters on service development in educational institutions and it depicts the application of supply chain management concept in service industries like tertiary educational institutions and multiple ways of web 2.0 applications transforming learning patterns and pathways. To understand the subject in a practical manner, Part B of this book consists of noteworthy case studies and research papers on management and services and represents theory application of Data mining, Fuzzy Cluster, Game theory, GRID Technology, simulation of Operational Amplifier and Current Controlled Conveyor II in network security, architecture, and integrated circuit application.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-118-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5920-9",doi:"10.5772/111",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"management-and-services",numberOfPages:114,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"fd3d170b6b6bfc78a9568d26c89ca435",bookSignature:"Mamun Habib",publishedDate:"October 6th 2010",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3723.jpg",numberOfDownloads:13451,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:13,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:23,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 21st 2012",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 11th 2013",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 17th 2013",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 16th 2013",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 15th 2013",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"12501",title:"Prof.",name:"Dr. Md. 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His Ph.D. research was in the field of Supply Chain Management. \nHe has 13-year experience in the field of teaching for graduate and postgraduate students, as well as in training, consultancy and research. At present, he is supervising some Ph.D. students at UUM, Malaysia. He is GSB (Graduate School of Business) Ph.D. Dissertation Committee member of Assumption University, Thailand, Ph.D. Advisor at Institute for Technology and Management (ITM) – University, India and University of the Assumption, Philippines, External examiner of Birla Institute of Technology (BIT) – Deemed University, India and National Institute of Technology (NIT), India. He also involved with online learning programme at University of Roehampton (UoR), London, UK and Asia e University (AeU), Malaysia as International Ph.D. Reader.\n\nAs a researcher, Dr. Habib published about 70+ research papers, including Conference Proceedings, Journal articles, and book chapters/books. Books have been published from USA, UK, Germany, Croatia, and India. Also, he serves as the Editor-in-Chief/Lead Guest Editor/Editor/Editorial Board Member/Reviewer of more than 20 journals, particularly Scopus and ISI Indexed Journals. \nHe delivers lecture as Keynote Speaker at various international conferences, namely BPSCM Conference 2012, India; 3rd LSCM Conference 2013, Bali, Indonesia; 2nd ICIE Conference 2013, India; 7th ICIEM Conference 2013, China; 1st ICIDSC Conference 2014, Malaysia; 8th MASS Conference 2014, China; 2014-15 COES&RJ Conferences, Singapore; 2015 IRED Conferences, Thailand and Malaysia; 2nd ICAEM 2015, China; IRP Conference 2015, Malaysia; ASCA 2015, Thailand.\nHe also serves as General Chair, Program Chair, Technical Chair, Organizing Committee Member, Technical Committee Member, Track Chair, Session Chair as well as Reviewer of numerous international conferences, particularly IEEE ICMIT’2010 (Singapore), 2012 (Indonesia), 2014 (Singapore); IEEE ITMC’2011 (San Jose, CA, USA), 2012 (Dallas, TX, USA); IEEE IEEM’2011 (Singapore), 2012 (Hong Kong), 2013 (Thailand), 2014 (Malaysia), 2015 (Singapore); INFORMS IEOM’2012 (Istanbul, Turkey), 2014 (Indonesia), 2016 (Malaysia); IEEE 2013 IIE Conference (Turkey); APMS 2013 (Pennsylvania, USA); MASS 2015 (China); 2015 IRED Conference (Thailand, Malaysia); 2015 ASCA Conference (Thailand), etc. He received Best Track Chair Award at IEOM’2012 Conference.\nHis core research areas are supply chain management, production & operations management, operations research, research methodology, engineering management, technology management, and educational management. 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\r\n\tWith this rapid transformation of the computing and communication world, information-system security has moved from a largely self-contained bounded environment interacting with a generally known and disciplined user community to a worldwide scope with a body of users that may not be known and are not necessarily trusted. Importantly, security control now must deal with circumstances over which there is largely no control or expectation of avoiding their impact. Computer security, as it has evolved, shares a similarity with liability assurance: they each face a threat environment that is known in a very general way and can face attacks over a broad spectrum of sources. However, the exact details or even time or certainty of an attack are unknown until an incident occurs.
\r\n\tThe purpose of this book is to discuss some of the critical security challenges in today’s computing world and to discuss mechanisms for defending against those attacks by using classical and modern approaches to cryptography and other security solutions. With this objective, the book invites contributions from researchers in the field of cryptography and its applications in network security. Some illustrative topics of interest (but not limited to) are cryptography algorithms, authentication, authorization, integrity, confidentiality, privacy, security in wireless networks, security in wireless local area networks, wireless sensor networks, wireless ad hoc networks, vehicular ad hoc networks, security and privacy in the Internet of Things. Privacy of information, Blockchains, and Machine Learning in Security are three additional topics that the book will also deal with.
Semiconductor nanowires are especially attractive building blocks for assembling active and integrated nanosystems since the individual nanostructures can function as both device elements and interconnects. Among wide band gap II-VI semiconductors, ZnO seems to be one of the most promising materials for optoelectronic applications. This is due to its stable excitons, having a large binding energy of 60 meV [Ellmer et al., 2008, Jagadish & Pearton, 2006], which is important for applications of UV light-emitting devices and laser diodes with high efficiency. Therefore, growth of p-type conductive ZnO material is a prerequisite step since ZnO is intrinsically n-type [Look et al., 2001]. The growth of semiconductor nanowires with reproducible electronic properties, including the controlled incorporation of n-type and/or p-type dopants, has been realized in silicon, indium phosphide, and gallium nitride [Lieber & Wang, 2007]. In comparison with the semiconductors mentioned above, doping of ZnO seems more difficult not only for wires but films and bulk crystals due to the low dopant solubility and the self-compensation effect of intrinsic defects [Park et al., 2002]. It is also desired to more deeply understand the underlying doping physics [Zhang et al., 2001] for the achievement of a high-quality compound-semiconductor p-n junction.
\n\t\t\tUntil now, there are only few reports on doped ZnO nanowires for p-type conductivity, possibly due to the obvious difficulties in both growth and optical/electrical characterization. Liu et al. [2003] prepared boron-doped ZnO nanowires and ZnO:B/ZnO nanowire junction arrays by a two-step vapor transport method in pores of anodic aluminum oxide membrane. A p-n junction-like rectifying behavior was observed. Lin et al. [2005] also reported a p-n rectification behavior of nitrogen doped ZnO (ZnO:N) nanowires/ZnO film homojunctions, where the ZnO:N nanowires were prepared by a post-growth NH3 plasma treatment. Both reports did not contain any optical or electrical characterization of single (probably p-type) doped ZnO nanowires. Lee et al. [2004] prepared arsenic-doped ZnO nanowires by post annealed ZnO nanowires grown on GaAs substrate and observed arsenic induced acceptor bound exciton emission at 3.358 eV. Shan et al. [2007] reported the preparation of arsenic and phosphorus (co)doped ZnO nanowires also by an annealing method using ZnSe nanowires and GaAs/InP substrates as precursor and dopants, respectively. Recently, Xiang et al. [2007] reported the p-type ZnO nanowire growth with chemical vapor deposition using phosphorus as dopants. The p-type conductivity of the doped wires was illustrated with gate-voltage dependent conductance measurements of single ZnO:P nanowires with field effect transistor (FET) configuration. However, p-type conductivity was not stable and converted to n-type three months later. Similarly, Yuan et al. [2008] reported the growth by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) of nitrogen doped ZnO wires which showed p-type FET characteristics. Lu et al. [2009] reported the growth of p-type ZnO nanowires also with CVD using Zn3P2 as dopant. Moreover, energy conversion using the p-type ZnO NWs has also been demonstrated and the p-type ZnO NWs produce positive output voltage pulses when scanned by a conductive atomic force microscope (AFM) in contact mode while the n-type nanowires produced a negative voltage signal. Consequently, it seems that doped p-type ZnO wires come into reality. But, the doping induced optical fingerprints were not clearly identified and p-n junctions built from p-type ZnO nanowires are still not available.
\n\t\t\tIn this Chapter, after the brief review of the research progress on p-type ZnO wires, some important results obtained in our group on p-type ZnO nanowires and microwires are summarized. In the second section, the high-pressure pulsed laser deposition (PLD) and carbothermal evaporation growth methods for doped wire growth will be described. Optical and electrical characterizations of the doped wires will be discussed in detail in the third section. This Chapter ends with a brief summary, which also includes our personal remarks on future research of p-type ZnO wires.
\n\t\tSchematic illustration of the high-pressure PLD chamber for pure and doped ZnO nanowire growth with a T-shaped quartz tube. From Ref. [
Two methods, high-pressure pulsed laser deposition and carbothermal evaporation, were applied to grow phosphorus doped ZnO wires with diameter varied from 100 nm to 10µm.
\n\t\t\tPLD is a well established growth method for thin films by condensation of laser plasma ablated from a target, excited by the high-energy laser pulses far from equilibrium [Willmott & Huber, 2000]. Figure 1 shows the scheme of the high-pressure PLD chamber specially designed for ZnO nanostructures using a T-shaped quartz tube with an outer diameter of 30 mm in the Leipzig semiconductor physics group [Lorenz et al., 2005]. A KrF excimer laser beam enters along the center of the tube and is focused on the cylindrical surface of the selected targets. The laser energy density on the target is about 2 J/cm2, which is similar to conventional PLD film growth conditions. An encapsulated heater with an arrangement of KANTHAL wire in ceramic tubes and FIBROTHAL isolation material is built around the T-shape quartz tube. The growth temperature is usually chosen between 500 and 950 C as measured by a thermocouple. Argon flow of 0.05 to 0.2 l/min was usually selected as carrier gas and the growth pressure ranged between 25 and 200 mbar. The a- or c-plane sapphire substrates (size 1×1 cm2) were arranged of-axis, i.e. parallel to the expanding plasma plume.
\n\t\t\tPLD generally facilitates stoichiometric transfer of the chemical composition of a multielement source target into the grown samples [Chrisey & Hubler, 1994]. Therefore, if the ablated target is doped, the corresponding samples are expected to have the similar composition to the targets. For phosphorus doping of ZnO nanowires, phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5) was select as dopants for acceptors. Figure 2 shows a scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of ZnO wires using doped ZnO targets with different P2O5 concentration. Figure 3 shows typical energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX) results detected from a single doped nanowire. The phosphorus signal is clearly observed.
\n\t\t\tSEM images of ZnO:P wire grown with PLD using (a) 1 wt% P2O5 and (b) 2 wt% P2O5 doped ZnO targets at 100 Torr and 900 C.
The weight percentage of phosphorous in the nanowire is about 1 wt%, which is smaller than the phosphorus concentration (1.7 wt%) in the target. This is probably caused by the different vapor pressures of zinc and phosphorus related species in the laser ablated plume and different sticking coefficients [Ohtomo et al., 1998].
\n\t\t\tEnergy dispersive x-ray spectrum of a single doped ZnO:P wire with obvious phosphorus signal, excited by electron beam in a SEM.
A typical SEM image of doped ZnO microwires grown directly on pressed source material target. From Ref. [
In our group, vapor phase transport and deposition process was also employed for the growth of ZnO nanowires and microwires, as proposed by Huang and Yao [Huang et al., 2001; Yao et al., 2002]. This method, also called carbothermal evaporation, is widely used for growth of nanowires, and it has relations to other methods, such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD), metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD), physical vapor deposition (PVD). Carbothermal evaporation has been conventionally used to synthesize one-dimensional and other complex oxide nanostructures, including ZnO as reviewed recently by Wang et al. [2009]. Here, the standard process was developed to synthesize doped ZnO microwires by direct thermal evaporation of a pressed ZnO/graphite (mass ratio 1:1) target doped with P2O5 (15 wt%) at ambient pressure. The growth temperature was as high as 1100 C and the microwires grew directly on the pressed target. Figure 4 shows a typical SEM image of doped ZnO microwires produced by this method. Such microwires are easily visible with optical microscopy and, therefore, are more convenient for device fabrications.
\n\t\tCL spectrum of undoped ZnO nanowires measured at a temperature of 10 K.
To study the doping effect on the physical properties of ZnO nanowires and also identify the conductivity type of the doped nanowires, optical properties were first investigated by cathodoluminescence (CL) spectroscopy. More detailed description of the CL measurement system can be found in Ref. [Nobis et al., 2004].
\n\t\t\t\tA low temperature CL spectrum at
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 6(a) depicts the CL spectra of a single ZnO:P nanowire measured at three points as indicated, which show similar spectroscopic features. The spectra are clearly different from that of undoped ZnO nanowires. Three groups of new emission peaks at 3.356, 3.314, 3.234 eV and their phonon replica were detected.
\n\t\t\t\ta) CL spectra at temperature of 10 K of a single ZnO:P nanowires measured at three parts, as indicated in the inset. (b) Temperature-dependent CL spectra of ZnO:P nanowires. (c) CL peak energies versus temperatures taken from (b). Solid symbols (■ and ▲) are experimental data and solid lines are fitted with equations [1] and [2], respectively. The dashed line is shifted to demonstrate the slope of the (e, A0) fitted line (blue) near the (A0, X) data points. From Ref. [
It indicates that these emission peaks are due to the intentional phosphorous doping. The peak at 3.356 eV can be ascribed to the phosphorus-related neutral acceptor-bound exciton (A0, X) emission [Hwang et al., 2005, Vaithianathan et al., 2005]. As for the peak at 3.314 eV, it is a prominent optical characteristic of most p-type ZnO material doped with group V elements. But, its origin is still a matter of debate [Look, 2005]. The origin of the dominant peak at 3.234 eV is also controversial. But, it shows strong longitudinal phonon replica that means that it comes from acceptor-related recombination process due to the phosphorus doping of ZnO. Because, for donor-related lines, only weekly coupling phonon lines can be observed, as shown in Figure 5. Therefore, the peaks at 3.314 and 3.234 eV could be tentatively ascribed respectively to free electron-to-acceptor (e, A0) emission and donor-to-acceptor pair (DAP) emission in agreement with the discussion of nitrogen doped ZnO [Xiong, 2005].
\n\t\t\t\tTemperature-dependent luminescence behavior usually can prove the origin of the near-band-gap emissions of semiconductors. Figure 6(b) shows the temperature-dependent CL spectra of ZnO:P nanowires. The peak of (A0, X) shows a continuous redshift due to the bandgap shrinkage with increasing temperature, which can be well fitted by the Bose-Einstein model [O\'Donnell & Chen, 1991],
\n\t\t\t\twith EA\n\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t,X(0)=3.356 eV,
where
Homogeneous doped semiconductor nanowires represent key building blocks for a variety of electronic devices. After confirming the successful incorporation of phosphorus acceptors into the ZnO nanowires, the next step to identify the conductivity of the doped nanowires would be electrical measurements by device fabrication, which are always highly desirable. As direct Hall measurements on nanowires are difficult since the necessary two-dimensional configuration of the Hall contacts is hard to achieve, other practicable methods to obtain the conducting type of nanowires are adopted. In this section, p-n junction and field effect transistor (FET) structures were proposed and built with ZnO:P wires for electrical studies.
\n\t\t\t\tp-n junctions are of great importance both in modern electronic application and in understanding other semiconductor devices. A typical proposed two-terminal junction composed of doped nanowires and n-type ZnO:Ga film was shown in Figure 7(a). It was completely grown with PLD.
\n\t\t\t\t\ta) Scheme of the ZnO:P/ZnO:Ga p-n junctions including one p- and one n-contact. (b) A top view on the Ni–Au contact pads on top of the embedded ZnO:P nanowire array. The connection to the bond wires is made with silver glue. From Ref. [
Gallium-doped, n-type conducting ZnO thin films were grown with conventional low-pressure PLD using a ZnO:Ga (5 wt%) target. After deposition of the gold contact strip, these ZnO:Ga film templates were transferred into the high-pressure PLD chamber for growth of the ZnO:P nanowire arrays. The growth conditions were similar to that described in Section 2. After the nanowire growth, the samples were a spin-coated with polystyrene and then exposed to RF plasma at air pressure of 3×10-2 mbar to free the nanowires’ tips from the polystyrene. Finally, Ni/Au top contacts were deposited with a mask on the top of the polystyrene and contacted with gold wire using conductive silver glue. Figure 7(b) shows a SEM image the top-view of the junction device.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFigure 8(a) shows the I-V curves measured from p1-n and p2-n, which are two parallel junction structures. The rectifying I-V behavior of the phosphorus doped wires on n-type ZnO film can be reproducibly observed from ten samples with over 50 p-n junctions. Moreover, the reverse parts of the I-V curves measured from p1-n, and p2-n agree reasonably well with the I-V curve of p1-n-p2, which is composed of two p-n junction diodes both under reverse bias. This is a strong indication for the p-type conductivity of the doped ZnO:P nanowires. The typical voltage for I=100 µA of the p-n junctions is up to 3.2 V and the forward to reverse current ratio is about 100 at ±3.5 V. The series resistance Rs of the p-n junction is about 23 kΩ. The low-voltage forward parts of the I-V curves were fitted with the equation I=Is{exp[e(V-RsI)/nkBT]−1}, i.e., the I-V characteristics of a real diode with negligible shunt resistance, as shown in Figure 8(b). The ideality factor n of the particular junction in Figure 8 was about 7.
\n\t\t\t\t\ta) Rectifying I-V curves of two typical ZnO p-n junctions on the same substrate, denoted p1-n and p2-n, plotted in both linear and logarithmic current scale. The I-V curves of these two p-contacts is also shown, which corresponds to the p1-n-p2 configuration of two opposite p-n diodes. (b) I-V curve fitted with the equation, I =Is{exp[e(V-RsI)/nkBT]−1} (red curve), to a typical p-n junction (open squares). The fit results are as follows: Is=15.8 nA; Rs=23.0 kΩ; n=7.03. From Ref. [
Another prototypical semiconductor device with broad applications is the nanowire FET. Nanowires configured as FETs have shown to operate at ultralow power below microwatts with enhanced operation speed. For example, studies of nanowire FETs fabricated from boron and phosphorus-doped Si nanowires have shown that the devices can exhibit performance comparable to the best reported value for planar devices made from the same materials [\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCui et al., 2003\n\t\t\t\t\t\t]. Studies have also demonstrated the high electron mobility of epitaxial InAs nanowire FETs with a wrap-around cylindrical gate structure surrounding a nanowire [Thelander et al., 2008]. Moreover, the change in conductance of semiconductor wires as a function of gate voltage can be used to determine the conductive type of a given wire since the conductance will vary oppositely for increasing positive and negative gate voltages [\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCui et al., 2003\n\t\t\t\t\t\t]. Therefore, the FET characteristics analyses were also used to study the doping effect of semiconductor nanowires.
\n\t\t\t\t\ta) Schematic illustration of the back-gate FET configured with a microwire as conductive channel. (b) SEM image of a undoped ZnO microwire fixed on titanium electrodes with IBID. (c) SEM image of phosphorus doped ZnO microwire directly connecting with two titanium contacts.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFigure 9(a) schematically shows the FET structure assembled with a microwire. Silicon substrates (65 mΩcm) covered by a SiO2 layer with thickness of 190 nm served as the global back-gate and dielectric gate oxide, respectively. Titanium strip contacts were then defined on such silicon substrates with photolithography. Then the microwires were transferred onto the predefined silicon substrate and laterally moved to connect them with titanium stripes, which formed the source and drain contacts. Figure 9(b) shows the SEM image of an undoped ZnO microwire FET, where the source and drain contact characteristics were further improved with tungsten contact pads deposited with ion-beam induced deposition (IBID). In this way, the contacts between ZnO wires and titanium strips are ohmic, as demonstrated in Figure 10(a) with the linear current-voltage dependence in a wide voltage range from -30 V to +30 V. The dependence of source-drain current (ISD) through the ZnO wire on source-drain voltage (USD) was measured at various gate voltages, as shown in Figure 10(b). The ISD increases with increasing USD and the slopes of the ISD versus USD curves are dependent on the gate voltage (UG). Figure 10(c) shows the corresponding transfer characteristics (ISD – UG) at a constant USD of 2 V. In general, the source-drain current increases with increasing gate voltage. This positive slope of the ISD vs. UG curve indicates that the undoped ZnO wire is n-type conducting. It has to be noted that usually the ZnO wire channel could not be fully depleted with such a back-gate configuration. A possible reason is the finite air gap between the gate oxide and the ZnO wire [Keem et al., 2007].
\n\t\t\t\t\tBecause gallium is a donor in ZnO, the source and drain contacts of the doped ZnO:P microwire FETs were formed by connecting the ZnO:P wire directly to two separated titanium electrodes, as seen in Figure 9(c), without further FIB support [Weissenberger et al., 2007]. Therefore, the electrical characteristics of the ZnO:P wire-FETs are sensitively dependent on the particular contacts between the wire and electrodes. Figure 11 shows two groups of typical current-voltage (ISD – USD) curves of ZnO:P wire-FETs under different back-gate voltages. All curves are slightly nonlinear, which indicates that the contacts between wire and titanium electrodes are not ideally ohmic. However, in both graphs of Figure 11 the ISD – USD curves show an inverse arrangement concerning the gate voltage compared to that of the undoped n-type wire FET in Figure 10(b).
\n\t\t\t\t\ta) ISD vs USD curve at UG=0 V indicating good ohmic contacts between ZnO wires and titanium strips; (b) Output characteristics ISD vs USD and (c) transfer characteristics ISD vs Ug of the nominally undoped, n-type ZnO microwire FET. From Ref. [
Output characteristics (ISD vs USD) and transfer characteristics (ISD vs UG, inset) of two different ZnO:P wire-FETs, indicating p-type conductivity of the doped ZnO microwires. From Ref. [
This is further demonstrated by the insets of Figure 11, where the corresponding transfer characteristics of the ZnO:P wire FETs are shown. The source-drain current decreases with increasing gate voltage. This negative ISD-UG slope is opposite to that of the undoped n-type ZnO-FET. It indicates unambiguously that the conductivity of the phosphorus doped ZnO wires is p-type. In most cases, such ZnO:P wire-FETs could not be fully depleted as shown in Figure 11(a). However, Figure 11(b) is an example of a fully depleted ZnO:P microwire channel.
\n\t\t\t\t\tAt last, the time stability of the p-type conductivity of such ZnO:P wires were investigated by repeated FET and p-n junction measurements. p-type conducting FET characteristics built with microwires grown by carbothermal evaporation were reproducibly observed within six months since their growth. No obvious change of the FET characteristics was found. Thus the time stability of p-type conductivity of the ZnO:P microwires is at least six months. As for the p-n junctions built with ZnO:P doped nanowires grown by PLD after one year, in total about 20 junction samples, about ten still showed the typical rectifying diode behavior as shown in Figure 8. Therefore, we can state a corresponding time stability of the ZnO junctions. Moreover, electroluminescence experiments with pulsed current excitation (6V/8mA peak current with 1 kHz and 10% duty cycle) on selected junctions showed a very weak, diffuse blue-green light emission. This light emission was visible to the naked eye in complete darkness.
\n\t\t\t\tIn summary, we have reviewed the latest progress in the growth and optical/electrical characterizations of p-type doped ZnO wires, especially the work performed in the Leipzig group. Two growth methods, high-pressure PLD and carbothermal evaporation, have been adopted to grow phosphorus doped ZnO wires. Detailed optical and electrical characterizations of such doped wires indicated their p-type conductivity with one-year stability. In our opinion, more work is still needed to make further progress on this topic. First, the quality and stability of the p-type ZnO wires need to be further improved. This will require even better control the background n-type conductivity, development of new growth methods and search for new acceptor dopants. Second, high-quality p-n junctions built with single p-type ZnO nanowires showing good breakdown characteristics need to be demonstrated. Third, electrically pumped ZnO nanowire LED and laser diode showing strong band-edge emission are highly expected. Once these milestones are achieved, it would be the beginning of the ZnO applications for solid state lighting.
\n\t\tThe work was financially supported by the European Union within STReP project NANDOS (Grant No. FP6-016924) and by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft within FOR 522. BQC also thanks the University of Jinan, for the start-up research fund for new faculty.
\n\t\tCommunities of practice (CoP) are group of people who share a common concern, a set of problems, or an interest in a topic and who through joint efforts fulfil both individual and group goals. Building effective working relationships among academics through their participation in communities of practice is very important as ways of collaborating, sharing ideas, mutual engagements as well as knowledge sharing. Good working relationships among colleagues in an organisation help to achieve the aims and objectives as well as promoting good outcomes among members of the organisation. This chapter will be on communities of practice and how to build effective working relationships among academics through their participation. The types of communities of practice existing among universities’ lecturers, especially towards maintaining effective working relationships will be considered. Also, social learning theory which primarily focused on theorising the concept of community of practice will be considered as part of the scope of this chapter. The activities the academics engaged in such communities of practice and how such activities are carried out will also form the scope of this chapter. In addition, why focus on communities of practice among academics as well as relevance of communities of practice to their professional development will also be considered.
The CoP are expedient ways of building working relationships among academics as university teachers. Building effective working relationships can only be achievable through commitment, engagement, mutual understanding, interactions, collaborations, willingness to participate and contribute, and the determination to assist others for the sake of their professional development. CoP may exist among academics within the same department or other departments in the same university. Sometimes, CoP could extend to other universities where academics from various departments in different universities relate and collaborate as groups. The common adage that says “a tree cannot make a forest”, is so true and real when it comes to CoP. People must come together as a group and before such group can evolve, they must have aims and objectives to achieve. Creating such a group must be purposive, vision and mission driven. Such a group should operate informed by the guiding rules and principles for actions of group members. Hence, CoP are imperative, purposive and cannot just be accidental.
As a model of professional development, CoP is an approach to teachers’ professional development which enable academics to learn from and with their colleagues within their universities’ communities [1]. The concept of CoP dates back to early 1990s. [2] in their work draw from the situated learning. Situated learning came into light as a result of learning among practitioners which take place in social relationships in their workplace instead of classroom. [2] view this concept as fostering interactions among workers which is inclusive of workers that are experts and trainees. It involves forming and norming which is necessary for the process of creating professional identity for trainees. The forming stage is the initial stage of putting the group together. At this stage, each member learns about their group needs, expectations and challenges. The norming stage is the phase where the team actually starts to function and work as a team. At this stage, members begin to understand each other’s work practices and ethic. Group members’ roles and responsibilities are clearly defined at this stage, rules guiding the members are defined, expectations from the members are set and teamwork begin among group members. In the interactions, experts serve as professionals who are consulted by new members and offer them professional advices. Through such interactions, problems were identified, experts learn more while new members also became experts through professional support offered to them. Few years later, Wenger developed on the situated learning through an empirical study of one insurance firm where Etienne focused primarily on theorising the concept of community of practice [3]. The key premise of his theoretical work is that CoP can arise in any domain of human endeavour, or organisation. This speaks to the wider scope of application of CoP as a framework that informs, frames, and focuses on professional development activities in different organisations, including educational settings.
It is also expected that universities’ lecturers who have experience should build strong CoP where they will groom young graduates who have passion for research and teaching especially those who are willingly to go into teaching profession in higher education institutions. The willingness to embark on this journey of professional development is critical for the success of a CoP. Once practitioners are willing to do so, then support from senior colleagues in terms of collaboration and mutual engagement is highly recommended. [4] in their study on collaboration and mutual support as processes established by CoP to improve continuing professional teachers’ development claim that effective participation of teachers in CoP is key to having mutual relationships among members through engagement in collaborative learning activities. This implies that teachers are expected to be active members in CoP, and participation is key to forge mutual relationships among group members by engaging in collaborative learning activities for their professional development.
CoP are groups of people who share a concern, a set of problems, or a passion about a topic, and who deepen their knowledge and expertise in this area by interacting on an on-going basis [5]. The people involved must identify a problem, have passion for the tasks involved and must be experts in that area. One thing that is peculiar with CoP is that, the communities occur when a group of people who have desire to achieve certain things come together, interact and jointly work together to achieve their goals. Thus, CoP can occur anywhere, in a school, university, college or in an organisation. [6] note that CoP are groups of persons who have concerns or desire for certain things they engaged with and they show willingness to learn how to improve on it by interacting often with their group members.
Learning within CoP involves three essential processes, namely:
evolving forms of mutual engagement;
understanding and tuning (their) enterprise;
developing (their) repertoire, styles and discourses [3] (p. 95).
In CoP, there are different activities taking place, these especially depend on the nature and purpose of such community. Table 1 below gives a clear picture of what CoP look like depending on the educational functions that they are meant to serve.
Table 1 below shows that different functions served by CoPs. Different scholars and in different organisations [4] use different names for CoPs. The different names are learning networks, teacher clusters, teacher networks, professional and affiliation networks, learning team model, workplace learning, collaborative teacher research, thematic groups, or tech clubs, networked learning communities and collaborative practices [1, 6, 7, 8, 9].
Practices | Varieties of activities |
---|---|
“Can we work on this design and brainstorm some ideas; I’m stuck.” | |
“Where can I find the code to connect to the server?” | |
“Has anyone dealt with a customer in this situation?” | |
“I have a proposal for a local area network I wrote for a client last year. I can send it to you and you can easily tweak it for this new client.” | |
“Can we combine our purchases of solvent to achieve bulk discounts?” | |
“How do people in other countries do this? Armed with this information it will be easier to convince my Ministry to make some changes.” | |
“Before I do it, I’ll run it through my community first to see what they think.” | |
“What do you think of the new CAD system? Does it really help?” | |
“We have faced this problem five times now. Let us write it down once and for all.” | |
“Can we come and see your after-school program? We need to establish one in our city.” | |
“Who knows what, and what are we missing? What other groups should we connect with?” |
Practices and different activities taking place in communities of practice.
Adapted from [6].
Participating in a CoP should have an impact in academics’ professional development, as group members and as individuals. The benefits of communities of practice according to [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17] are as follows:
Allowing employees to manage change. CoP offer opportunities to link people with common interest and it is an avenue of maintaining connections with peers. Teachers form CoP in response to changes originating from the school system such as inadequate access to professional development.
Providing access to new knowledge. In a community of practice where teachers collaborate directly, use one another as sounding boards, and teach each other, it empowers the individual teacher, opening access to new knowledge and skills.
Fostering trust and a sense of common purpose. As teachers in the CoP share ideas and experiences, they often develop a shared way of doing things, a set of common practices and a greater sense of common purpose, thus helping them to develop professionally.
It helps in adding value to professional lives. CoP often form around topics teachers have invested many years in developing. They do not just focus on common interests alone but also on practical aspects of a particular practice, everyday problems, new tools, ideas and developments in their fields, things that are working out fine and those that are not working perfectly.
It promotes professional recognition among practitioners. In CoP, the collaborative support offered to members bring about recognition of talents and skills among group members. This gives room for showcasing talent among group members and such talents are embraced to support group members who need assistance.
Encouraging loyalty and commitment amid stakeholders. Mutual engagement among group members and willingness to support make the group members to be loyal to one another. Members are committed to achieving their stated goals, thus, it is expected of individuals to be committed to their roles to make their community successful.
Improving efficiency of processes. Working as groups with determination and dedication bring about productivity. Thus, in CoP, interactions, collaborations and mutual engagements among members bring about efficiency and development.
CoP is seen as an essential model that enhances professional development. There are different types of CoP and these depend on the nature and purpose of such CoP. [3] argues that CoP are present everywhere and different kind of people are part of such community. The CoP could be at place of work, high school, university, college, home, civic or leisure places. Different activities and engagements are meant to take place in such community, however, group members have their objectives to be achieved. For instance, CoP among university lecturers are meant to promote professional development such that professional assistance and support are rendered to group members through mutual engagements, collaborations and interactions. According to [5, 18], the different types of CoP are:
Small or big CoP
Short-lived or long-lived CoP
Co-located or distributed CoP
Homogeneous or heterogeneous CoP
Inside boundaries or across boundaries CoP
Spontaneous or intentional CoP
Unrecognised or institutionalised CoP
Virtual CoP
In order to have a clearer picture and comprehensive types of CoP and detailed activities in each type of CoP, [19] highlight different types of CoP based on structural features of CoP. The structural features of CoP are categorised into four categories namely:
Demographic Category
Organisational Category
Individual Category
Technological Category
Under demographic category, three types of CoP are recognised as:
Young or old CoP. This type of CoP specifically outlines the period of time a community has been in existence. Some CoP have been in existence over a period of time, thus, they are old CoP, while some are just being formed, hence such are referred to as young CoP.
Small or big CoP. Every community have their group members and the number of members for each community determine the extent of the size. Group members of a small community are usually few while in a big community members are many and in most cases they are up to hundreds in number.
Short-lived or long-lived CoP. Some CoP came into existence just to cater for immediate need of their group members just for a temporary arrangement for the purpose of achieving some things. These types of CoP are short-lived, because they are formed for a temporary time. Long-lived CoP are those that are formed to exist permanently and the group members did not have any time frame of how long such communities will be in existence.
The following three types of CoP are listed under organisational category:
Spontaneous or intentional CoP. This type of CoP came into being to meet the group members’ spontaneous needs through sharing and interaction. The CoP is formed intentionally for the purpose of meeting the needs of group members.
Inside boundaries or across boundaries: In some organisations, CoP exist within the organisation, this type of CoP is known as inside boundaries. The across boundaries CoP exist across the organisation unit or departments.
Unrecognised or institutionalised: In some organisations, there are some relationships that exist among workers which made them to form CoP, though such CoP are formed within the organisation, they are unrecognised because such are formed by relationships that exist among some workers. The institutionalised CoP is being recognised and official position is being given to group members.
The following two types of CoP are identified under this category
Co-located/distributed. In this type of CoP, a CoP is co-located when members meet at the same place because of the proximity they share. This is usually feasible when the community is still growing. When the community is fully grown with many members who do not stay in same location, then the CoP will be distributed. Members in distributed CoP will be expected to meet regularly by organising seminars, conferences in the same venue for their meetings.
Homogeneous or heterogeneous: This type of CoP is determined by the cultural background of members. When members are from the same discipline or areas of specialisation, such CoP is homogeneous. The CoP is heterogeneous when group members are from different disciplines and areas of specialisations.
In technological category, most CoP now meet virtually because of moving towards digital age and most organisations depend on the use of technology of different forms. Virtual CoP is an advantageous for member to meet irrespective of distance barriers unlike in face to face CoP.
Good working relationships are essential for production and collaborations among academics. Many times people struggle with their challenges and shortcomings in their own silos. [3] contends that CoP result in three structural elements, which are mutual engagement, joint enterprise and shared repertoire. These elements usually result in one having a sense of belonging and participation by members vary from individual to individual [5]. Sharing ideas allows for reflection, better understanding, better navigation of knowledge, creation of new knowledge and ideas, and creates confidence among participants [20]. They argue that dialogic negotiations of knowledge can result in friendships being created over time. However, constructive negotiations in CoP have nothing to do with friendship but rather common interest and goals [3].
CoP can either be formal or informal [2] and in both instances there is need for engagement and collaboration [3]. Research has shown that learning often takes place in non-formal situations through interaction as they share experiences and ideas [21]. CoP generate trust and positive working relationships, because group members have sense of belonging, which enable professional development among group members [22]. Trust is a key element for engagement and productivity. Without trust it is difficult for academics to engage in productive dialogue, be at liberty to share their knowledge and expertise, it is difficult for one to be vulnerable in an environment where they do not trust the people they are expected to engage with. According to Poultney [23], due to the trust that CoP generate, it is easier for participants to connect and collaborate resulting in effective professional development for academics. Research has shown that positive working relationships give participants a sense of belonging [24] and as a result take ownership and responsibility for their development [25]. Sense of belonging and ownership create positive energy among the academics and their desire for all to develop encourages collaboration and engagement. A positive environment allows participants to share their expertise, share their experiences without fear of prejudice or being judged, allowing for positive criticism from team members thereby resulting in continuous development and shorter times of task completion.
Tips for creating successful CoP as suggested by [26] are;
Clarify who the community is for-this will help in identifying the focus and content that is needed for that particular community
Get those people together regularly-this helps build trust among the players and get easier to create a safe space for the team members to ensure that they are comfortable sharing their areas of expertise and identify strengths, which will benefit the community.
Start by sharing stories- allows you to find the gaps and new areas of interest and develop connections, which will allow for collaborations.
Create opportunities for learning, building trust, adding value, and supporting each other- allows participants to identify areas of interest that they might be interested in trying out.
See what works and turn up the good-gives room for the community to evaluate and see what is best for them and drop the things that are not working well.
It can, therefore, be concluded that it is important to create and sustain positive working relationships in CoP for effectiveness, networking, sharing of ideas and positive change. CoP allow members to work in flexible and informal environments where everyone is a potential knowledge contributor.
Social learning is routinely conflated with various thoughts, between the thought itself and its potential outcomes. This nonattendance of sensible clearness has limited our capacity to assess whether social learning has occurred and given that this is valid, what kind of acknowledging has happened, how much, between whom, when, and how [27]. [27] argue that to be seen as social learning, a cycle must:
show that a change in comprehension has happened in the individuals being referred to;
display that this change goes past the individual and gets organised inside more broad social units or organisations of preparing; and
occur through social associations and cycles between performers inside a casual network.
A clearer picture of what these researchers mean by social learning is that learning must take place through interactions with others within the same group by utilising the social learning hypothesis by [3].
The initial work of [2] was the stepping stone for [3] social theory of learning on CoP which tested long-standing thoughts about learning. Specifically, they contended that learning is not an individual effort but a social cycle that is arranged in a social organised setting. A vital reason of his hypothetical work is that CoP can emerge in any space of human undertaking, as long as people share a common personality in their school of thought. As such, learning happens in various social practices through support in shaping the development of a bigger project some time. Etienne’s investigation of learning in settings other than formal instructive settings can help a large number of us working in education to think differently about learning.
The four main premises of social learning by [28] are:
We are social beings. This shows that there should be social participation of all members of the CoP.
Knowledge is a matter of competence with respect to valued enterprises.
Knowing is a matter of participating in the pursuit of such enterprises.
Meaning - our ability to experience the world and our engagement with it as meaningful.
As Wenger puts it, CoP develop in stages and phases such as formation, integration and transformation [5]. Learning develops through active participation in the different stages.
Wenger’s framework is used to address complex 21st century learning [29]. The theory centres around the vital worth made by social learning, recognising the sorts of significant values, flowing a model learning. The recognised values are the direct value, potential value, applied value, realised value, enabled value, and transformative value. Wenger’s work is adopted from education with a view to professionalise teachers. The body of knowledge is much more alive, which is the community being engaging with the practice and hopefully to engage with each on what the practice is and what good practice is and what not good practice is and so forth. In a social theory of learning, CoP contemplate that learning takes place in a social setting and demands both participation and reification for meaningful learning.
The traditional approach to learning is described as a vertical view of learn¬ing where somebody assumes that one person knows and that information is passed to somebody who does not know [30, 31]. Social learning is the horizontal view of learning assumes that you and I are in a partnership and we negotiate what is it that we know is and how we understand it in our own contexts.
In this theory, learning occurs in cycles and starts in conversations, designs, problem solving, bench-marking and many more. Social learning should generate different types of values that describe a specific cycle [32] like engaging as learning partners in debating, creating a document together, going to a field trip together. Immediately you get to know each other and a person understands you, have fun, one feels inspired. This is the first cycle of learning and value one gets from just participating, called immediate value. Immediate value generates from enjoying to be in each other’s company, producing great ideas and inspirations and forming new connections and collaborations among each other. The main idea or activity will be producing a particular purpose. In the quality of the conversation among stakeholders, sharing different world views, different angles of solving a problem, and creating networks, produce a potential value. The potential value is a second cycle of learning which may or may not end up profiting participants.
Learning does not end with the potential value in the theory by Wenger, but proceeds to the trying of the feedbacks you receive from the gathering as the third cycle termed applied value. In this cycle one learns when going back into the organisation and applying the new ideas, follow-up in connections and do a new project together. The cycle is accompanied by the change in practice as the result of the learning partnership activity. In a way people create multiple opportunities of learning. The creative nature of the CoP is when participants put acquired knowledge into practice. Creativity involves re-learning and generation of new knowledge leading to the fourth cycle of the realised value. One can see the changes in an institution.
Whether the implementation of new knowledge is a success or a failure one needs to have feedback loops because it is important for further learning. The feedback develops the learning loops to make learning relevant, adaptive and dynamic. A project Support team and community leadership roles are crucial in the learning process because activities such as logistic preparation, facilities, technology, and agenda design to mention a few need to be considered. It is the key aspect of the learning process to develop the implementation strategy. To acknowledge the strategic value, the nature of the vital discussions is the fundamental piece of social learning among the partners and permit them to accommodate their exercises into the master plan. This is called the enabling value. Notwithstanding, learning is not being restricted to an improvement and execution, it can likewise create new points of view or new meanings of achievement, and it can much trigger more extensive social and institutional changes, named transformative value or reframing value [32]. The transformative value or last cycle is the most dramatic aspect of learning.
As such it is significant that every one of these pieces ought to be set up and there should be a unique stream among them for figuring out how to have any kind of effect in this day and age. The value creating cycles makes one to be aware of where to focus attention. Setting of goals before you start a project with partners and choosing what conditions to follow, should be set up. The framework can also be used to evaluate the project and follow indicators to each cycle. Embedding social learning in the project is a strategic imperative. This is not only meant for students but also CoP in terms of academic staff development. The last cycle dimension takes the assumptions of where world ought to be in applying the flexible process in the ever-changing world operations especially in the academic environment. Therefore, social learning theory on communities of practice are bothered about learning in having the effect in the quickly evolving world, the principles of the game-changing: science is changing, innovation is changing, and international affairs is evolving. In reality, things are excessively powerful and complex.
CoP are described with three measurements [3], namely:
The mutual engagement tying individuals into a social substance. Being remembered for “what is important” in a gathering is a necessity for being occupied with a network’s training.
Community individuals build up a mutual collection, a common arrangement of shared assets, for example, schedules, words, instruments, methods of getting things done, stories, and ideas. The ideas, language and apparatuses exemplify the historical backdrop of the network and its point of view on the world.
The joint endeavour in comprehending what the network is about. The joint venture characterises the aggregate cycle in a constant arrangement and it makes among members’ relations of shared responsibility become a vital piece of the training.
Right now, there is huge, contending pressures for transformation in higher education. Numerous scholars decide to change pedagogy and curriculum mirroring pedagogical research together with supportive learning and collaboration. A few changes, be that as it may, are forced by institutional approaches reacting to the more extensive higher education setting [33]. CoP may assist educators to revise their tasks at hand and diminishing open doors for communitarianism dynamic enhancing professional skills development with common commitment as the fundamental purpose within their various communities. [33] investigation on educational program change is an example of revising tasks at hand and focus on professional development by using an integrated method to course design and supportive learning. Also, educators engaged in a joint venture to revise the curriculum plus the significant alterations in university policy. CoP model promise the accomplishment of educational objectives by tending to instructors’ necessities, as opposed to just raising requests on staff, to fortify commitment, joint efforts, assemble abilities and offer accepted procedures.
Mutual engagement is evident in [34] who note that globally, high schools have seen themselves faced with changes relating to changing educational program systems, new plans for teacher capacitation and empowerment together with their shifting roles. In reality, changes that underlie the expansion of combined activity between instructors incorporate collective teaching, soundness between subjects, and circulated decision making. These changes call for meeting and coordination between teachers to manage late changes and the going with multifaceted nature of work and continuous cooperation.
On a similar note, engagement in higher education, schools and districts that are associations in their privilege yet face expanding information challenges [6] is necessary. CoP hold the guarantee of empowering associations among individuals over these conventional structures to defeat considerable hierarchical issues. Another examination directed in [35] express that a topographically scattered yet disciplinarily affectionate community can work as a steady, non-various levelled CoP depending on the extent of mentorship, plus the creation of social resources. These scholars state that the most important imperative is to have one committed person to drive meetings and cycles of the CoP via Skype or email in a synchronous or asynchronous learning environment. It is also essential to analyse the organisation in CoP terms to gain better insight into its development, to distinguish its qualities and shortcomings, and to guarantee its continuation and shared collection.
The primary importance of CoP is for teacher preparation and breaking barriers between managers and subordinates [6]. For example, there is mutual engagement among staff members in the development of manuals and publications that were absent in their profession [6]. This gathering of auditors in the public sector was from various nations in Eastern Europe and Central Asia to shared work, stories, and relics made over the seven years of their endurance time giving a feeling of coherence and reason. There was no segregation of participants based on their seniority levels because of the CoP model used. Meaning, the CoP promotes lifelong learning within the organisation to fulfil the common institutional goals and initiatives.
A joint undertaking is another significant movement for academics in CoP. A variety of researchers and reformers has required the reinforcing of coordinated effort between instructors by methods for advancing networks of teachers in schools [34]. The action requests that foundation chiefs should convey the command to continue or create networks of training in their orders considering variety contemplations regarding instructive level, residency, word related insight, and gender in the arrangement of teacher groups for creating organised responsibility on accomplishing learning results. Notwithstanding sorting out different groups, school pioneers could expand teachers’ joint duty and responsibility for undertakings and group execution. The joint venture in administration, for example, choices are not made by a solitary individual; rather, choices arise out of collective exchanges between numerous people, occupied with commonly subordinate exercises. [36] converses with the school-based insight and the joint endeavour that scholastics could take part in. CoP can drive methodology, create new lines of business, take care of issues, advance the spread of best practices, build up individuals’ expert aptitudes, and assist organisations with selecting and holding ability [11].
The joint venture can be experience in community projects are also activities academics can create solid associations with guardians and communities implies another method of working for governments, for administration organisations, and teachers [37]. For instance, in Thailand, such CoP resulted in upgrading of educational programs, employing volunteer teachers for co-curricular exercises, and raising funds for assets [37] in adjusted congruity. It is the kind of CoP model that administrations can advance through preparing, consolation and backing, yet in addition to stretch out the result of gathering pledges and upkeep and development of structures. Thus, CoP in schools enhances opportunities of collaboration among staff in implementing changes to educational programs, new plans for teacher professional development and to the instructors’ functions. The collaborative effort deepens understanding in teachers’ responsibilities. Therefore, there is shared collection of responsibilities between instructors by implanting coordinated effort into the school culture.
The idea of collaboration of academics from various disci¬plines (psychology, anthropology, computer science, and education) embarking on research with a purpose of changing teaching and learning processes and approaches is supported by [38]. [39] recommend CoP sighting examples like addressing faculty challenges and concerns related to academic writing. The writing communities were created across-disciplines holding dialogues for the process of academic writing departments, then facilitating conversation and collaborative activities connected to the process of academic writing. Therefore, in a joint venture activity, there is mutual engagement and mutual collection of ideas towards achieving the institutional goals.
According to [3], five key function are offered in CoP. These are:
Educate members through sharing of experiences and ideas within the practice
Support members through collaborative engagements
Cultivate members’ imaginations and ideas for them to start learning and sustain the learning process.
Encourage members through support and endorsing their work and expertise through dialogue
Integrate members’ new knowledge and ideas to enable change within the practice or organisation
There are a number of characteristics which promote and drive the CoP for teams. These characteristics create opportunities for team members to develop. Figure 1 below by [5] demonstrates how CoP contribute to individual members as well as for the organisations for both long term and short term.
Why focus on communities of practice for members and organisations. Adapted from [
CoP offer support for team members and builds confidence. Individual member gains more information about their practice and they are able to put it into action as they know that they have a reference point, they have cheerleaders and they have literature that supports their properties in the workplace. When an individual is confident about their work from the support that they get from teammates, they constantly feel motivated to do their work effectively. The members know they are not doing work as a duty anymore but they feel in whatever they do they have the support of the teammates or of the organisation and they have some backing from the people who share with them the same beliefs, passions and goals.
The nature of CoP creates opportunities for learning and development. Team members learn from each other as shown by Bandura’s social learning theory [31]. Feedback from others is essential as it helps you to develop further as you take time to reflect on your work, improve on areas that are highlighted, and come back to practice with better or improved strategies. Feedback allows one to carry out an action research on what they are doing within the workplace. CoP enables knowledge sharing and reduces duplication. An opportunity for co-contribution to knowledge is created.
Sharing of information allows for more learning and you remember more than having idle information at the back of your mind. When you teach others, you also learn. Sharing of ideas helps an organisation when it comes to empowering employees within the organisation it reduces challenges when an individual who never shared the information that they had about their practice leaves their job without proper training to those remaining behind. When an individual leaves a job, they leave with their expertise and if not careful, you are stuck as an organisation resulting in daunting hand over take over processes. This results in the new incumbent taking longer to perform their duties effectively thereby delaying in yielding results. The community of practice adopts a common approach, which allows scaling [26]. People own the practice, decentralise things, and create consistencies. Community members can act as enablers of change. It is easier for a group to have a voice in an organisation than it is for an individual to try and convince the organisation for change [26].
A community of practice allows for collaboration on common issues and challenges to create better practices. As a team or as an organisation when you are collaborating it allows you to see the challenges together, brainstorm the challenges, come up with ideas on dealing with the challenges and improve based on what findings and the recommendations on what to change and how to change. This result in a continuous developmental process. According to [40], ‘human communities can develop a sort of collective intelligence that is greater than the individual members. Different experiences and sharing allows us to build on each other’s experience and improve our practices. CoP therefore are worthy focusing on as they have benefits to the individual and organisations, academic institution included.
The relevance of CoP to professional development cannot be overemphasised, it is very important that in CoP, the relationships, interactions and collaborations among group members must not be taken for granted. Such relationships, interactions and collaborations have ways of moulding group members towards their professional development. For instance, academics in their various universities must value their engagements with the members of their CoP. Many achievements towards professional development could be made through CoP, thus, this must be valued and appreciated.
The relevance of CoP to professional development according to [41] are;
Connect people. It gives group members opportunities to interact, most especially those who do not have the opportunity to interact, either on frequent occasions or not at all.
Provide a shared context. This serves as an avenue for easy flow of communication and sharing of information, ideas, talents, personal experiences as a means of building understanding and moulding members for better exposure and insight.
Enable dialogue. Group members have the opportunities to interact through their mutual engagements. This brings about opportunities to exploring different possibilities and new ways of solving problems, creating new ideas through collaborations.
Stimulate learning. There are diverse ways of learning in CoP among group members. This is serves as an avenue for reliable communication, mentoring, coaching, and self-reflection. Group members are mould by specialists in the CoP and they offer them professional support needed for them to be professionals in their own fields.
Capture and share existing knowledge. The continuous existence of the group made it easy to help group members to improve their practice. This is done by providing a medium to identify solutions to common problems in the group and a process to pull together and evaluate best practices.
Introduce collaborative processes. Collaborations among group members must be keen to bring about interactions, sharing of ideas, encourage trust and positive relationships.
Help people organise. Group members are determined to achieve the aims and objectives of creating their CoP and this bring about concrete results.
Generate new knowledge. The willingness for mutual engagements bring about transformation of practices among group members and also bring about opportunities to accommodate variations in needs and technologies.
This chapter has pointed out the relevance, importance, and significance of CoPs for the professional development of academics as university teachers. In particular, the enablement, enhancement and support if proffers towards the realisation of a sense of community among academics as teaching and learning practitioners. How academics in their roles as teachers can improve, change, and/or further develop their teaching practices through engagement, sharing, recognition, and validation of each other’s’ work are discussed in details. The forming and norming of CoP practices, the different forms that they take, and the various educational functions that they serve are elaborated on. How a CoP comes to have a common understanding of issues that beset them, form a common agenda around the issues, operationalise and develop strategies for dealing with their substantive issues of their practice are highlighted in the chapter. More importantly, this chapter provided details of how effective working relations are developed and nurtured in a CoP.
The authors are grateful to University of Fort Hare, South Africa for funding this research work.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen publishes different types of publications
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One challenge comes from the changing perceptions of what learning is all about. The second challenge comes from new learning opportunities that technology now affords. Constructivism, interpretivism, and computing technology, separately and often together, have redesigned the conception of the challenges and opportunities of learning, and brought about new learning possibilities for almost all teaching and learning situations, including traditional classroom teaching, distance learning, and self-learning. Computer-supported learning environments could have good problems that will stimulate students to explore and reflect on their knowledge construction. Students who cannot afford higher education are discouraged from seeking or completing a degree. 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Over two decades after the transition from apartheid to democracy, vast inequalities across race, class, gender and socio-economic status persist in South Africa, with the majority of the African people being the most affected. Demographically, the African people constitute about 80.8% of the country’s total population, compared to whites, who constitute a meagre 8.8%, yet African households carry the highest burden of poverty, living way below the official poverty line of $1.90/day as determined by the World Bank and other international agencies. This chapter explores these inequalities and ponders on the role of e-learning for this poorest section of society in a country where modern technological devises in the form of information and communication technologies (ICTs) and access to the Internet are perceived to be ubiquitous. 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As a result, we identified adverse conditions that were an obstacle to the application of the original technique. We then adapted the technique to make it applicable in an OSS project. We can conclude that was not easy to recruit OSS users and developers to participate in technique application.",book:{id:"6533",slug:"trends-in-e-learning",title:"Trends in E-learning",fullTitle:"Trends in E-learning"},signatures:"Lucrecia Llerena, Nancy Rodriguez, Mayra Llerena, John W. Castro\nand Silvia T. Acuña",authors:[{id:"231253",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Lucrecia",middleName:null,surname:"Llerena",slug:"lucrecia-llerena",fullName:"Lucrecia Llerena"},{id:"231767",title:"MSc.",name:"Nancy",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez",slug:"nancy-rodriguez",fullName:"Nancy Rodriguez"},{id:"231769",title:"Dr.",name:"John W.",middleName:null,surname:"Castro",slug:"john-w.-castro",fullName:"John W. 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Prior studies carried out by researchers confirm that technology utilization and adoption in education undeniably helps teachers and learners in the teaching and learning process. This chapter serves as a stepping stone to support teachers to do better in utilizing and adopting technology in education to a certain extent as an alternative of overlooking their thoughts, efforts and desires in blindly trying to vie with the swift change of technology in education in this epoch. 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He\nreceived a short-term scholarship to carry out his post-doctoral\nstudies abroad, from Japan International Cooperation Agency\n(JICA), in coordination with the Egyptian government. Dr.\nShalaby speaks fluent English and his native Arabic. He has 77\ninternationally published research papers, has attended 15 international conferences, and has contributed to 18 international books and chapters.\nDr. Shalaby works as a reviewer on over one hundred international journals and is\non the editorial board of more than twenty-five international journals. 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He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"38",type:"subseries",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713"},editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",slug:"meng-chuan-ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",slug:"olga-anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"82135",title:"Carotenoids in Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105210",signatures:"Lovina I. Udoh, Josephine U. Agogbua, Eberechi R. Keyagha and Itorobong I. Nkanga",slug:"carotenoids-in-cassava-manihot-esculenta-crantz",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Carotenoids - New Perspectives and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10836.jpg",subseries:{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology"}}},{id:"81576",title:"Carotenoids in Thermal Adaptation of Plants and Animals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104537",signatures:"Ivan M. Petyaev",slug:"carotenoids-in-thermal-adaptation-of-plants-and-animals",totalDownloads:25,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Ivan",surname:"Petyaev"}],book:{title:"Carotenoids - New Perspectives and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10836.jpg",subseries:{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology"}}},{id:"81358",title:"New Insights on Carotenoid Production by Gordonia alkanivorans Strain 1B",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103919",signatures:"Tiago P. Silva, Susana M. Paixão, Ana S. Fernandes, José C. 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