Comparison of modern ME-CAD and OE-CAD tools.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"235",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Amyloidosis - Mechanisms and Prospects for Therapy",title:"Amyloidosis",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Prospects for Therapy",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Amyloidoses are a heterogeneous group of diverse etiology diseases. 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\r\n\tMarine Ecosystems are very productive and include the open ocean, the deep-sea ocean, and coastal marine ecosystems, each of which has different physical and biological characteristics. The biodiversity of some of these ecosystems is very rich and abundant offering unique opportunities for high-yield production of proteinaceous material, being a source of high-quality foods. Biodiversity is fundamental to sustaining marine ecosystem services, such as food, maintenance of water quality, and recovery from perturbations, being threatened worldwide. The main threats to marine biodiversity are habitat loss, eutrophication, overexploitation, pollution by hazardous substances, the introduction of non-native species, and other human activities. Efforts to reduce these pressures are essential for coastal water quality, recovery of ecosystem services, global food security, and ecosystem stability. Bioindicators to assess the presence of stressors are important tools to be used as early warning signals to early detect their presence, monitor and management of these ecosystems, and thus promote ecosystem health.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tThe protection of biodiversity is a major target of the European Union Marine Strategy Framework Directive, requiring an assessment of the status of biodiversity on the level of species, habitats, and ecosystems including genetic diversity and the role of biodiversity in food web structure and functioning. The restoration of marine ecosystems can support the productivity and reliability of goods and services that the ocean provides to humankind, to maintain ecosystem integrity and stability. Some of the goods produced by the marine ecosystem services are fish harvests, wild plant and animal resources, water, some of the services provided recreation, tourism, breeding and nursery habitats, water transport, carbon sequestration, erosion control, and habitat provision.
Nowadays, microwave photonics (MWP) is a relatively mature scientific and technological direction arising among radio electronic R&D society at the second half of the twentieth century in result of combining the achievements of microwave electronics and photonics techniques [1]. Initially, MWP was an area of interest for a military platform [2, 3] such as radar and electronic warfare means, but recent years, it became an object of study and development for emerging areas in the telecommunication industry [4] such as fifth-generation (5G) cellular networks. For today, MWP technology might be considered as a perspective direction of modern radio electronics for signal generation, transmission, and processing in various radio frequency (RF) circuits and systems of microwave (MW) band. Implementation of this concept will enhance the key technical and economical features and such important characteristics as electromagnetic and environmental compatibilities, immunity to external interferences.
\nFollowing this tendency, we have contributed some works referred to computer-aided design of MWP components and MWP-based devices [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18] using two well-known software tools such as VPI Photonics Design Suite (VPI-PDS) [19] and Applied Wave Research Design Environment (AWRDE) [20]. Elaborating the direction, in this chapter, we review shortly the distinctive features of MWP technique, preselecting an optimal software to computer-aided design (CAD), a hybrid device combining microwave electronics and photonics components. After that, we highlight our last modeling and simulation results on design and optimization of advanced microwave and millimeter-wave band RF electronic facilities based on MWP technique, mainly for an access network of 5G mobile communication systems. In particular, Section 2 reviews the nature, features, and space of the MWP approach to develop advanced radio electronics apparatuses (REAs). In addition, Section 3 presents a short comparative analysis of modern computer platforms with the goal of selecting a feasible mean to design MWP-based REA. The examples for comparative computer-aided simulations of key optical and optoelectronics elements, such as laser, optical modulator, photodetector, and optical fiber, as well as based on them specific MWP devices and apparatuses for microwave-signal processing in optical range such as a delay circuit, oscillator, frequency converter, and fiber-wireless fronthaul of 5G mobile communication system, are demonstrated in Section 4. All schemes are simulated in VPI-PDS and AWRDE CAD tools. Finally, Section 5 concludes the chapter.
\nMicrowave photonics is a rather fresh interdisciplinary scientific-technical and scientific-technological direction of radio electronics and photonics, which provides an increase in the efficiency of the formation and processing of analog and digital radio signals due to their transfer to the optical range. The use of MWP in promising radio facilities for various purposes has the potential, first, from the point of view of increasing operating frequencies up to tens of terahertz, ensuring their multirange, multifunctionality, reconfigurability, and increasing speed and throughput in accordance with modern requirements. Another purpose of MWP is to improve the performance characteristics of existing REAs such as instantaneous bandwidth, electromagnetic compatibility, power consumption, reliability, resistance to natural and intentional interference, footprint, and environmental friendliness.
\nGenerally, MWP devices are the examples of an intimate integration of photonics, microwave electronics, and planar antenna technologies for producing a complicated functional module in a multichannel analog environment. In particular, MWP technology opens the way to superwide bandwidth transmitting characteristics at lower size, weight, and power as compared with traditional electronic information and communication systems [2, 3]. For example, it is expected that this direction will find wide application in the RF equipment for accessing networks of incoming mobile communication systems with distribution in the millimeter-wave range [4, 17]. Figure 1 demonstrates a typical MWP arrangement, where for direct and inverse transferring of MW and optical signals, two interfacing units are allocated at their bounds: MW-to-optical (MW/O) and optical-to-MW (O/MW) converters. Between the interfaces, there are various photonics processing units for transmission, switching, distribution, filtration, time delaying, amplification, and frequency conversion of microwave signals in optical domain.
\nA typical arrangement of MWP circuit.
In the process of design, a developer of new MWP-based REA is facing a problem of choosing an appropriate software tool. As of today, the existing optical and optoelectronic CAD tools (OE-CAD) based on so-called Photonic Design Automation (PDA) platform are not developed like CAD tools intended for modeling of RF and MW circuits (MW-CAD) based on so-called Electronic Design Automation (EDA) platform that have been underway for about 5 decades. So today, to solve the problems of successful introducing MWP technique to the next-generation REAs, their individual units, and devices, there are various PDA-based CAD systems that allow creating complex models of varying difficulty. In general terms, all specialized CAD systems can be divided into a group for the structural design of optical linear and nonlinear media on various materials and a group for system modeling, in which individual devices are introduced as closed models with a set of specific characteristics.
\nFollowing it, currently, some commercial CAD systems have been developed for modeling optical and optoelectronic devices and systems based on PDA platform. The most popular representatives are VPI Photonics Design Suite from VPI Photonics, OptiSystem from Optiwave Design Software, and so on. However, our design experience in such OE-CAD systems clearly showed that they are most applicable for modeling complex apparatuses and systems, rather than individual device. In particular, the models of optical and optoelectronic components studied below are presented in the VPI-PDS tool in the form of ready-made library models with a very limited number of parameters necessary for their development. Therefore, based on this software, it is impossible to carry out detailed modeling of their functioning. For example, it is impossible to calculate a transfer characteristic in the large-signal mode taking into account introduced nonlinear distortions and also an influence of spurious elements of the input/output circuit and chip construction in the MW band.
\nTo overcome this serious drawback, we almost 10 years ago proposed a different approach using a device-oriented MW-CAD tool [5], which was subsequently expanded in Ref. [13]. Its essence is that the optimal solution to the problem of modeling MWP components and MWP-based devices according to the criteria of accuracy and time-of-decision should be based on a rational combination of structural [in the form of an physical equivalent circuit (FEC)] and structureless models (when the response of the device is described in frequency, temporal, and spatial areas based on external input and output characteristics) of circuit elements. The effectiveness of this approach, called end-to-end multiscale design, has been confirmed experimentally, for example, when modeling optoelectronic devices with a MW passband [21]. Below, we briefly characterize both classes of CAD tools using the example of AWRDE and VPI-PDS.
\nThe AWRDE is a comprehensive EDA platform for developing RF/microwave products that provide radio engineers with integrated high frequency, system, and electromagnetic (EM) simulation technologies and design automation to develop physically realizable electronics ready for manufacturing. The tool helps designers manage complex integrated circuit (IC), package, and printed-circuit board modeling, simulation, and verification, addressing all aspects of circuit behavior to achieve optimal performance and reliable results for first-pass success. The unique AWRDE tool features are the following:
Unified design capture provides front-to-back physical design flow with dynamically linked electrical and layout design entry. Components placed in an electrical schematic automatically generate a synchronized physical layout based on libraries of standard, customized, and/or vendor-provided components.
Design flow supports complex hierarchical projects with parameterized subcircuits for easy optimization and tuning. Circuit, system, or EM-based subcircuits can be quickly developed and used to populate larger, more complex networks common in today’s RF front-end circuitry.
Interoperability with industry-standard tools enables the exchange of design data for schematic or netlist import, bidirectional EM cosimulation, electrical or design rule check, and production-ready export. Additionally, powerful yield analysis and optimization address manufacturing tolerances for more robust designs and greater profitability.
Customization due to the powerful application-programming interface extends the capabilities of the software using popular programming languages, providing user-defined scripts for automating common or complex tasks and custom design flows.
VPI-PDS sets the industry standard for end-to-end PDA comprising design, analysis, and optimization of components, systems, and networks that provide professional simulation software supporting requirements of active/passive integrated photonics and fiber optics applications, optical transmission system and network applications, and cost-optimized equipment configuration. The unique VPI-PDS tool features are the following:
Link engineering solutions provide simple means for the cost-effective optical network configuration and offer a unified approach to control equipment libraries and engineering methodologies.
Transmission design solutions provide professional means for investigating and optimizing system technologies and evaluating novel component and subsystem designs in a system context.
Component design solutions provide professional means for the development and optimization of photonic ICs, optoelectronic components, and fiber-based amplifiers and lasers.
Device simulation solution provides a versatile simulation framework for the analysis and optimization of integrated photonic waveguides and optical fibers.
In process of development of such MWP REAs combined microwave and photonic circuits, there was a problem to use an optimum computer product for their modeling and design. The essence is that for the accurate solution of an issue for modeling of such complicated systems containing radio engineering and optical elements and devices, the specialties of their functioning in both ranges must be taken into consideration. In this regard, more than 20 years ago, the conclusion was drawn that the optimal way for increasing the accuracy of MWP circuits taking into account the influence of their parasitic elements in MW band requires use of the high-power MW-CAD tool working at the symbolical level [19]. Table 1 lists the detailed comparison of typical modern OE-CAD tool VPI Photonics Design Suite of VPI Photonics and well-known MW-CAD tool AWRDE of Cadence.
\n# | \nFeature | \nRealization | \n|
---|---|---|---|
By MW-CAD (AWRDE) | \nBy OE-CAD (VPI-PDS) | \n||
1 | \nAnalysis approach | \nBuilding blocks, 3D electromagnetic analysis | \nBuilding blocks | \n
2 | \nSimulation methods | \n\n | \n |
Linear circuits | \nS- and Y-matrices, equivalent circuits | \nS-matrices | \n|
Nonlinear circuits | \nHarmonic balance engine ALPAC, 3D planar electromagnetic simulator AXIEM modeling | \nS-matrices, combination of time-and-frequency domain modeling | \n|
3 | \nElement representation | \n\n | \n |
Active microwave elements | \nMultirate harmonic balance, HSPICE, Volterra, based on measured characteristic models | \nIdeal or based on measured characteristic models | \n|
Active MWP elements | \nAbsent | \nRate equation-based, transmission line models | \n|
Passive elements | \nLumped and distribution, microwave band specialties | \nLumped, ideal | \n|
4 | \nPossibility for calculating the key parameters of MWP circuits and links | \nBy one-click operation | \nBy user-created complicated schemes | \n
5 | \nIC layout design and analysis | \nYes | \nNo | \n
6 | \nBuilt-in design kits from the main foundries | \nYes | \nNo | \n
7 | \nParameter optimization | \nYes | \nNo | \n
8 | \nSensitivity analysis | \nYes | \nNo | \n
9 | \nDesign of tolerance | \nYes | \nNo | \n
10 | \nStatistical design | \nYes | \nNo | \n
11 | \nYield optimization routine | \nYes | \nNo | \n
12 | \nBuilt-in library of producer-specific models | \nYes | \nNo | \n
Comparison of modern ME-CAD and OE-CAD tools.
In result, the following outputs to optimally design the MWP-based REAs can be drawn out:
The available OE-CAD platform is most applicable for analyzing complex devices and systems, rather than their individual components, which are presented in the form of parameterized or formal library models with a very limited number of parameters necessary for accurate development of MWP-based REAs. In particular, MW REA’s passive elements such as waveguides, couplers, resonators, resistors, capacitor, and inductor represent only by ideal lumped models. In addition, calculating the key parameters of MWP circuits and links, such as large-signal transmission gain, noise figure, phase noise, intermodulation distortion, and intercept points is possible only by user-created complicated testbeds. While on MW-CAD platform, they are calculated using a ‘one-click’ operation.
From the developer\'s point of view, the OE-CAD platform lacks (or is just starting to appear) a large number of functions that are very useful for investigating the device under design (see items 5–12 of Table 1).
The main disadvantage of the MW-CAD platform is the lack of models of active optoelectronic components such as semiconductor lasers, photodiodes, and electro-optic modulators.
Our multiyear experience in CAD of MWP devices using AWRDE tool has shown that the most convenient way to introduce optoelectronic devices is to present them as a behavioral model in the form of a nonlinear physical equivalent circuit. In this circuit, the linear section is built on the basis of passive lumped or distributed components, and the nonlinear one uses sources (current, voltage, noise, etc.), the characteristics of which are based on experimental data.
Having clarified the principal pros and cons of the two classes of software tools from the point of view of designing MWP-based REAs, in this section, we exemplify specifically the results of their comparative calculation for various devices and systems.
\nTo conduct accurately comparative modeling of MWP REAs, it is necessary to perform a reciprocal calibration for the models of optoelectronic and optical components. In this regard, the behavioral models in the AWRDE are initially more accurate, since they are based on experimental data. That is, the calibration consists in fitting the parameters of the VPI-PDS models so as to obtain close basic characteristics in small- and large-signal modes. Below, we present and discuss the results of model calibration for key optoelectronic and optical components, based on which a set of subsequent simulations for basic REAs will be carried out in the next subsection.
\nVariants of AWRDE-based semiconductor laser source (SLS) model in the form of FECs are proposed and described in detail in Refs. [5, 6, 13, 18]. On the other hand, there are more than 10 library models of SLS in VPI-PDS tool mainly based on linear or nonlinear rate equations differing in the way they are presented and in the set of input data. Figure 2 exemplifies the result of small-signal frequency response (mod. S21) simulations using AWRDE’s single-carrier model [18] and VPI-PDS’s “LaserRateEqSM.vtms” model. As follows from the figure, both graphs for this reciprocally calibrated optoelectronic element have a similar appearance with typical conversion losses of about 30 dB, about 3-dB rise associated with the so-called electron-photon resonance, and −3-dB direct modulation bandwidth of slightly larger than 11 GHz.
\nSmall-signal frequency response of the semiconductor laser source model by (a) AWRDE and (b) VPI-PDS.
The AWRDE-based electro-optical intensity modulator (EOM) model of so-called electroabsorption type in the form of FECs is proposed and described in detail in Ref. [13]. On the other hand, there are two library models of electroabsorption modulator (EAM) in VPI-PDS tool differing in the way they are presented and in the set of input data. Figure 3 exemplifies the result of large-signal optical spectra simulations using AWRDE model [13] and VPI-PDS’s “ModulatorEA_Polynomial.vtms” model. As follows from the figure, both graphs for this reciprocally calibrated optoelectronic element have a similar appearance with approximately the same power levels of the fundamental signal and the first two harmonic distortions caused by the nonlinearity of the modulator’s transfer characteristic.
\nLarge-signal optical spectrum of the electro-optical modulator model by (a) AWRDE and (b) VPI-PDS.
Variants of AWRDE-based pin-photodiode (PD) model in the form of FECs are proposed and described in detail in Refs. [7, 8, 13, 18]. On the other hand, there are only one unified model of PD in VPI-PDS tool that is ideal and handles both single-mode and multimode optical signals. Figure 4 exemplifies the result of small-signal frequency response simulations using AWRDE model [13] and VPI-PDS’s “Photodiode.vtms” model. As follows from the figure, both graphs for this reciprocally calibrated optoelectronic element have a similar appearance. However, using the same reference data, a −3-dB bandwidth was obtained a little more than 20 GHz for the AWRDE model and 27 GHz for the VPI-PDS model.
\nSmall-signal relative frequency response of the PIN-photodiode model by (a) AWRDE and (b) VPI-PDS.
The most probable reason for this meaningful discrepancy is explained by the ideality of the VPI-PDS model, which does not take into account the influence in MW band of either the photodiode chip itself or the parasitic elements of its output circuit. Specifically, in order to obtain a reasonable decrease in the frequency response at higher frequencies, a library model of a low-pass filter had to be introduced at the PD model output. Effect referred to parasitic circuit elements may be clearly explained by Figure 5. It follows from the AWRDE graphs that a designer can realized twofold expansion of the PD’s 3-dB passband (20–40 GHz) owing to the appropriate fitting of the connecting wire inductance
Effect of the connecting wire between photodiode chip and output pad.
In general, with the wave approach, where light is regarded as an EM wave, any optical passive element, including the optical fiber (OF), can be simulated in the same way in MW-CAD or in OE-CAD tool. Namely, in AWRDE, a segment of optical fiber of a certain length can be equivalently represented using, for example, the library model of physical transmission line with loss (TLINP). However, when constructing a realistic model of an OF, a whole set of additional effects should be taken into account, such as dispersion, reflection, scattering, nonlinearity, and ambient temperature, the influence of which can degrade the transmission characteristic. The AWRDE-based OF model in the form of FECs taking into account the above limiting factors is proposed and described in detail in Ref. [15]. On the other hand, there are as many as nine library models of multimode or single-mode OF in VPI-PDS tool differing in the way they are presented, which deteriorating factors and what set of input data are taken into account. Figure 6 exemplifies the result of small-signal phase response (arg. S21) simulations using AWRDE’s simplified model [18] and VPI-PDS’s “UniversalFiberFwd.vtmg” model. As follows from the figure, both graphs for this reciprocally calibrated optical element have a similar appearance and the same slope.
\nRelative phase-frequency response of the single-mode optical fiber model by (a) AWRDE and (b) VPI-PDS.
The purpose of this subsection is to generalize the results of the reciprocal calibration for optical and optoelectronic component models in such a way as to provide unified reference data on their parameters for further studies. Table 2 lists the common reference data for four above-considered models of SLS, EOM, PD, and OF as well as of electronic amplifier typically used after pin-PD.
\nParameter | \nValue | \n|
---|---|---|
Semiconductor laser source | \nOperating current | \n40 mA | \n
Average power | \n8 mW | \n|
Optical carrier | \nC-band (191 to 196.1 THz) | \n|
Linewidth | \n1.5 MHz | \n|
Relative intensity noise | \n−150 dB/Hz | \n|
Threshold current | \n8.5 mA | \n|
Slope efficiency | \n0.14 W/A | \n|
Direct modulation 3-dB bandwidth | \nUp to 11 GHz | \n|
Electro-optical modulator (EAM) | \nOperating voltage | \n−0.6 V | \n
Extinction ratio | \n14 dB | \n|
Slope efficiency | \n0.14 W/V | \n|
Linewidth enhancement factor (α) | \n1.0 | \n|
3-dB modulation bandwidth | \n30 GHz | \n|
PIN-photodiode | \nResponsivity | \n0.7 A/W | \n
Dark current | \n100 nA | \n|
Optical input power | \n<3 mW | \n|
3-dB passband | \nUp to 30 GHz | \n|
Post-amplifier (if needed) | \nGain | \n40 dB | \n
Noise spectral density | \n20 × 10−12 A/Hz1/2\n | \n|
Optical fiber | \nType | \nSMF-28e+ | \n
Length | \nUp to 20 km | \n|
Attenuation | \n0.2 dB/km | \n|
Dispersion | \n17 e−6 s/m2\n | \n|
Dispersion slope | \n80 s/m3\n | \n
Reference data of elements for the further study.
In this subsection, the subjects of the study are the specific microwave photonics (MWP) devices and apparatuses such as a delay circuit, oscillator, frequency converter, and fiber-wireless fronthaul of 5G mobile communication system. The tools for the comparative computer simulation are well-known commercial software AWRDE and VPI-PDS. The research takes into account some key distortion sources of the MW signal under processing such as introduced noise and nonlinear distortion of active optoelectronic elements as well as chromatic dispersion of the optical fiber. The parameters for the elements to be used are based on the data of Table 2.
\nFiber-optic delay circuit is one of the most feasible MWP units [22]. Figure 7 shows the block diagram of the single-channel optical delay circuit (ODC) under test including semiconductor laser that directly modulated by input MW signal, optical fiber, the length of which corresponds to the required delay time, and a photodetector, at the output of which a delayed MW signal is formed. Following it, below we will describe two models and some comparative simulation results using AWRDE and VPI-PDS tools.\n
\nBlock diagram of the optical delay circuit under test.
\nFigure 8 demonstrates the model for the simulation experiment evaluating some key quality parameters for ODC under test when transmitting continuous wave MW signals. As one can see, it contains the same ODC layout as in Figure 7consisting of the calibrated in the previous subsection library model for single-mode laser, so-called galactic model for optical fiber also including delay element, and library models for pin-photodiode and electrical post-amplifier.
\nVPI-PDS’s model of fiber-optic delay circuit of MW signals.
The layout of single-channel ODC [15] is very simple and contains (Figure 9) the subcircuit models of SLS, single-mode optical fiber of a corresponding length (delay ≈4.8 ns/m), and PD.
\nAWRDE model of fiber-optic delay circuit of MW signals.
\nFigure 10 exemplifies the simulation results for ODC’s group time delay (GTD), where the MW signal frequency is swapped in the range of 1–7 GHz, and the OF length is 3 m. As follows from the figure, due to the broadband of the constituent elements, the delay does not change in such a wide frequency range of modulating frequencies (almost 3 octaves). Its value coincides with high accuracy for both models and is close to the above delay in a standard single-mode fiber. In addition, Figure 11 demonstrates the large-signal amplitude characteristic of the ODC under test. As one can see from the figure, 1 dB input compression point is near −10 dBm for the both models.
\nExamples of the simulation results for FODC of MW signals: relative phase-frequency response by (a) AWRDE and (b) VPI-PDS.
Simulated large-signal power characteristic for the FODC of MW signals under test by (a) AWRDE and (b) VPI-PDS.
The following outputs can be drawn from our study:
The investigated optoelectronic delay circuit is a very simple device that, in contrast to the electronic analog, provides an extremely wide operating bandwidth and, thanks to the very short delay time in electro-optical and optical-electric converters and low losses in an optical fiber, an extremely wide delay range from units of nanoseconds to hundreds of microseconds.
Both computer tools under study provide approximately the same accuracy of calculations, which coincide with the actual value of the delay in the fiber [22]; however, the AWRDE model is simpler and more flexible.
\nFigure 12 presents the block diagram of the MW signal’s optoelectronic oscillator (MW-OEO) that is another worldwide example of MWP application [23]. Generally, it contains two requisite sections: optical one and electrical one. Here, the optical section includes SLS, EOM, OF, and PD. The electrical section includes low-noise MW amplifier (LNA), band-pass filter (BPF), power MW amplifier (PA), and electrical coupler (EC).
\nBlock diagram of the MW-OEO under test.
Following a similar approach as in our previous computation modeling, Figure 13 shows a VPI-PDS model of MW-OEO [10]. An important specificity of this model is in taking a phase noise of SLS into consideration.
\nVPI-PDS’s model of optoelectronic oscillator of MW signals.
Note that due to the absence in this software the library model of optical fiber (OF) that takes into account the delay in it, the OF model in the diagram has been replaced by library models of the optical attenuator and the delay element with identical parameters.
\n\nFigure 14 represents circuit-level nonlinear model of the MW-OEO under study realized by AWRDE software. The diagram includes a chain of subcircuits (SUBCKTs) representing (from left to right): small-signal (including noise) and large-signal features of SLS (see Section 4.1.1), delay and losses of OF, nonlinear optical-to-electrical conversion feature of PD (see Section 4.1.3), gain and bandwidth of LNA, bandwidth and losses of BPF, frequency and amplitude features of PA, and couple of EC models realized by AWRDE tool. Besides, there are two service program elements mitigating self-sustained oscillation in the return path of the model: ideal DGDELAY that models an ideal, linear, frequency-dependent, digital time delay element and OSCAPROBE that initiates a large-signal oscillator simulation.
\nAWRDE’s model of optoelectronic oscillator of MW signals.
As an example, Figure 15 presents phase noise characteristics for MW-OEO of 9 GHz simulated by the OE-CAD tool (black line) and by the MW-CAD tool (red curve). As one can see, there is a significant discrepancy in the simulation results at the offsets more than 100 kHz.
\nPhase noise characteristics (RIN = −150 dBc/Hz).
The following outputs can be drawn from our study:
With small offsets from the MW carrier, the phase noise levels calculated using both software approximately coincide with each other and with experimental data [9].
With large offsets, the discrepancy between the AWRDE-calculated and experimental data does not exceed 2 dB [9], which indicates the more validity of its model.
To measure the phase noise of an oscillator, there is a built-in model of the noise analyzer (OSCNOISE) in the AWRDE tool, while to perform this operation in the VPI-PDS tool, it is necessary to create a complex testbed.
About 10 years ago, we proposed a simple circuit for an optoelectronic frequency converter (OEFC) of MW signals, in which the nonlinearity of a SLS’s light-current characteristic is leveraged [11]. The efficiency of this device was confirmed by modeling in VPI-PDS and experimental research at input frequencies of 1 and 1.5 GHz. Later, the operation of this device was modeled in AWRDE tool at other frequencies of the MW input signals [10]. The block diagram of the OEFC containing an electronic power combiner mixing the RF and LO MW-signals, a SLS, a pin-PD, and an electronic bandpass filter to isolate the mixing product is shown in Figure 16.
\nBlock diagram of the MW-OEFC under test.
Following a similar approach as in our previous computation modeling, Figure 17 depicts a VPI-PDS model of MW-OEFC [11]. Its appearance repeats the diagram of Figure 16 with the introduction of an electronic attenuator (El), which serves to adjust the level of MW signals at the input of the SLS.
\nVPI-PDS’s model of optoelectronic frequency converter of MW signals.
Following the above block diagram, Figure 18 demonstrates the OEFC model under investigation in AWRDE environment. This figure includes a chain of subcircuits representing (from left to right) SLS (first three sections) and pin-PD (right sections) nonlinear models realized by AWRDE tool (see Sections 4.1.1 and 4.1.3). The laser model is presented by the FEC of the linear sections of the SLS model (S2) together with the test fixture model (S1) and nonlinear section (A1) representing AWRDE’s library element LOOKUP that implements a lookup table including its measured light-current characteristic. The right section of the chain is nonlinear PD FEC model. Simulation details are reported in Ref. [10].
\nCircuit-level AWRDE’s optoelectronic MW-frequency converter model.
\nFigure 19 shows the results of simulation experiment referred to defining output spectra of the OEFC under investment by AWDE MW-CAD tool (a) and VPI-PDS OE-CAD tool (b). In both procedures, the input RF signal had a power of −20 dBm at a frequency of 1 GHz, and LO signal had a power of 6 dBm at a frequency of 1.5 GHz.
\nLarge-signal optoelectronic MW frequency converter output spectra by (a) AWRDE and (b) VPI-PDS.
The following outputs can be drawn from our study:
As one can see from Figure 19(a), applying powerful harmonic balance method of AWRDE software resulted in output (IF) signal power near −55 dBm at a frequency of 2.5 GHz, that is, conversion gain is −35 dB. The rest of the peaks in the figure represent clearly the full output spectrum of standard microwave mixer in agreement with well-known formula |
The results of simulation using the proposed AWRDE models should be closely matched to the experimental ones because their parameters are constructed on the measured characteristics of laser and photodiode.
In the framework of 5G’s Radio-over-Fiber (RoF) concept, fiber-wireless fronthaul network (FWFN) is one of the promising ways to deliver intensive digital traffic with seamless convergence between wired optical backhaul and fiber-wireless fronthaul, which is important to keep the remote cells flexible, cost effective, and power efficient [4, 17]. The block diagram of the FWFN containing Central station (CS) and a set of Remote stations (RS) interactively connected to CS via fiber-optics links (FOL) is shown in Figure 20. A typical position of RS is in the center of the service area; that is, for omnidirectional covering, four phased array antennas with an azimuth of 90° would be an optimal decision [14, 16].
\nBlock diagram of the fiber-wireless fronthaul network under test.
\nFigure 21 depicts the VPI-PDS’s model of downlink channel for FWFN under study that has the same block diagram as in Figure 20.
\nVPI-PDS model of downlink channel for a fiber-wireless fronthaul network.
As one can see from the figure, there are three parts such as CS, FOL, and RS. The first one includes the set of library models imitating quadrature amplitude modulated (QAM) MW transmitter as well as the models of SLS and EOM calibrated in Section 4.1. The second one consists of the library model of polarization controller and the model of OF calibrated in Section 4.1. Finally, the third one includes the model of pin-PD calibrated in Section 4.1 as well as the set of library models imitating QAM MW receiver. A detailed description of the QAM transmitter and receiver models is given in Ref. [15].
\n\nFigure 22 depicts AWRDE’s model of downlink channel for FWFN under study. The model has the same arrangement as in Figure 21 excluding the transmitting part that contains the library model of quasi-optical tone generator imitating laser carrier, the library model of multiplexer that performs the operation of upconverting signal to the optical range, and a passive subcircuit representing frequency response of the EOM under test in S2P format. Note that earlier we proposed and described in detail [13] a nonstructural nonlinear model for the EOM of the EAM type suitable for developers of local telecommunication systems based on RoF technology. However, here, its simplified model with the parameters calibrated in Section 4.1 is used.
\nAWRDE model of fiber-wireless fronthaul network. 1, QAM generator; 2, MW tone generator; 3, multiplexer; 4, quasi-optical signal generator; 5, behavioral mixer; 6, optical frequencies splitter; 7, MW noise generator; 8, model of single-mode fiber as subcircuit; 9, model of photodiode as subcircuit; 10, post-amplifier; 11, signal delay compensator; 12, vector signal analyzer.
In this section, the subject of the study is a MWP-based FWFN; the devices of study are SLS, EOM, single-mode OF, and PD, which parameters have been calibrated in Section 4.1. The tools for the computer simulation are two well-known commercial program environments such as OE-CAD VPI-PDS and MW-CAD AWRDE. The study took into account the key distortion sources of the transmitted signal: noises of the laser, chirp of the modulator, and losses and chromatic dispersion of the fiber. To eliminate the influence of nonlinear effects during modulation and signal transmission through the fiber, MW and optical signal levels were selected, so that the modulation index did not exceed 30%, and the optical power in the fiber was below 5 mW.
\n\nTable 3 lists the common reference data for the simulation experiment.
\nParameter | \nValue | \n
---|---|
Length of pseudo-random bit sequence | \n215–1 | \n
Bitrate | \n2.5 Gbit/s | \n
RF carrier frequency | \n25 GHz | \n
Input RF power | \n−11 to −26 dBm | \n
Type of RF modulation | \n16-QAM | \n
Type of optical modulation | \nIntensity | \n
Common reference data for the FWFN under study.
In preparation for the simulation experiments, the modulation index of each device under study was optimized in such a way as to ensure the maximum output MW carrier-to-noise ratio while maintaining the low-signal mode at the modulating frequency. Figure 23 depicts an example of comparative simulation of Error Vector Magnitude (EVM) versus fiber length characteristics for the FWFN under study during transmission of 2.5 Gbit/s and 16-QAM MW signal at the frequency of 25 GHz using signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of 50 and 25 dB. For the best vision, there is the inset in the figure showing constellation diagrams at the fiber length of 10 km. In addition, the dotted line indicates the standard limit of the EVM during transmission of the 16-QAM signal, which is 12.5%.
\nEVM versus fiber length characteristics.
The following outputs can be drawn from our study:
the EVM versus fiber length characteristics simulated by both the software closely coincide with each other at the signal-to-noise ratio of 50 and 25 dB within the FOL distance of up to 10 km and
for longer FOL lengths, all characteristics show a peak that exceeds the standard limit, caused by the effect of chromatic dispersion [22].
The chapter is devoted to recovering the optimal principle to computer-aided design a new class of microwave band radio electronic apparatuses using microwave-photonics approach to effectively generate, transmit/receive, and process super wideband radio signals in near infrared optical range meeting minimum insertion loss of a quartz light guide. Preselecting a feasible software instrument to design MWP-based radio engineering apparatuses showed that up to date, exploiting for some decades microwave band software tools based on electronic design automation platform are preferable than relatively rudimentary software tools based on photonic design automation platform due to much more possibilities to produce the state-of-art radio engineering devices, apparatuses, and systems. In addition, the problem referred to the reasonableness and accuracy of calculations comes to the fore because in the second tool all active and passive electronic and photonic circuit elements are presented as ideal models with lumped parameters that do not take into account frequency distortion due to spurious elements and transmission lines with distributed parameters. To clear the fact and estimate the impact, a comparative modeling for four basic radio electronic apparatus designed on the microwave-photonics approach, such as optical delay circuit, optoelectronic oscillator, optoelectronic frequency converter, and 5G\'s fiber-wireless fronthaul link, was carried out using two widespread off-the-shelf software: VPI Photonics Design Suite (VPI-PDS) and Applied Wave Research Design Environment (AWRDE). The following outputs can be derived, which a developer should take into consideration. The advantage of the simulation in VPI-PDS software is its greater convenience and speed with acceptable calculation accuracy since the built-in library models of optoelectronic and optical components are mainly used. On the other hand, the gain of the simulation in AWRDE software is a more sophisticated and, at the same time, a more accurate characterization because their parameters are constructed on the measured characteristics of active optoelectronic components, so the results should be closely matched to the experimental ones. Our future work will focus on the upgrading already proposed models and designing new AWRDE models of devices and units for microwave photonics applications.
\nThis work was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, Grant Nos. 17-57-10002 and 18-29-20083.
\nThe authors declare the lack of the ‘conflict of interest’.
Food safety has become an important key issue worldwide, because of the emergence of several new chemical hazards present in food [1]. In addition to that, maintaining food safety has become very challenging at the operational level, as production of food and their consumptions are currently involved in a series of events that must be adequately accomplished to ensure the safety of food [2]. Therefore, food safety has become an increasingly important public health issue all over the world and due to which governments are escalating their efforts to improve and ensure food safety. These efforts can also be recognized in response to a growing number of food safety problems and increasing consumer health safety concerns [3]. A very well-know proverb from nutritionists or dietitians is “we are what we eat”. Definitely, it does not mean that if we eat apple we become apple, but for good or for ill, the components we eat must be incorporated, transformed, and/or excreted by our bodies. Because, food is an indispensable ingredient of life, and access to food is often the limiting factor in the size of a given populace [4]. There are several incidents of food safety outbreak, which has received major attention from all parts of the world such as occurrence of benzene in carbonated drinks (UK), foods contaminated with pesticides (Japan), presence of dioxins in milk products and pork sample (Belgium), incidence of pesticides in soft drinks (India) and occurrence of melamine in dairy products (China). Such incidents have made people distressful of their food consumption worldwide [5]. In addition to that, such contemporaneous incidents are growing concerns, mainly because of mass production of agronomic products and industrialization at a very fast pace to meet the requirement of current population. Moreover, it has been considered that mainly increasing worldwide population is making farming people to force mass production of agronomic products without giving ample consideration to the safety and quality of food produce. In addition to that, changes in life style patterns of consumers have been called responsible for food safety hazards [6]. Due to fast-paced urbanization, food products such as ready-to-eat, processed food and junk foods has increased, but due to rise in application of chemicals usage, such processed food has also come under the scanner of food safety professionals [1, 7].
Moreover, the scope, relevance, and level of food safety and testing have never been in such complexity than in today’s global marketplace. In recent years, a novel technology UPLC-MS has been developed to estimate the food contaminants as well as food components with better accuracy, sensitivity, precision, and high throughput. In addition to that, this advanced novel technique provided the platform to estimate different analytes at very lower levels, with better accuracy, and more importantly in less time. Moreover, the uniqueness of UPLC-MS has marked several applications to food safety. Various food safety parameters such as residual analysis, vitamins, amino acid, metabolite identification, adulteration, forensic testing, toxicity studies, phytoconstituents analysis, pesticide in agriculture, antibiotic residue, hormones, dyes and pigment analysis can be performed by using UPLC-MS [8, 9]. In addition to that, wide range of analysis makes UPLC-MS as an integral part of food safety laboratory around the globe. Moreover, in this chapter a detailed study and exploration has been made for better understanding of principles and applicability of UPLC-MS in food safety.
Today, our food supply is more diverse and highly processed than ever before. However, to ensure the nutritive value and to improve the food safety several states have disseminated regulations that states the acceptable limit for each components likewise, food additives, food residues and contaminants in food or food products. Consequently, a better and safe food can only be ensured when we have good approach to analyze such food components, contaminants, or chemical contaminants. In past few decades, chromatography has been recognized as one of important tool to identify and quantify food contaminants to ensure food safety. This novel technique allows the separation, purification, and identification from a mixture of the components for both qualitative and quantitative analysis. In current years, a unique technology UPLC-MS has been developed to estimate the food contaminants as well as food components for improving food safety. Therefore to obtain such targets, in 2004 Waters launched a brand of liquid chromatography (LC) called UPLC having a significant advancement in column particle size and column dimension having a small and porous particle (sub 2 μm) [10, 11].
UPLC is a novel technique that offers a new pathway for LC. UPLC enhances the capability of LC in four main areas like increasing speed, sensitivity, resolution and accuracy. UPLC is also known as ultra high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC). In comparison to high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), UPLC has been upgraded with column packing materials of less than 2 μm in diameter, which increases the speed, accuracy, resolution and sensitivity. Moreover, particle size used in HPLC, UPLC column ranges from 3 to 5 μm and < 2 respectively as well as mobile phase flow rate in HPLC is usually 3.0 ml/min compared to UPLC flow rate 0.6 ml/min. The basic difference in the principle of UPLC and HPLC is the column packing material, which makes a huge difference over the sensitivity and accuracy of the novel techniques. Apart from the principle involved in the LC, there is not much change in basic principle except the pressure generated or created in the instruments make it a more efficient technology. The development of UPLC techniques has urged the scientists to improve the prevailing instrumentation capability for LC, which has the advantage of improved parting performance and constant pressure. Efficiency of this technique is equivalent to the dimension of the column and inversely proportional to the radius of the atoms. As the name suggest ultra performance or ultra-pressure, UPLC works under very high pressure up to 1000 bars, however for HPLC, pump pressure not go more than 300–400 bars. A schematic diagram of UPLC and its internal diagram are presented here in Figure 1. In recent years, UPLC has become an integral part of any food safety laboratories, as it reduces the time of run as well as cost of analysis for any analysis [9, 12, 13].
Flow diagram of ultra performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry.
UPLC works on the van Deemter principle, which describes the correlation between the flow rate and height of chromatogram. The van Deemter states that, “the flow rate of smaller particles are much faster in compare with large particles as well as unfolding the correlation of flow rate and plate height”. According to van Deemter equation, when the porous particle size reduced to less than 2.5 μm, there will be increase in efficiency; however, the efficiency does not weaken at increased flow rates or linear velocities.
The following equation describes the relationship between linear velocity (flow rate) and plate height [13, 14].
where,
A, B and C = Constants.
A
B
C
According to van Deemter equation, resistance of kinetics is the time lag involved in traveling from the gas phase to the packing stationary phase and back again. Moreover, higher the gas flow, greater will be a molecule to lag behind in the mobile phase on packed stationary phase. Therefore, the term is proportional to
Spectrometry method for the molecular analysis of any compound requires mass spectrometry (MS). The principle of MS was first proposed by Dr. Wien, which suggests that, refraction of charged particle in electric or magnetic field can analyzed by using MS. Mass spectrometer is an important tool to for the molecular mass analysis [18]. MS methods identifies the ionized molecules in gaseous phase in different ways
Qualitative analysis of unknown compounds or mixture
Quantitative estimation of any mixture or solution
Structure characterization
Molecular weight determination
MS works on the principle of fragmentation of molecule and separation or filtration of ions on the basis of their mass-to-charge (m/z) ratio. The molecular mass resulting from mass spectrum and produced ions are a function of mass by charge ratio [19]. Consequently, fragmentation of molecular mass in MS make it principally a very important technique over any other traditional chromatographic techniques. Notwithstanding that, on account of the capacity of MS to create m/z proportion, it considered as an exceptionally novel, straightforward, sensitive, accurate, and particular for the quantitative investigation of any mixture or blend [20, 21].
There are mainly five techniques for analyzing mass of any compound by using MS like, quadrupole mass filter (single and triple), time of flight, quadrupole ion trap and Fourier transform ion-cyclotron resonance instruments. Furthermore, MS gave a thought of molecular mass, however on the other hand it does not give authentication of molecular structure. In this way, to conquer the restriction of past mass spectrometry, improvement of couple mass spectroscopy (MS/MS) rises. This MS/MS system work into two stages, first to choose parent ions generated from parent ion cells and to disintegrate into daughter ions after the collision of parent ion into at least one daughter ions. In mass spectrometry parent ions and daughter ions gets isolated, divided, and distinguished into single ion cell. In addition to that, fast collisions of compounds performed in argon cell, where translational energy gets transformed into ion internal energy to make ions in excited state and unimolecular decay progresses [22]. The breaking of compound in ion cell of MS/MS spectrum is selected based upon parent and daughter ions. Collision of compound can be performed in in single ionization cell or triple quadrupole system (TQS). TQS is the most frequently used now a day MS/MS techniques as compared to other mass analyzer [23].
Small-size particles not only enhance proficiency, nonetheless it also increases the flexibility to enhance linear velocity without losing efficiency of the column. Moreover, efficiency is the essential separation factor in UPLC, as it depends on the selectivity and retention activity as in HPLC. Below equation shows that: (Rs) resolution is directly proportional to the square root of N.
However,
This demonstrates that the narrower the peaks are, the easier would be to separate from each other. Moreover, peak width height is inversely proportional to the peak height:
Therefore, decrease in particle size increases
Van Deemter equation revealed that, as particle size decreases, the optimum flow
Moreover, the column can be shortened by the same factor as the particle size without loss of resolution. Although non-porous, high-efficiency 1.5-μ particles are easily available in market, but these non-porous particles suffer poor loading capacity as well as poor retention because of low surface area. However, silica-based column have good mechanical strength nonetheless, it can undergo to a number of disadvantages, such as limited pH range and tailing of basic analytes. In addition to that, polymeric columns can overcome pH limitations. Moreover, packed column bed and their uniformity are also important, mainly if shorter columns have to uphold resolution while achieving the objective of faster separations [9, 13, 15].
In recent years, the demand of UPLC-MS/MS in food analysis has increased, because of the novel characteristics of UPLC with good resolution, better accuracy and sensitivity and reproducibility. Since its inception, it has reduces the time of food scientists as well as cost of the analysis because of its capability of producing more valuable, reliable, and reproducible data. The UPLC sensitivity has reached to ppb and ppt levels by virtue of which a food analyst would be more confident in ensuring safe food for consumption. Analysis of several food components as well as food contaminants has been performed using UPLC-MS/MS technique. By using this technique, below-mentioned food matrices can be tested for ensuring better food safety and we can also get more accurate qualitative and quantitative data of samples with high standards [11].
Determination of antibiotic residue in food matrices
Multi-drug residue quantitation in food matrix [28]
Metabolomics study in food safety [9]
Analysis of food contaminants in food matrices
Determination of phytoconstituents
Analysis of natural medicine and herbal medicine [9]
Determination of acrylamide in food matrix [29]
Determination of bromate in drinking water [32]
Pesticide in fruit and vegetables [33]
Determination of food-borne carcinogens heterocyclic amines [34]
Capsaicinoids analysis in capsicum species [35]
Analysis of vitamin in food
Lactose content determination in milk
Phenolic content determination in fruits and vegetables
Analysis of food based coloring agent [36]
Several antibiotic residues such as streptomycin (Figure 2), chloramphenicol, tetracycline etc. has been identified and quantified in honey by using UPLC-MS coupled along with electron spray ionization [37, 38].
Chromatogram showing blank honey sample (A) vs. spiked honey sample (B).
Pesticides are chemicals widely used against plant pests in agriculture and farming to increase crop production, either against plant diseases or prophylactic usage. Currently, more than 350 pesticides are known, which are used to protect plants or plant products; however these pesticide are not allowed more than the permitted level. In addition to that, these chemicals could be dangerous to human health. The function of full scan UHPLC-Orbitrap-MS/UPLC-MS is adequate enough to enable detection and accurate analysis of mass measurement of a broad range pesticides residue at very lowest concentration in complex sample matrices [24, 25, 26].
Amino acid profiling is one of the important proximate analyses parameter in food safety, as it contributes major portion of protein and an essential component of human diet. However, among the several protein food resources mammalian milk is purest food available over the globe. However, free amino acids are calculated from total nitrogen present in milk. UPLC coupled to electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS) system has been estimated for free amino acid analysis in milks of human, rat, and cow as presented in Figure 3. Moreover, UPLC-ESI-MS/MS allowed the quantitation of 21 free amino acids in 10-minute run time using labeled amino acids as internal standard in mammalian milk [27].
Free amino acid ion chromatogram obtained in human milk (cumulative).
In recent years, the performance of UPLC has set the stage for a myriad of metabolomics analysis in plants and plant products. UPLC along with qTOF (quadrupole time of flight) system has been applied for semi-polar metabolite analysis in tomato fruit model. Moreover, UPLC coupled with qTOF mass spectrometer produces high-resolution and mass accuracy, good dynamic range, and a fast spectral acquisition capacity, which makes UPLC one of the most appropriate techniques for extensive profiling of many plant metabolites. In addition to that UPLC-MS along with multivariate data analysis has been used for metabolomics profiling of Trignella seed. Metabolomic study of all the three Trigonella species
Metabolomic analysis of
In recent year, poultry industries have become million dollar industries due to higher consumption among the world population. However, multi-drug residue is very common in poultry muscles as poultry husbandry people illegally feed several drugs such as quinolones, amantadine, sulfonamides, tetracycline, amoxicillin, lincomycin, and so on. UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS has been used to analyses such veterinary drug residues in poultry muscle ranging from very polar to nonpolar compounds. UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS operating in positive multiple reactions monitoring (MRM) has been operated to quantify most of the multi-drug residue in sample [28].
Method development plays a great role in concluding for any analytical method. In quantitative evaluation, development of method can roughly divided into three parts
Optimization of chromatography conditions
Mass spectrometry parameters
Preparation of sample
Depending upon physical or chemical characteristics of analyzing components method development could be easily performed considering the following factors like selection of column, mobile phase, pH, and particle size and flow rate in any chromatographic setting.
The benefits of using UPLC-MS method over others were better recovery, good repeatability, and amount of extraction solvent volume. The selection of ionization techniques is depending on analytical results with pretreated samples. UPLC-MS/MS tuning parameters and scan modes are decided by uninterrupted infusion of standard solution, depending on the sensitivity and specificity needed. Few key elements for method development are sample pre-treatment, chromatography, internal standard, choice between electrospray ionization (ESI) and APCI, and mass spectrometry [42]. On the other hand, method validation results support for new analytical procedures or new drug development such as Carnosol, Carnosic acid, and Rosmarinic acid in food matrices. Validation required defining performance of developed method and reliability of obtained results. The analytical developed method could be utilized for quantitation application then it would be better to be validated to ensure minimum requirement of validation experiments along with satisfactory results [43].
Acrylamide as a risk factor come to scientists attention recently, as its discovery in food was accidental. Formation of acrylamide in different types of cooked food or processed food at high temperatures reported recently. Several researchers have validated an analytical method for the analysis of acrylamide in food by UPLC-MS/MS as determined in Figure 5. Various reports suggests that processed food such as potato, coffee, bakery and other human dietary products contain acrylamide. One of the study carried out in Cyprus found that potato crisp had highest amount of acrylamide (642 ppb), followed by French fries and biscuits. Concurrently, regular consumption of such food products may lead to carcinogenicity [29].
UPLC-MS chromatogram for acrylamide standard solution at 500 ng ml−1.
Determination of phytoconstituents analysis involves usage of several analytical techniques for the isolation and characterization of phytoconstituents. Primitive techniques basically involved usage of UPLC-MS for the isolation and determination of phytoconstituents. Analysis and identification of chemical constituents of fenugreek by UPLC-MS and UPLC-Q-TOF-MS revealed that, 57 saponins and 19 flavonoid components. In addition to that, characterizations and quantitation of phytoconstituents has been reported in
In current years, various food such as legumes, cereals, potatoes, eggs, aquatic foods, dairy products, vegetables, fruits, and beverages reported to have several mycotoxins such as beauvericin, enniatin A, enniatin B, alternariol, tentoxin, and tenuazonic acid (Figure 6). These mycotoxins have been considered as a major food contaminates. In recent years, UPLC-MS has emerged as one of the most suitable method for the determination of these food contaminants. UPLC-MS has advantages over other instruments because of having better detection level, fast and accurate. UPLC-MS has emerged as a powerful tool for monitoring and measuring dietary exposure assessment of such mycotoxins [30].
Chromatogram (100 ng/mL) showing complete separation of a mixture of 10 mycotoxin standards at (100 ng/mL) using UPLC-MS method.
It’s been well-know that antioxidant has ability to fight against free radicals since free radicals are considered as a causative agent for several diseases. However, use of antioxidant has increased in food industry due to its antimicrobial property. Nowadays, natural as well as synthetic antioxidant such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene has been extensively used in food industry. However, the safety and toxicity of synthetic antioxidant is still a matter of concern for human health. On the other hand, several phenolic compounds have been well known for human nutrition. Moreover, these components are used for retarding microbial growth, increasing shelf life, reducing undesirable fragrances, enhancing nutritional value as well as delaying the formation of toxic oxidation. Phenolic profiling as well as antioxidant activities can be analyzed UPLC-ESI-MS/MS in Salvia species in some of the medicinal plants from South West Anatolia, Turkey. Moreover, it is assumed that, it was first reported for the analysis of individual phenolic profiles of
Most of the drinking water contains bromide, as the primary source of bromide is soils containing bromide or sea water containing excess amount of bromide. During the ozonation process bromide gets converted into carcinogenic bromate [47]. International Cancer research agency has found that, bromate has carcinogenic property in human beings. UPLC-MS techniques have been reported to quantify bromate at very low detection levels, that is, 0.01 ng/mL as found in Figure 7. UPLC-MS method is found to be rapid, selective, and sensitive for routine analysis of bromate at very low level in drinking water as well as sea water [32].
Chromatograms showing a UPLC-MS/MS peak of bromate in drinking water.
Capsaicinoids are the pungent metabolites of the fruit capsicum. Capsaicinoids are a group of more than 13 alkaloids having structure of vanillylamide with branched fatty acid in the 9–11 carbons. Moreover, the most predominant capsaicinoids are capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin. These two major capsaicinoids are responsible for the spiciness of capsicum (Figure 8). UPLC-MS is used to analyze capsaicinoids in various capsicum species. Analysis is carried out to measure the amount of all the capsaicinoids such as capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, nordihydrocapsaicin, homocapsaicin, and homodihydrocapsaicin in different species of capsicum. Based upon the UPLC-MS analysis limit of detection is calculated 0.05, 0.06, 0.15, 0.2, and 0.1 g/g for capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, nordihydrocapsaicin, homocapsaicin, and homodihydrocapsaicin, respectively [35].
UPLC-MS chromatogram showing different capsaicinoids extracted from red chili.
Foodborne carcinogens are a metabolic product of food after food processing (e.g., heating, curing, smoking) and during food preparation (e.g., baking, frying, grilling). Sometimes, fungi and plant-derived products also tend to produce foodborne carcinogens. Dietary carcinogens produced by chemical and physical food processing are N-nitroso compounds, heterocyclic aromatic amines, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and acrylamide. However, infected grains and peanuts have been reported to contain mold
Vitamins can be defined as biologically active organic compounds that have a relatively low molecular weight. Vitamins are present in minute quantity; however it is very important for human health and overall growth. Vitamin can be fulfilled only from regular diet or nutrition supplement, because these nutrients help in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fat, and proteins. In addition to that, it is also reported that, it reduces damage from free radicals. On the other hand deficiency in vitamin may lead to various diseases. UPLC-MS is very well known for the analysis of vitamins. Several UPLC-MS methods have been reported for the analysis of vitamin B complex (thiamin, riboflavin, biotin, nicotinic acid, pyridoxine, pyridoxamine, pyridoxal, pantothenic acid, FAD, and nicotinamide) analysis in human milk. UPLC-MS coupled with ESI techniques is used to analyze vitamin B from milk sample [49].
Ortega et al. [50] reported identification and quantification of alkaloids, theobromine, and caffeine in cocoa sample using UPLC-MS/MS. UPLC instrumentations are the most common techniques for routine analysis of such components in field of trace analysis. On the other hand, UPLC-MS has also been reported for alkaloid profiling of medicinal plants having cytotoxic properties. It is used for analysis of various alkaloids such as sanguinarine, berberine, protopine, and chelidonine [50].
Sugars are found in a variety of food matrices as either naturally or artificially added. Fructose, glucose, and sucrose are important constituents of various fruit juices. Maltose is found in products derived from corn and grain products. Lactose, also known as milk sugar, exists in dairy products. This set of sugars is known as the five food sugars. Analysis of these sugars is important for quality control purposes, or to determine authenticity or adulteration of food products (Figure 9). In addition to that, lactose is most important source of sugar for infant, kids as well as adult. UPLC-MS/MS can be easily used for determination of lactose in cow’s or human milk as well as other food products [51].
Chromatogram showing standard lactose (A) vs. milk sample (B).
Fruit and vegetables are important crops of horticulture, as they are an integral part of the human diet. Fruit and vegetables provide carbohydrate, protein, vitamins, minerals, fiber and help in the maintenance of a healthy life style. However, in current years demand of fruit and vegetables has increased tremendously, because of high consumption and population demand. Therefore to boost the production, farmers are using so many chemicals in terms insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, acaricides, and rodenticides for prophylactic use or in diseased condition. However, it has been reported that, these chemical has very harmful effect on human health [52]. Savini et al. [33] reported a quick and sensitive UPLC method coupled with Orbitrap for determining highly polar pesticides and contaminants in processed fruits and vegetables.
Synthetic oil-soluble mono-azo coloring agents such as Sudan dyes and Para Red are very common in food industries. Due to minimal expense and high intensity color it is very commonly used as food additives particularly in chili. However, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC 1975) categorized these dyes a potential cancer-causing agent. Moreover, illegal use of these dye such as Sudan Red 7B, Sudan I–IV and Para Red have been still found in food impacting consumer health. UPLC-MS has been reported as one of best choice of instrument analysis of such dyes due to their highest sensitivity.
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Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"57717",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71923",title:"In Vitro Cytotoxicity and Cell Viability Assays: Principles, Advantages, and Disadvantages",slug:"in-vitro-cytotoxicity-and-cell-viability-assays-principles-advantages-and-disadvantages",totalDownloads:14761,totalCrossrefCites:74,totalDimensionsCites:144,abstract:"Cytotoxicity is one of the most important indicators for biological evaluation in vitro studies. In vitro, chemicals such as drugs and pesticides have different cytotoxicity mechanisms such as destruction of cell membranes, prevention of protein synthesis, irreversible binding to receptors etc. In order to determine the cell death caused by these damages, there is a need for cheap, reliable and reproducible short-term cytotoxicity and cell viability assays. Cytotoxicity and cell viability assays are based on various cell functions. A broad spectrum of cytotoxicity assays is currently used in the fields of toxicology and pharmacology. There are different classifications for these assays: (i) dye exclusion assays; (ii) colorimetric assays; (iii) fluorometric assays; and (iv) luminometric assays. Choosing the appropriate method among these assays is important for obtaining accurate and reliable results. When selecting the cytotoxicity and cell viability assays to be used in the study, different parameters have to be considered such as the availability in the laboratory where the study is to be performed, test compounds, detection mechanism, specificity, and sensitivity. In this chapter, information will be given about in vitro cytotoxicity and viability assays, these assays will be classified and their advantages and disadvantages will be emphasized. The aim of this chapter is to guide the researcher interested in this subject to select the appropriate assay for their study.",book:{id:"6310",slug:"genotoxicity-a-predictable-risk-to-our-actual-world",title:"Genotoxicity",fullTitle:"Genotoxicity - A Predictable Risk to Our Actual World"},signatures:"Özlem Sultan Aslantürk",authors:[{id:"211212",title:"Dr.",name:"Özlem Sultan",middleName:null,surname:"Aslantürk",slug:"ozlem-sultan-aslanturk",fullName:"Özlem Sultan Aslantürk"}]},{id:"66259",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85270",title:"Antioxidant Compounds and Their Antioxidant Mechanism",slug:"antioxidant-compounds-and-their-antioxidant-mechanism",totalDownloads:7489,totalCrossrefCites:53,totalDimensionsCites:135,abstract:"An antioxidant is a substance that at low concentrations delays or prevents oxidation of a substrate. Antioxidant compounds act through several chemical mechanisms: hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), single electron transfer (SET), and the ability to chelate transition metals. The importance of antioxidant mechanisms is to understand the biological meaning of antioxidants, their possible uses, their production by organic synthesis or biotechnological methods, or for the standardization of the determination of antioxidant activity. In general, antioxidant molecules can react either by multiple mechanisms or by a predominant mechanism. The chemical structure of the antioxidant substance allows understanding of the antioxidant reaction mechanism. This chapter reviews the in vitro antioxidant reaction mechanisms of organic compounds polyphenols, carotenoids, and vitamins C against free radicals (FR) and prooxidant compounds under diverse conditions, as well as the most commonly used methods to evaluate the antioxidant activity of these compounds according to the mechanism involved in the reaction with free radicals and the methods of in vitro antioxidant evaluation that are used frequently depending on the reaction mechanism of the antioxidant.",book:{id:"8008",slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez, Raúl Salas-Coronado, Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo and Beatriz Hernández-Carlos",authors:[{id:"143354",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Salas-Coronado",slug:"raul-salas-coronado",fullName:"Raúl Salas-Coronado"},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez"},{id:"193718",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Carlos",slug:"beatriz-hernandez-carlos",fullName:"Beatriz Hernández-Carlos"},{id:"278133",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Villanueva-Cañongo",slug:"claudia-villanueva-canongo",fullName:"Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo"}]},{id:"40253",doi:"10.5772/50486",title:"Lipid Nanoparticulate Drug Delivery Systems: A Revolution in Dosage Form Design and Development",slug:"lipid-nanoparticulate-drug-delivery-systems-a-revolution-in-dosage-form-design-and-development",totalDownloads:11245,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:103,abstract:null,book:{id:"2509",slug:"recent-advances-in-novel-drug-carrier-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Novel Drug Carrier Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Novel Drug Carrier Systems"},signatures:"Anthony A. 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Among these heavy metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"49459",title:"Pharmacokinetics of Drugs Following IV Bolus, IV Infusion, and Oral Administration",slug:"pharmacokinetics-of-drugs-following-iv-bolus-iv-infusion-and-oral-administration",totalDownloads:15401,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:22,abstract:null,book:{id:"4491",slug:"basic-pharmacokinetic-concepts-and-some-clinical-applications",title:"Basic Pharmacokinetic Concepts and Some Clinical Applications",fullTitle:"Basic Pharmacokinetic Concepts and Some Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Tarek A. 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Antioxidant compounds act through several chemical mechanisms: hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), single electron transfer (SET), and the ability to chelate transition metals. The importance of antioxidant mechanisms is to understand the biological meaning of antioxidants, their possible uses, their production by organic synthesis or biotechnological methods, or for the standardization of the determination of antioxidant activity. In general, antioxidant molecules can react either by multiple mechanisms or by a predominant mechanism. The chemical structure of the antioxidant substance allows understanding of the antioxidant reaction mechanism. This chapter reviews the in vitro antioxidant reaction mechanisms of organic compounds polyphenols, carotenoids, and vitamins C against free radicals (FR) and prooxidant compounds under diverse conditions, as well as the most commonly used methods to evaluate the antioxidant activity of these compounds according to the mechanism involved in the reaction with free radicals and the methods of in vitro antioxidant evaluation that are used frequently depending on the reaction mechanism of the antioxidant.",book:{id:"8008",slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez, Raúl Salas-Coronado, Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo and Beatriz Hernández-Carlos",authors:[{id:"143354",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Salas-Coronado",slug:"raul-salas-coronado",fullName:"Raúl Salas-Coronado"},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez"},{id:"193718",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Carlos",slug:"beatriz-hernandez-carlos",fullName:"Beatriz Hernández-Carlos"},{id:"278133",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Villanueva-Cañongo",slug:"claudia-villanueva-canongo",fullName:"Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo"}]},{id:"66742",title:"Introductory Chapter: Alkaloids - Their Importance in Nature and for Human Life",slug:"introductory-chapter-alkaloids-their-importance-in-nature-and-for-human-life",totalDownloads:4035,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:null,book:{id:"6828",slug:"alkaloids-their-importance-in-nature-and-human-life",title:"Alkaloids",fullTitle:"Alkaloids - Their Importance in Nature and Human Life"},signatures:"Joanna Kurek",authors:[{id:"214632",title:"Dr.",name:"Joanna",middleName:null,surname:"Kurek",slug:"joanna-kurek",fullName:"Joanna Kurek"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"19",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82439",title:"Cellular Cytotoxicity and Multiple Sclerosis",slug:"cellular-cytotoxicity-and-multiple-sclerosis",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105681",abstract:"Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease in which discrete central nervous system lesions result from perivascular immune cell infiltration associated with damage to myelin (demyelination), oligodendrocytes and neurons. This culminates in debilitating neurological symptoms, primarily affecting women in their child-bearing years. Both the innate and adaptive branches of the immune system have been implicated in disease initiation and progression, and although the underlying cause remains elusive, there is compelling evidence for a complex interaction between genetic and environmental factors, leading to inflammation and neurodegeneration. Both direct cellular toxicity and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) involving several cell types have been identified in playing major roles. These cells and their interactions in the pathogenesis of MS will be discussed.",book:{id:"11678",title:"Cytotoxicity",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11678.jpg"},signatures:"Annie M.L. Willson and Margaret A. Jordan"},{id:"82226",title:"Early Signal Detection: Data Mining of Mental Disorders with Statins",slug:"early-signal-detection-data-mining-of-mental-disorders-with-statins",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105504",abstract:"Statins are widely prescribed to treat dyslipidemias. It is well-known adverse reaction of these active ingredients related to rhabdomyolysis and myalgia, but there are other signals to be aware of, such as mental disorders. Pharmacovigilance tools help to trace known risks and detect early other unknown effects that appear over time. Data of all the reported suspected adverse drug reactions for statins from the international World Health Organization (WHO) repository Vigibase were analyzed with an adaptation of data mining Bayesian methodology to search for positive signals, threshold of false discovery rate (FDR) < 0.05, and listed candidates for priority clinical investigation. Among positive mental signals observed, some were currently stated as adverse reactions in technical factsheets as insomnia, depression, dementia, and nightmares, but others have not reached this condition as bipolar, psychotic, and emotional disorders or symptoms and suicide. Other diverse central positive signals that can be confounded with mental conditions obtained and not stated were senses impairment, such as blindness, deafness, balance disorder, and events related to suicide. Worrying positive signals proposed as candidates to further investigation are insomnia for pitavastatin, pravastatin, and simvastatin; dementia for atorvastatin and rosuvastatin; and suicide and psychotic disorders for atorvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, rosuvastatin, and simvastatin.",book:{id:"11679",title:"Pharmacovigilance and Regulations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11679.jpg"},signatures:"Maria-Isabel Jimenez-Serrania"},{id:"82398",title:"Computer-Aided Drug Design and Development: An Integrated Approach",slug:"computer-aided-drug-design-and-development-an-integrated-approach",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105003",abstract:"Drug discovery and development is a very time- and resource-consuming process. Comprehensive knowledge of chemistry has been integrated with information technology to streamline drug discovery, design, development, and optimization. Computer-aided drug design is being utilized to expedite and facilitate hit identification, hit-to-lead selection, and optimize the absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity profile. Regulatory organizations and the pharmaceutical industry are continuously involved in the development of computational techniques that will improve the effectiveness and efficiency of the drug discovery process while decreasing the use of animals, cost, and time and increasing predictability. The present chapter will provide an overview of computational tools, such as structure-based and receptor-based drug designing, and how the coupling of these tools with a rational drug design process has led to the discovery of small molecules as therapeutic agents for numerous human disease conditions duly approved by the Food and Drug Administration. It is expected that the power of CADD will grow as the technology continues to evolve.",book:{id:"11091",title:"Drug Development Life Cycle",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11091.jpg"},signatures:"Neelima Dhingra"},{id:"81186",title:"Germicidal and Antineoplastic Activities of Curcumin and Curcumin-Derived Nanoparticles",slug:"germicidal-and-antineoplastic-activities-of-curcumin-and-curcumin-derived-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103076",abstract:"Curcumin is a major constituent of turmeric and has been shown to have a plethora of health benefits, which include, among many, antimicrobial, anticancer, and reduction of cholesterol. However, it has also been reported that curcumin has less bioaccumulation and is quickly metabolized and cleared from the body. Nanoparticle formulations are known to increase curcumin biocompatibility and targeting. Additionally, the antimicrobial activity of curcumin has been extensively studied and the mechanism of action provides clues for the development of new drugs for drug-resistant microbes. Thus, this chapter will review the biomedical application of curcumin and its nanoformulations against different microbes and other diseases, including cancer.",book:{id:"11323",title:"Antimicrobial and Pharmacological Aspects of Curcumin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11323.jpg"},signatures:"Lilian Makgoo and Zukile Mbita"},{id:"82304",title:"Nonbiodegradable Hospital Waste Burden and Implications",slug:"nonbiodegradable-hospital-waste-burden-and-implications",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105009",abstract:"Hospitals and other healthcare facilities are very essential for the cure and care of persons suffering from health issues and also to promote health in society. As the health care services are improving and increasing their reach even in underdeveloped countries, so is the problem of health care waste (HCW) as hospitals generate a relatively huge amount of HCW, which consists of general as well as hazardous waste. The persons handling HCW are at immediate risk, followed by persons residing near HCW dumping/processing areas and the general public. Infectious HCW is a major threat to the health of humans and animals as it has the potential to spread various infectious diseases to the human and animal population. Due to the uncontrolled use of disposable nonbiodegradable materials by healthcare systems and their processing or lack of it, the HCW has emerged as one of the major sources of environmental pollution including the emission of the significant amount of greenhouse gases, which stands from 3 to 10% of total emissions of nations. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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