Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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\r\n\tAll processes leading to the ever-greater interdependence and integration of states, societies, economies, and cultures are the result of the formation of a global society. The increase in the pace of interaction through the use of information technologies, including the development of mass means of communication, and the growing importance of international organizations are the present day of global markets and world trade.
\r\n
\r\n\tThanks to the development of communication technologies, the removal of legal and psychological barriers, and the search for new sources of income and diversification of investments, markets have become more and more global for several years. Although this process is being hampered by the global financial crises, pandemics, and wars, it is still gaining momentum and changing its forms and effects. Therefore, the phenomenon of globalization and international trade causes an increase in new, unpredictable forms of risk and an increase in social inequalities on a global scale, or on the scale of individual societies.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book will be a comprehensive study of global markets with reference to current events, trends and mechanisms used. The aim of the book will be to present the mechanisms, techniques, and instruments of global markets, their participants, and segments as fully as possible, with reference to events in global markets.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-457-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-456-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-458-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"fa34af07c3a9657fa670404202f8cba5",bookSignature:"Dr.Ing. Ireneusz Miciuła",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12139.jpg",keywords:"Product Market, Labor Market, Global Financial Market, Economy, Management, Business, Supply Chain, Transport, Network of Connections, Technological Innovations, Financial Innovation, History of Money",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 23rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 19th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 6th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"16 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Miciuła is an assistant professor at the Institute of Finance of the University of Szczecin and a visiting researcher at several universities in Europe. He is a Winner of the individual 2nd-degree award of the Rector of the University of Szczecin for his scientific activity and has received a team award for scientific achievement awarded by the Rector of the Warsaw University of Life Sciences. He is a Member of the Polish Finance and Banking Association (PSFiB) and the Polish Economic Society (PTE).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"243649",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Ireneusz",middleName:null,surname:"Miciuła",slug:"ireneusz-miciula",fullName:"Ireneusz Miciuła",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243649/images/system/243649.jpg",biography:'Ireneusz Miciuła - doctor of technical sciences in the discipline of computer science. Assistant professor at the Institute of Finance of the University of Szczecin. He defended his doctoral thesis in 2010 at the Faculty of Computer Science of the Szczecin University of Technology (now the West Pomeranian University of Technology). He also completed a master\'s degree in finance and banking at the Faculty of Economics and Management at the University of Szczecin. Scholarship holder of the Human Capital Operational Program, Measure 8.2 Transfer of knowledge: Regional Innovation Strategies, "Investing in knowledge as a driving force for the development of innovation in the region". Winner of the individual 2nd degree award of the Rector of the University of Szczecin for his scientific activity. He received a team award for scientific achievement awarded by the Rector of the Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW) in 2018. Author of over 200 scientific, popular and journalistic publications in the field of economics, management and IT. Scholarship holder of the Natolin European Center in Warsaw for summer research at the European University Institute (EUI) in Florence (Italy, European Union institution) in 2014 and 2015. Visiting researcher at Fachhochschule Dortmund, Fachhochschule Stralsund, Hochschule Wismar (Germany), Univerity Bata in Zlin (Czech Republic), European University in Tirana (Albania), Universidade Lusofona de Humanidades e Tecnologias in Lisbon (Portugal). Member of the editorial team of the Journal of Economics and Public Finance (USA). Reviewer of the Polish-American Fulbright Foundation. Participant of many national and international scientific conferences. Member of the Polish Finance and Banking Association (PSFiB), Polish Economic Society (PTE) and Polish Information Technology Society (PTI). A scholarship holder of many scientific and economic programs and a member of research teams in R&D projects under NCBiR grants. A scholarship holder in the PROM program under the National Agency for Academic Exchange (NAWA). Expert and member of teams preparing studies for economic practice (including an expert at the Polish Agency for Enterprise Development (PARP) and the Energy Regulatory Office (ERO) in Warsaw). Scientific expert at the Foundation for Polish Science (FNP).',institutionString:"University of Szczecin",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Szczecin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"7",title:"Business, Management and Economics",slug:"business-management-and-economics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"466997",firstName:"Patricia",lastName:"Kerep",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/466997/images/21565_n.jpg",email:"patricia@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"68982",title:"Characterization and Testing of High-Entropy Alloys from AlCrFeCoNi System for Military Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88622",slug:"characterization-and-testing-of-high-entropy-alloys-from-alcrfeconi-system-for-military-applications",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
High-entropy alloys (HEAs) are known for their special mechanical properties: high tensile strength resistance even at high temperature, high hardness, toughness exceeding that of most pure metals and alloys, comparable strength to that of structural ceramics and some metallic glasses, exceptional ductility and fracture toughness at cryogenic temperatures, and corrosion resistance. These specific properties were mainly attributed to complex concentrated solid solutions formed by the suppression of fragile intermetallic compounds as a result of high mixing entropy and enthalpy values [1]. HEAs generally tend to form single-phase solid solutions in the case of low mixing enthalpy and atomic size difference. Generally speaking, the formation of a single-phase solid solution corresponds to the mixing enthalpy values (DHmix) situated in domain of −15 kJ/mol < DHmix <5 kJ/ml and 0 < δ < 5 [2].
\n
As a result of these special features, HEA is currently an alternative to use as material for a number of special areas, such as structural applications; aerospace engineering and civil transportations; superconducting electromagnets such as magnetic resonance imaging, scanners, nuclear magnetic resonance machines, and particle accelerators; high-temperature applications such as gas turbines, rocket nozzles, and nuclear construction; cryogenic applications such as rocket casings, pipework, and liquid O2 or N2 equipment; refractory elements such as Nb, Mo, and Ta that can maintain their high strength even above 1200°C, superior to traditional super alloys such as Inconel 718 and Haynes 230; hardfacing applications; and military applications.
\n
The specifications on the security of collective protection equipment and structures in the military field set forth enhanced requirements for the resistance of the protection panels/floors/elements against the penetration by various types of projectiles, due to the diversification of the types of interventions in the military activities.
\n
The main characteristics of the materials intended for the manufacture of protection components are as follows: the highest possible breaking and yield strength values, the highest possible hardness and impact resistance, and the highest possible elongation at break and energy absorbed by a notched specimen while breaking under an impact load (the Charpy test) at temperatures down to minus 40°C. The current military specifications recommend hardness values of at least 540–600 BHN (Brinell hardness) or 55–60 HRC (Rockwell hardness) and, for strength characteristics, such as the yield strength, values above 1500 and 1700 MPa for the breaking strength. In the case of the impact fracture energy using the Charpy test, the values must be of approximately 13 J at −40°C, with elongations of at least 6% [3].
\n
Such requirements have been met by designing metallic alloys of various compositions; the most widely used is the high-strength microalloyed steels, used to produce reinforcement elements of thicknesses between 8.5 and 30 mm. Some research papers in the military field [4] have shown that the hardness of the plating material is not a sufficient factor to provide maximum resistance against penetration by projectiles, considering that the values of the mechanical strengths (yield and breaking) are much more important in the behavior process under dynamic stress.
\n
Accurate measurements of dynamic stresses during impact stress have detected mechanical stress values of 28 GPa in the case of bainitic microstructure steels, while in the case of static stress, the measured stresses were of no more than 2 GPa [5].
\n
A ballistic performance index (BPI) [6, 7] was also proposed to estimate the ballistic strength of armored plates, containing data on steel density, the elastic modulus, yield and tensile strength, Poisson’s coefficient, and the constriction or elongation during impact tests. There are terms that contain elastic and plastic deformation components, as well as terms that take into account the kinetic energy of the target-projectile system after impact. Therefore, the main characteristics that metallic materials used in special military applications need to feature for the best impact behavior are as follows:
The highest possible hardness, as a measurement of the solid material’s resistance against the penetration of its surface by various types of penetrators, with permanent shape changes, when a static or dynamic force is applied to them; the macroscopic hardness is generally characterized by the nature and strength of the intermolecular bonds, and the behavior of the solid material under the action of force is complex.
Toughness, which describes the capacity of a metallic material to absorb the breaking energy, the strength of its metallic matrix when various cracks occur and propagate, and the energy of forming the breaking surfaces, considering that the breaking occurs by consuming the impact stress energy, with local plastic deformation.
Impact strength, which is the relative susceptibility to breaking by the action of forces applied at high velocity.
\n\n
High-entropy alloys from the AlCrFeCoNi system feature very good mechanical properties for military applications, as shown in Table 1. Thus, the yield stress, the compressive strength, and the plastic deformation of these alloys reach unexpected values [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20], making them usable as composite structures, resistant to dynamic stresses with high deformation velocity, applicable in the field of collective protection [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Alloy
\n
Yield strength, MPa
\n
Compressive strength, MPa
\n
Plastic deformation, %
\n
\n\n\n
\n
AlCrFeCoNi
\n
1250.96
\n
2004.23
\n
32.7
\n
\n
\n
CrFeCoNiCuTi
\n
1272
\n
1272
\n
1.6
\n
\n
\n
AlCrMnFeCoNiCuTiV
\n
1862
\n
2431
\n
0.95
\n
\n
\n
CrFeCoNiCuTi0.5\n
\n
700
\n
1650
\n
21.26
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Mechanical properties of some high-entropy alloys [8].
\n
\n
\n
2. Obtaining of AlxCryFezCovNiw class of high-entropy alloys
\n
The most commonly used method for successfully producing high-entropy alloys is the electric arc melting of the load materials in a vacuum arc remelting equipment (with current values of up to 500 A) in controlled atmosphere. The main technological operations pursued in this case are presented below.
\n
\n
2.1 Obtaining AlCrFeCoNi alloys in vacuum arc remelting furnace
\n
Special type of materials chosen for making the ballistic target is experimental alloys AlCrFeCoNi, obtained in vacuum arc remelting equipment (MRF ABJ 900, in ERAMET Laboratory, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Romania). For calculating the metallic load, the theoretical degrees of assimilation of the elements in the melt and of the possible vaporization losses during the metallurgical process in vacuum or in argon-controlled atmosphere must be taken into account (Figure 1).
\n
Figure 1.
Vacuum arc remelting equipment MRF ABJ 900 and working chamber, in ERAMET Laboratory, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Romania.
\n
Mass losses are estimated on the basis of the literature data thereon, the degree of oxidation of the metallic load materials, the characteristics of the elements in the load, their positioning in the series of electrochemical potentials, the characteristics of the preparation aggregate, and the experience in the preparation process. It should be noted that the metallic load used to obtain high-entropy alloys must be of high quality, low in phosphorus and sulfur, and degreased and properly machined (in terms of granulometry). The degree of purity of the elements the alloy is over 99%. The elements dosed in equimolecular or quasi-equimolecular proportions are introduced following an order determined according to the type of alloy to be prepared, into the crucibles in the copper plate, water-cooled throughout the metallurgical process.
\n
In order to produce high-entropy alloys under high-purity conditions, the working chamber must be suitably prepared by successive vacuuming and argon purging operations performed at least three times. The vacuuming is performed using preliminary vacuum systems and diffusion pumps, which can provide pressure levels of about 3.5–4 × 10−4 mbar. Pure argon (Ar 5.3, 99.99%) is used for purging and melting. These operations provide a maximum oxygen content of 40–60 ppm in the working chamber. The final stage of the process is the argon purging of the working chamber and the setting of a working pressure level slightly above the atmospheric pressure.
\n
The process of producing high-entropy alloys consists in melting the load materials, followed by the remelting of the samples for five to seven times, turning them on opposite sides to ensure a fully alloyed state and to improve the chemical homogenization of the mini-ingots. The entire preparation process is carried out by electric arc remelting in argon-controlled atmosphere.
\n
The melting mode of the vacuum arc remelting furnace must be adapted to the type of alloy being prepared. These parameters vary during the preparation process, depending on the stages and the activities being carried out. The thorium tungsten electrode must be shifted during melting so that it is approximately 1/4” away from the copper plate electrode, and the electric arc formed sweeps the entire surface of the load for complete homogenization. Following melting and solidification, mini-ingots of weights almost constant compared to that of the load introduced into the VAR are produced.
\n
Using this method, experimental high-entropy alloys have been instantaneously cooled by forced cooling of the water pumped at the base of the copper plate (the crystallizer of the furnace).
\n
The melted material solidifies ultrafast in the water-cooled copper shell. The mini-ingots produced can have different shapes, depending on the shape of the cavity in the copper plate of the furnace. The samples were analyzed, according to the chemical composition, in order to define their physical, chemical, mechanical, etc. properties.
\n
The chemical compositions of the metallic materials used are as follows:
Extra soft steel, MK3 grade: C = 0.02 wt%; Si = 0.04 wt%; Mn = 0.21 wt%; S = 0.02 wt%; P = 0.015 wt%; Ni = 0.2 wt%; Cr = 0.15 wt%; Mo = 0.07 wt%; Cu = 0.14 wt%; Al = 0.12 wt%; Fe = ballance wt%
Metallic chromium with 99 wt% Cr
Electrolytic aluminum with 98.5 wt% Al
Metallic cobalt with 99.5 wt% Co
Electrolytic nickel with 99.5 wt% Ni
\n\n
\n
\n
2.2 Obtaining of AlCrFeCoNi alloy in duplex system including induction and vacuum arc remelting furnace
\n
A vacuum induction melting-vacuum arc remelting (VIM-VAR) duplex technology was selected to produce the high-entropy alloy AlCrFeCoNi in order to increase the purity of the alloy and to improve its mechanical properties. The experimental batches were prepared in the vacuum induction melting furnace Balzers, HU-40-25-40-04 type, with a capacity of 12 kg and in the MRF ABJ 900 vacuum arc remelting equipment, both from the ERAMET Laboratory, Bucharest.
\n
The high-entropy alloy used to make the ballistic protection plates in the vacuum induction furnace was produced according to a classical preparation technology, using highly pure materials, and metallic molds made of iron Fc 250 (Figure 2) were used for casting to ensure the production of 150 × 100 × 10 mm rectangular plates.
\n
Figure2.
Metallic molds for casting Al0.8CrFeCoNi alloy.
\n
The load calculation (based on the molar mass of the chemical elements, Mmol) for obtaining the Al0.8CrFeCoNi alloy, taking into account the estimated elemental losses, is as follows (Eq. (1)):
The concentration (% weight) of the alloying elements in the alloy was Al = 8.72 wt%; Cr = 21 wt%; Fe = 22.62 wt%; Co = 23.83 wt%; and Ni = 23.83 wt%. The alloy mass calculated based on the volume and density of the alloy cast in a plate and related network was 1.111 and 0.574 kg, respectively, resulting in an alloy quantity of approx. 1.6855 kg per ingot.
\n
Since alloy losses occur due to oxidation, due to the interaction with the furnace walls and to the casting ladle, a quantity of 8 kg of prepared alloy is considered per batch.
\n
The quantities of materials used for each batch, also taking into account the oxidation losses, are as follows: Al = 0.74 kg; Cr = 1.70 kg; Fe = 1.85 kg; Co = 1.95 kg; and Ni = 1.93 kg. The total weight of the batch was of 8.17 kg. The Al0.8CrFeCoNi alloy plates obtained by casting are shown in Figure 3.
\n
Figure 3.
HEA Al0.8CrFeCoNi alloy plates obtained by VIM-VAR technology. (a) As-cast HEA samples obtained by VIM technology; (b) HEA sample positioned in copper plate of VAR equipment to be remelted; (c) sample after remelting procedure in VAR equipment.
\n
The production of the HEA Al0.8CrFeCoNi plates was completed by refining in the vacuum arc remelting furnace, for which, based on the requirements of the military field, a special copper plate was made, according to Figure 2b.
\n
The working procedure in the VAR furnace was classical, seeking the most efficient homogenization of the alloy to ensure the best possible mechanical properties, by remelting each sample three times on each side (Figure 3c).
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Mechanical tests
\n
\n
3.1 Impact fracture tests
\n
The impact fracture tests were performed using a Charpy pendulum, to measure the energy absorbed in the process of dynamic fracture of standardized (notched) specimens. The values resulting from the impact fracture test for some AlCrFeCoNi alloys are shown in Table 2.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Test no.
\n
Impact energy, J
\n
\n
\n
HEA 1
\n
HEA 5
\n
HEA 6
\n
HEA 12
\n
HEA 14
\n
\n\n\n
\n
1
\n
62.1
\n
67.1
\n
67.0
\n
66.0
\n
62.4
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
62.7
\n
67.2
\n
66.9
\n
65.8
\n
62.3
\n
\n
\n
3
\n
62.1
\n
67.0
\n
67.1
\n
65.9
\n
62.1
\n
\n
\n
4
\n
62.2
\n
67.3
\n
68.9
\n
66.1
\n
62.1
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Impact fracture energy values for some experimental HEAs.
\n
As can be seen from the values of the breaking energy shown in the table, the experimental materials have a tenacity corresponding to structural steels, while the hardness values are similar to those of tool steels.
\n
\n
\n
3.2 Microhardness
\n
The hardness of the experimental materials was determined using the Shimadzu HMV2T microhardness apparatus in Lamet Laboratories from Politehnica University of Bucharest. The measurements were made in line, with mark distances of about 500 μm, using the fingerprint force of 0.1 N and pressing time of 10 seconds [9, 10, 11, 12]. For the AlxCryFezCovNiw system, the entire spectrum of microhardness values in the x = y = z = v = w = 0.2 … 2 at% range was analyzed, as shown in Figure 4.
\n
Figure 4.
Microhardness HV0.1 values for experimental HEA 1 to HEA 10.
\n
The coding of the samples in Figure 4 was based on the atomic proportions of the chemical elements; thus, HEA 1 = AlCrFeCoNi; HEA 2 = Al1.5CrFeCoNi; HEA 3 = Al2CrFeCoNi; HEA 5 = Al0.8CrFeCoNi; HEA 6 = Al0.6CrFeCoNi; HEA 7 = Al0.4CrFeCoNi; HEA 8 = Al0.2CrFeCoNi; HEA 9 = Al1.2CrFeCoNi; and HEA 10 = Al1.4CrFeCoNi. The maximum hardness value was obtained for the sample HEA 3, with maximum concentration of aluminum.
\n
The coding of the samples in Figure 5 was based on the atomic proportions of the chemical elements; thus, HEA 11 = AlCrFeCoNi1.2; HEA 12 = AlCrFeCoNi1.4; HEA 13 = AlCrFeCoNi1.6; HEA 14 = AlCrFeCoNi1.8; HEA 15 = AlCrFeCoNi2; HEA 16 = AlCrFeCoNi0.8; HEA 17 = AlCrFeCoNi0.6; HEA 18 = AlCrFeCoNi0.4; and HEA 19 = AlCrFeCoNi0.2. The maximum hardness value was obtained for the sample HEA 11.
\n
Figure 5.
Microhardness HV0.1 values for experimental HEA 11 to HEA 19.
\n
The coding of the samples in Figure 6 was based on the atomic proportions of the chemical elements; thus, HEA 20 = AlCrFeCo0.8Ni; HEA 21 = AlCrFeCo0.6Ni; HEA 22 = AlCrFeCo0.4Ni; HEA 23 = AlCrFeCo0.2Ni; HEA 24 = AlCrFeCo1.2Ni; HEA 25 = AlCrFeCo1.4Ni; HEA 26 = AlCrFeCo1.6Ni; HEA 27 = AlCrFeCo1.8Ni; and HEA 28 = AlCrFeCo2Ni. The maximum hardness value was obtained for the sample HEA 26.
\n
Figure 6.
Microhardness HV0.1 values for experimental HEA 20 to HEA 28.
\n
The coding of the samples in Figure 7 was based on the atomic proportions of the chemical elements; thus, HEA 29 = AlCr0.2FeCoNi; HEA 30 = AlCr0.4FeCoNi; HEA 31 = AlCr0.6FeCoNi; HEA 32 = AlCr0.8FeCoNi; HEA 33 = AlCr1.2FeCoNi; HEA 34 = AlCr1.4FeCoNi; HEA 35 = AlCr1.6FeCoNi; HEA 36 = AlCr1.8FeCoNi; and HEA 37 = AlCr2FeCoNi. The maximum hardness value was obtained for the sample HEA 36.
\n
Figure 7.
Microhardness HV0.1 values for experimental HEA 29 to HEA 37.
\n
The coding of the samples in Figure 8 was based on the atomic proportions of the chemical elements; thus, HEA 38 = AlCrFe0.2CoNi; HEA 39 = AlCrFe0.4CoNi; HEA 40 = AlCrFe0.6CoNi; HEA 41 = AlCrFe0.8CoNi; HEA 42 = AlCrFe1.2CoNi; HEA 43 = AlCrFe1.4CoNi; HEA 44 = AlCrFe1.6CoNi; HEA 45 = AlCrFe1.8CoNi; and HEA 46 = AlCrFe2CoNi. The maximum hardness value was obtained for the sample HEA 38, for minimum concentration of iron.
\n
Figure 8.
Microhardness HV0.1 values for experimental HEA 38 to HEA 46.
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Microstructure
\n
The microstructure of experimental high-entropy alloys was performed selectively by optical microscopy (Olympus GX51 reversed optical microscope) and scanning electron microscopy (Inspect SEM, FEI Company, scanning electron microscope equipped with EDAX Z2e detector) [9, 13, 14, 15, 16]. The microstructural aspect of some experimental alloys is shown in Figures 9–14.
\n
Figure 9.
Experimental as-cast AlxCrFeCoNi alloys.
\n
Figure 10.
Experimental as-cast AlCrFeCoNix alloys.
\n
Figure 11.
Experimental as-cast AlCrFeCoxNi alloys.
\n
Figure 12.
Experimental as-cast AlCrxFeCoNi alloys.
\n
Figure 13.
SEM images of AlxCrFeCoNi alloys.
\n
Figure 14.
SEM images of AlCrFeCoNix alloys.
\n
All materials show dendritic formations and interdendritic precipitations in experimental as-cast HEAs. Some of them (HEA 5) shows polyhedral grains and acicular phase growth from the grain boundary (Figure 9). The images have been performed for the same magnification (scale of 200 μm). The sample HEA 15 with the highest nickel concentration has the orientation and sequence of the alpha and gamma phases, in the form of parallel or perpendicular planes (Figure 10).
\n
Changing the Co content does not make changes to the microstructure, which has a dendritic appearance (Figure 11). The increase in chromium content resulted in an increased finishing of dendritic microstructure granulation for HEA 36 sample, which also led to an increase in hardness (Figure 12).
\n
Scanning electron microscopy images revealed the fine and nanostructured microstructure with polyhedral grains and the layout of phases in quasi-parallel planes (Figure 13) [15].
\n
In the case of high-Ni samples, higher magnification powers can be seen in phase configurations, in acicular or polymorphic form (Figure 14).
\n
\n
\n
5. Dynamic testing
\n
Several ballistic packages (Figure 15) were made for the testing of composite structures at high-velocity perforation, explosion, and high-velocity deformation. The packages have a sandwich structure, containing aluminum, steel, or ceramic plates or polymer HEA plate and, finally, aluminum plate again. The images from the firing room and the testing configuration are shown in Figure 16, and the experimental stand scheme for dynamic test is shown in Figure 17.
\n
Figure 15.
Ballistic packages prepared for dynamic tests.
\n
Figure 16.
Firing room and experimental stand for dynamic test.
\n
Figure 17.
HEA-steel ballistic package during dynamic tests (a) after the first firing and (b) after the second firing.
\n
The ballistic packages undergoing tests for checking the bullet impact behavior were fastened to a wooden stand at a distance of 5 m from the machine-gun barrel’s muzzle. The amount of powder in the cartridge shell was varied in order to obtain the desired initial velocity [15, 16, 17, 18, 19].
\n
Two 7.62 × 39 mm incendiary armor-piercing bullets with initial velocities of 660 and 728 m/s, respectively, were fired at the targets. The ballistic package resisted punching for the first fire (Figure 17a) and then perforated at the second firing (Figure 17b).
\n
The same procedure of dynamic testing, using 7.62 × 39 mm incendiary armor-piercing bullets at initial velocities of 723 and 728 m/s, respectively, was applied at the HEA-ceramic ballistic package. This type of ballistic package was perforated both at the first and second cases (Figure 18).
\n
Figure 18.
HEA-ceramic ballistic package during dynamic tests (a) after the first firing (b) and after the second firing (c).
\n
The last procedure was applied using 7.62 × 39 mm incendiary armor-piercing bullets at initial velocities of 720 and 725 m/s, respectively, for dynamic testing of HEA-ceramic ballistic package. This type of ballistic package was entirely perforated, in both cases (Figure 19).
\n
Figure 19.
HEA-polymer ballistic package during dynamic tests. (a) after the first firing and (b) after the second firing.
\n
\n
\n
6. Conclusions
\n
High-entropy alloys are well suited for production in vacuum arc remelting furnaces due to low material losses and to obtaining high purity by working in vacuum and argon. Moreover, they can also be produced in induction furnaces, for superior purity, using the VIM-VAR duplex process.
\n
The hardness decrease of the AlCrFeCoNi class high-entropy alloys is proportional to the aluminum content decrease, from 500 HV1 for HEA 1 (AlCrFeCoNi) at 400 HV1 for HEA 5 (Al0.8CrFeCoNi) and 224 HV1 for HEA 6 (Al0.6CrFeCoNi). The hardness decrease can be explained by the reduction in the quantity and number of hard precipitates (Fe-Al compounds) in the metallic matrix.
\n
The hardness further decreases by increasing the nickel content, which allows the formation of face-centered cubic (FCC) solid solutions of low hardness and high tenacity. In this type of solid solution the chemical elements have a good solubility, with a low tendency of separation of hard and brittle compounds.
\n
The fracture energy values are in the range of 62–67 J for all five types of alloys, as the hardness oscillates in the range 200–500 HV0.1. As a result, the hardening effect is not manifested by decreasing the metal matrix toughness in the case of high-entropy alloys in the analyzed alloy class.
\n
The microstructure of high-entropy alloys is virtually “frozen” at the melt, with the solution retaining a conglomerate of chemical elements which are oftentimes very different (iron-related elements such as Cr, Ni, and Co, which together form solid solutions along with aluminum, a transition metal whose solubility greatly differs from that of Fe, Cr, Ni, and Co). The cooling condition creates entropy with very high values and explains the obtaining of completely different characteristics compared to the alloy cooled at usual rates.
\n
Depending on the share of the alloying elements, one or two types of solid solutions are formed, partially embedding the other alloying elements. The dendritic microstructure predominates, separating into acicular compounds or globular precipitates, depending on the chemical composition and the cooling rate.
\n
The tests on the behavior of high-entropy alloys at strong impacts were conducted under identical conditions. In the case of ballistic packages resistant at high-velocity penetration impacts, the best option is the HEA-steel system. High-entropy alloys, according to their composition, can be used in various sectors: medical engineering, earthwork equipment, and ballistic packages for individual and collective protection.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
This paper was supported by the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research CNDI-UEFISCDI, project number PN-III-P1-1.2-PCCDI-2017-0875 – PCCDI 20-2018 (HEAPROTECT).
\n
\n
Thanks
\n
The authors want to thank the team of researchers coordinated by Professor PhD Tudor Cherecheş for collaborating in the dynamic tests and the processing of experimental data.
\n
\n',keywords:"high-entropy alloys, obtaining, characterization, dynamic testing",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68982.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/68982.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68982",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68982",totalDownloads:878,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,totalAltmetricsMentions:7,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:61,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"April 9th 2019",dateReviewed:"July 16th 2019",datePrePublished:"October 23rd 2019",datePublished:"June 24th 2020",dateFinished:"September 10th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"High-entropy alloys (HEAs) can be obtained using various metallurgical processes such as vacuum arc remelting (VAR), induction melting, powder metallurgy, additive manufacturing, plasma sintering of powders, etc. Among these methods, the obtaining process in the VAR plant provides superior homogeneity characteristics for metal matrices, simultaneously with advanced purity, due to the high level of protection of the melts. The chapter presents a series of results on alloys with high entropy from the AlCrFeCoNi system, which can be used for various applications, including in the military field, for the realization of high-speed penetration protection panels. Experimental alloys were obtained by melting in electric arc under an argon atmosphere, using high-purity raw materials (greater than 99.5 wt%), and homogenization is ensured by successive five-times remelting of mini-ingots. The obtained alloys were subjected to microstructural analyses, mechanical tests, and also dynamic impact tests using incendiary perforation projectiles. At the same time, some tests were carried out on ballistic packages made of different materials, including high-entropy alloys. The results obtained in mechanical tests revealed high values of microhardness (over 600 HV0.1) as well as compressive strengths above 2000 MPa. The mechanical characteristics of these alloys can undergo substantial changes by applying several heat treatments.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68982",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68982",book:{id:"9393",slug:"engineering-steels-and-high-entropy-alloys"},signatures:"Victor Geanta and Ionelia Voiculescu",authors:[{id:"201642",title:"Prof.",name:"Ionelia",middleName:null,surname:"Voiculescu",fullName:"Ionelia Voiculescu",slug:"ionelia-voiculescu",email:"ioneliav@yahoo.co.uk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Bucharest",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"301396",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",middleName:null,surname:"Geanta",fullName:"Victor Geanta",slug:"victor-geanta",email:"victorgeanta@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Obtaining of AlxCryFezCovNiw class of high-entropy alloys",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Obtaining AlCrFeCoNi alloys in vacuum arc remelting furnace",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Obtaining of AlCrFeCoNi alloy in duplex system including induction and vacuum arc remelting furnace",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Mechanical tests",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 Impact fracture tests",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2 Microhardness",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Microstructure",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Dynamic testing",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Thanks",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nYeh J, Chen SK, Lin S, Gan JY, Chin TS, Shun TT, et al. Nanostructured high entropy alloys with multiple component elements: Novel alloy design concepts and outcomes. Advanced Engineering Materials. 2004;6:299-303\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nZhang Y et al. Microstructure and properties of high entropy alloys. Progress in Materials Science. 2014;61:1-93\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nMaweja K, Strumpf W. The design of advanced performance high strength low-carbon martensitic armor steels microstructural considerations. Materials Science and Engineering A. 2008;480:160-166\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nMaweja K, Strumpf W. Fracture and ballistic-induced phase transformation in tempered martensitic low-carbon armour steels. Materials Science and Engineering A. 2006;432:158-169\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nR.I. Hammond, W.G. Proud. Does the pressure-induced α–ε phase transition occur for all low-alloy steels? Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A. 2004;460:2959-2974\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nSrivathsan B, Ramakrishnan N. Ballistic performance maps for thick metallic armour. Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 1999;96:81-91\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nSrivathsan B, Ramakrishnan N. A ballistic performance index for thick metallic armour. International Journal of Modeling, Simulation, and Scientific Computing. 1998;3:33-40\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nWang YP, Li BS, Ren MX, Yang C, Fu HZ. Microstructure and compresive properties of AlCrFeCoNi high entropy alloy. Materials Science and Engineering A. 2008;491:154-158\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nVoiculescu I, Geanta V, Vasile IM, Ştefănoiu R, Tonoiu M. Characterisation of weld deposits using as filler metal a high entropy alloy. Journal of Optoelectronics and Advanced Materials. 2013;15(7-8):650-654\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nGeantă V, Voiculescu I, Miloșan I, Istrate B, Mateș IM. Chemical composition influence on microhardness, microstructure and phase morphology of AlxCrFeCoNi high entropy alloys. Revista de Chimie (Bucharest). 2018;69(4):798-801\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nGeantă V, Voiculescu I, Stefănoiu R, Chereches T, Zecheru T, Matache L, et al. Dynamic impact behaviour of high entropy alloys used in the military domain. Euroinvent ICIR 2018 IOP Publishing IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 2018;374:012041. DOI: 10.1088/1757-899X/374/1/012041\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nGeantă V, Voiculescu I, Istrate B, Vrânceanu D, Ciocoiu R, Cotruț C. The influence of chromium content on the structural and mechanical properties of AlCrxFeCoNi high entropy alloys. International Journal of Engineering Research in Africa, Trans Tech Publications, Switzerland. 2018;37:23-28. ISSN: 1663-4144\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nŞtefănoiu R, Geantă V, Voiculescu I, Csaki I, Ghiban N. Researches regarding the influence of chemical composition on the properties of AlxCrFeCoNi alloys. Revista de Chimie. 2014;65(7):819-821\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nGeantă V, Voiculescu I, Ştefănoiu R, Savastru D, Csaki I, Patroi D, et al. Processing and characterization of advanced multi-element high entropy materials from AlCrFeCoNi system. Optoelectronics and Advanced Materials—Rapid Communications. 2013;7:11, 874-12, 880\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nVoiculescu I, Geantă V, Ştefănoiu R, Patroi D, Binchiciu H. Influence of the chemical composition on the microstructure and microhardness of AlCrFeCoNi high entropy alloy. Revista de Chimie (Bucharest). 2013;64(12):1441-1444\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nGeantă V, Voiculescu I, Chereches T, Zecheru T, Matache L, Rotariu A. Behavior to dynamic loads of composite multi-layer structures. Mats, Plastic (Bucharest). 2019;6(2):460-465\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nGeantă V, Chereches T, Lixandru P, Voiculescu I, Stefănoiu R, Dragnea D, et al. Virtual testing of composite structures made of high entropy alloys and steel. Metals. 2017;7:496\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nGeantă V, Cherecheș T, Lixandru P, Voiculescu I, Ștefănoiu R, Dragnea D, et al. Simulation of impact phenomena on the composite structures containing ceramic plates and high entropy alloys. ICIR Iasi, International Conference on Innovative Research-ICIR EUROINVENT 2017 IOP Publishing IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. 2017;209:012043\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nCsaki I, Ștefănoiu R, Geantă V, Voiculescu I, Sohaciu MG, Soare A, et al. Researches regarding the processing technique impact on the chemical composition, microstructure and hardness of AlCrFeCoNi high entropy alloy. Revista de Chimie (Bucharest). 2016;67(7):1373-1377\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nCherecheș T, Lixandru P, Geantă V, Voiculescu I, Dragnea D, Ştefănoiu R. Layered structures analysis, with high entropy alloys, for ballistic protection. IMANE Iași 2015. Applied Mechanics and Materials. 2015;809-810:724-729. ISSN: 1662-7482\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Victor Geanta",address:null,affiliation:'
Ionelia Voiculescu, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania
Ionelia Voiculescu, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania
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1. Introduction
This is the U.S. story—from the birth of health insurance responding to genuine human need in the depths of the Great Depression in the 1930s—to the opulence of a massive corporatized industry today exploiting that need all the way to the bank. How do we explain that turn-around? This chapter has four goals: (1) to bring some historical perspective to that question; (2) to briefly summarize how health care services are bought and paid for in the U.S.; (3) to describe how private health insurance and multi-payer financing have failed the public interest; and (4) to compare four reform alternatives currently under consideration, only one of which will bring lasting reform through universal coverage.
2. Historical overview
Some in the U.S. considered the possibility of compulsory health insurance early in the 20th century after noting that 10 European countries had adopted one or another form of it by 1913 [1]. But that idea was controversial, and the emergence of voluntary, private health insurance in this country is especially attributed to a Blue Cross plan for school teachers in Dallas, Texas, in 1929. At that time as the Great Depression took hold, the nation’s hospitals were in dire straits with more than one-third of the general hospital beds empty [2].
As the prototype upon which later Blue Cross plans were based, the Baylor plan provided free hospitalization for up to 21 days as well as coverage for operating room, laboratory and anesthesia services. The hospital assumed financial risk for hospital care without any third party and collected pre-payments. Other prepaid health insurance plans were soon to follow. The World War II years saw the start of employer-sponsored health insurance, when employers found it helpful to offer health insurance in order to recruit workers during a wartime economy with a severe labor shortage. By 1950, more than one-half of Americans were covered for the first time [3].
In the last 60-plus years, the private health insurance industry has been transformed from the quasi private-public partnership of its pioneering years to a massive industry on a corporate mission of profit over service. It has followed a conventional theory of insurance based on the concept of “moral hazard,” whereby those with insurance are expected to overuse health care services and lead to uncontrolled increases in health care costs. As a result, community rating and guaranteed coverage during earlier years gave way to experience rating as medical underwriting became the new norm. The Blues were under pressure to compromise their earlier service mission, so that one-half of the nation’s Blue Cross Blue Shield plans had consolidated and converted into for-profit companies by 2005 [4].
With some 1300 private insurers, the risk pool has fragmented into ever smaller parts as insurers work to avoid adverse selection. Medicare and Medicaid were enacted in 1965 as public plans, but recent decades have seen their increasing privatization that often ends up leaving many enrollees uninsured.
These are some of the many ways that insurers have used to extract more income at the expense of reliable and affordable coverage for enrollees:
2.1 Growth of a denial industry
“Denial management” became a growth industry of its own aimed at denying physicians’ and hospitals’ claims for services provided [5]. Many insurers developed ways of avoiding coverage of higher risk people in the first place. One such technique was to hold marketing meetings on the second floor of buildings without elevators to discourage less mobile and older people. Another technique was to make steep increases in premiums after receiving claims from enrollees who were sicker than expected. Denial of claims through burdensome pre-authorization of service became still another way to avoid paying expensive claims, increasingly associated with ever-changing networks. Out-of-network claims for hospital and physicians’ services became unaffordable for many enrollees; even for in-network claims, the average denial rate today is 18% [6].
2.2 Managed care
Managed care grew rapidly during and after the 1990s, as a way to contain health care costs by changing from fee-for-service payment to prospective payment based upon capitation—the number of individuals enrolled in a health maintenance organization (HMO) plan. That gave insurers yet another way to profit from providing less care, and soon became known as managed reimbursement rather than managed care. As insurers found new profits, however, the quality and outcomes of care suffered. By 2000, 65 million Americans were enrolled in HMOs [7].
2.3 Privatization of public programs
Insurers have increasingly privatized Medicare and Medicaid in recent years as ways to exploit federal funding sources. Their claims that privatization would be more efficient have been proven false by experience. Instead, they have been more restrictive in choice and coverage, increased their administrative overhead to five or six times higher than traditional Medicare, and left markets that were insufficiently profitable. They have also increased their revenues by up-coding diagnoses—claiming payment for conditions for which care was not provided [8]. Table 1 shows marked differences between privatized Medicare and traditional public Medicare by the early 2000s [9].
Privatized medicare
Original medicare
Experience-rated eligibility
Universal coverage
Managed competition
Social insurance as earned right
Defined contribution
Defined benefits
Segmented risk pool
Broad risk pool
Market pricing to risk
Administered prices
More volatile access & benefits
More reliable access & benefits
Increased cost sharing
Less cost sharing
Less accountability
Potential for more accountability
Less choice of provider & hospital
Full choice of provider & hospital
Less well distributed
Well distributed
Less efficiency, higher overhead
More efficiency, lower overhead
Table 1.
Comparative features of privatized and public medicare (CAF Table 1.2, p. 14).
Increasing consolidation through mergers within the private health insurance industry has taken place since the 1990s. The largest insurers today—in numeric order United Health Group, Anthem, Aetna and Cigna—collectively have a market share of 49% [10]. As a result, that level of consolidation has led to less competition, more cost sharing with higher deductibles, and less options for enrollees. United Health Group, as the largest insurer in the country, has also gained clout beyond insurance by selling technology to hospitals, managing clinical trials, distributing prescription drugs, and offering continuing medical education to physicians [11].
3. How health care is paid for in the U.S.
Before looking at the role of private health insurance in U.S. health care, it is helpful (though still confusing!) to ask who really pays for health care. The late Dr. Uwe Reinhardt, Professor of Political Economy at Princeton University and author of Priced Out: The Economic and Ethical Costs of American Health Care, has summarized the complex transactions between enrollees in private households and providers of care in Figure 1. He makes the case that all health care spending originates from private households by paying premiums into public or private insurance pools as well as through taxes. The government accounts for about two-thirds of health care spending through taxpayer funding [12].
Figure 1.
Who pays for health care, and how is it paid (Figure 9.6, CAF 128).
Today’s system of paying for health care works against most of the working population through what economists call “labor income”—what people earn in their everyday jobs— that is taxed higher than “capital income” (accumulated wealth). As a result, billionaires today pay lower tax rates than their secretaries, steel workers, school teachers, and retirees [13].
4. How private health insurance and multi-payer financing have failed the public interest
These are some of the ways in which private health insurance and multi-payer financing have failed the common good in this country.
4.1 Unaffordable costs and increased cost sharing
Our market-driven system, now consolidated to a small number of corporate giants, can charge what the market will bear. Predictably, the cost of medical care has doubled compared to the consumer-price index over the last 25 years [14]. Figure 2 shows the cumulative growth of the cost of premiums for employer-sponsored health insurance compared to annual average earnings of the bottom 90% over the last 20 years [15]. As a result, four in ten people with that insurance do not have enough savings to cover the deductibles and one in six have to cut back on food, take an extra job, or move in with friends or family [16]. Even when insured, many enrollees defer or avoid needed care, while many others receive high surprise medical bills that drag them into poverty, often ending them up in medical bankruptcy [17].
Figure 2.
(Figure 7.2 MIC 104).
Predictably, increased cost sharing cuts access to care ranging from ER visits and office visits to hospital care and mental health [18]. As Dr. Veena Shankaran of the Hutchinson Cancer Research Center observes:
High-deductible plans are really the epitome of the access to care problem. People do not have the liquid cash to meet the deductible, so you see delays in care or even avoiding treatment altogether [19].
4.2 Inadequate benefits
Private insurers have many ways to game the system at the expense of patients and taxpayers. Even after passage of the Affordable Care Act (ACA) in 2010, they discriminate against the sick by such benefit designs that limit access, high cost-sharing, restrictive drug formularies, inadequate and ever-changing networks of physicians and hospitals, and deceptive marketing practices. Meanwhile, they market new kinds of inadequate gap insurance, immune from the ACA’s requirements, that include, for example, copays for treatment and lump sum payments upon diagnosis of such conditions as cancer, heart disease and stroke [20]. Short-term plans are another way to evade the ACA’s requirements, providing very limited coverage for up to 1 year at exorbitant costs. Correctly labeled as “junk insurance,” the aptly named Golden Rule Insurance has brought big profits to its owner, the giant United Health Group [21].
4.3 Profiteering
Private insurers consume 15–20% of the health care dollar in bureaucracy, administrative overhead, and profits. Figure 3 shows how much higher that overhead is compared to other countries [22]. At the same time, they have received large subsidies from the federal government for many years, now about $685 billion a year [23] and projected by the Congressional Budget Office to double in another 10 years [24].
Figure 3.
Insurance overhead in 6 countries (CAF Figure 11.2, 151).
Overpayments for privatized Medicare and Medicaid have been a bonanza for private insurers, accounting for more than one-half of their net revenue. Their fraudulent practice of up-coding, mentioned above, accounts for much of that revenue, as shown in Figure 4 [25].
Figure 4.
(CAF Figure 4.2, 45).
Wall Street investors have much to say about what private insurers do in their unending quest for more profits. As one example, CVS Health, the parent company of Aetna, made far more money in 2021 than most other publicly traded corporations, in part because of Aetna’s jacking up premiums and cost sharing, which it will do again in 2022. When the company issued a guidance for 2022 profits of just $12 billion to $13 billion (down just slightly from that for 2021 of $12.5 to $13 billion), its share price dropped by 6%, unnerving investors, and the company proceeded to buy back its own shares to boost earnings per share. Aetna’s health insurance market has going down due to the decline of employer-sponsored health insurance, with less than one-third of businesses with 50 or fewer employees now offering health benefits [26].
Stepping back to consider all of this, Gerald Friedman, PhD, Professor of Economics at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and author of The Case for Medicare for All, brings us this important insight:
In many commodity markets, profits are a reward for making good products at low cost. Profits reward the company that makes the laptop, for example, giving it an incentive to produce a computer at low price; the more they sell, the more they profit. The incentives in health care are different, however. Rather than increasing sales, health insurers profit by screening customers, segmenting the market so as to exclude those likely to use health care (“lemon dropping”) while attracting the healthy and lucky who use less health care (cherry picking”). While profitable, such activities add to the cost of America’s bloated health care administration, raising a question that we should ask of all health care insurers: how many patients did your company help today? [27]
4.4 Unreliability: exiting less profitable markets
Despite receiving long-term subsidies from the federal government, private health insurers leave their market, often with little advance notice, whenever their profits fall below expectations of their CEOs and shareholders. As just one example, at least 1.4 million people in 32 states lost their ACA coverage at the end of 2016, leaving them fewer choices than before [28].
4.5 Segmented risk pools
To be effective nationally, health insurance must be compulsory in order to eliminate segmentation of risk pools, as Dr. Henry Sigerist, then Director of the History of Medicine at the Johns Hopkins University, recognized as far back as 1944:
Illness is an unpredictable risk for the individual family, but we know fairly accurately how much illness a large group of people will have, how much medical care they will require, and how many days they will have to spend in hospitals. In other words, we cannot budget the cost of illness for the individual family but we can budget it for the nation. The principle must be to spread the risk among as many people as possible … The experience of the last 15 years in the United States [since 1931] has, in my opinion, demonstrated that voluntary health insurance does not solve the problem of the nation. It reaches only certain groups and is always at the mercy of economic fluctuations … Hence, if we decide to finance medical services through insurance, the insurance system must be compulsory [29].
5. Reform alternatives
The above account of the expensive missteps in U.S. health insurance over these many years shows how important universal coverage is to meet the needs of our population, as has been shown in many advanced countries around the world. Remarkably, a proposal was made for national health insurance by Teddy Roosevelt as a presidential candidate on the progressive ticket more than a century ago in 1912. It was rejected then and thereafter as the political debate became controlled by corporate stakeholders in the present lucrative financing “system.” With health care now accounting for more than one-sixth of the nation’s GDP, corporate power and lobbying for its continuance have continued to block reform efforts for cost containment, health care equity, and universal coverage. It has become increasingly clear that employer-sponsored health insurance has itself been a big part of the problem, as Drs. Anne Case and Angus Deaton, Professors Emeritus of Economics and Public Affairs at Princeton University recently observed:
The historical accident of employer-based coverage is a huge barrier to reform. So is the way that the health care industry is protected in Washington by its lobbyists— five for every member of Congress [30].
Health care has become a front-burner issue in recent political campaigns and as we head into the 2022 and 2024 election cycles. These four reform alternatives are up for debate:
Building on the Affordable Care Act (ACA) of 2010;
Medicare for Some: increasing the numbers of insured by Medicare by lowering the eligibility age to 60, together with a public option for sale alongside private plans on the ACA’s exchanges;
Privatized Medicare Advantage for All; and
Single-payer Medicare for All.
The first three of these alternatives would leave a for-profit, multi-payer financing system in place with all of the problems described previously. The fourth alternative is the only one that can bring a not-for-profit public financing system with universal coverage for all Americans, cost containment, improved access and quality of care. There is a bill in the House of Representatives (H. R. 1976) for Medicare for All with more than 120 co-sponsors. However, the Congress is sharply divided along partisan lines, and this bill may have to wait for the forthcoming elections for the Congress to clarify its priorities.
Although much of organized medicine in the U.S. has opposed national health insurance over the years, that stance is beginning to change as so many physicians find our present multi-payer financing system such an impediment to daily medical practice. Medicare for All already has strong support among the general public, physicians and nurses. Experience and evidence over the years confirms its advantages as shown by Table 2 [31]. Had Medicare for All been in place during 2019, it is estimated that we would have saved more than $1 trillion. Figure 5 shows how those savings would have been taken place [32].
ACA
Public option
Medicare advantage for all
Medicare for all
Access
Restricted
Restricted
Restricted
Unrestricted
Choice
Restricted
Restricted
Restricted
Unrestricted
Cost containment
Never
Never
Never
Yes
Quality of care
Unacceptable
Unacceptable
Unacceptable
Improved
Bureaucracy
Large, wasteful
Large, wasteful
Large, wasteful
Much reduced
Universal coverage
Never
Never
Never
Yes
Accountability
No
No
No
Yes
Sustainability
No
No
No
Yes
Table 2.
Comparison of four reform alternatives based on evidence (Table 13.1, 60 years, 160).
Figure 5.
Medicare for all savings compared to current system, 2019 (Figure 14.2, MIC 269).
If and when Medicare for All can be enacted, it will bring a new system of national health insurance for all Americans with comprehensive benefits based on medical need, not ability to pay, together with full choice of hospitals, physicians and other health professionals anywhere in the country. Administrative simplification will drop its single-payer overhead to about 3%, one-sixth of today’s multi-payer overhead. Cost savings will be achieved through large-scale cost controls, including (a) negotiated fee schedules for physicians and other health professionals, who will remain in private practice; (b) global annual budgeting of hospitals and other facilities; and (c) bulk purchasing of drugs and medical devices. Cost sharing through deductibles and copayments will be eliminated at the point of service, and pre-authorization of services will no longer be needed. Higher priority will be given to primary care and public health, while the risk for costs of illness and accidents will be shared across our entire population of 330 million Americans.
6. Conclusion
The corporate transformation of health care in this country from a traditional service ethic to a commodity for sale in an unfettered marketplace is indeed unfortunate. Financing reform through a not-for-profit public mechanism—Medicare for All—can go a long way to restoring the traditional service ethic of health care as a moral enterprise. We shall see what the future will bring. Meanwhile, Winston Churchill gives us hope:
Americans will always do the right thing—after they exhaust all the alternatives.
\n',keywords:"health insurance, cost sharing, health care costs, cost containment, moral hazard, access to care, single payer financing, multi-payer financing, privatization, overpayments, Medicare, Medicaid, Medicare for all",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81190.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81190.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81190",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81190",totalDownloads:23,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 8th 2022",dateReviewed:"February 25th 2022",datePrePublished:"April 10th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"April 10th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Since the 1960s, the United States has subscribed to a business model of health care, largely for-profit with most private insurers on a mission to maximize their own revenues. Most insurers use cost sharing through deductibles and copayments based on the principle that enrollees will overuse health care services unless they have enough “skin in the game.” As health care has been corporatized within a medical-industrial complex, even public insurers such as Medicare and Medicaid have been privatized with the same mission. Employer-sponsored health insurance has been the core of insurance in the U.S. since World War II, but has become unaffordable for employers and employees alike. This article brings historical perspective to how health insurance has been transformed from its not-for-profit origins in the 1930s, how it has become unaffordable in recent decades as it costs more and covers less, and how our multi-payer financing system has failed the public interest. Reform alternatives are discussed, but a system of universal coverage through a public, single-payer national plan is still beyond reach politically.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81190",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81190",signatures:"John Geyman",book:{id:"11223",type:"book",title:"Health Insurance",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Health Insurance",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Aida Isabel Tavares",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11223.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-871-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-870-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-872-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"196819",title:"Prof.",name:"Aida Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Tavares",slug:"aida-isabel-tavares",fullName:"Aida Isabel Tavares"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"417658",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Geyman",fullName:"John Geyman",slug:"john-geyman",email:"jgeyman@uw.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Historical overview",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Growth of a denial industry",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Managed care",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Privatization of public programs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Consolidation and growing market power",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. How health care is paid for in the U.S.",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. How private health insurance and multi-payer financing have failed the public interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1 Unaffordable costs and increased cost sharing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.2 Inadequate benefits",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.3 Profiteering",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.4 Unreliability: exiting less profitable markets",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.5 Segmented risk pools",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Reform alternatives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Starr P. The Social Transformation of American Medicine. New York: Basic Books; 1982. pp. 252-253'},{id:"B2",body:'Stuart JE. The Blue Cross Story: An Informal Biography of the Voluntary Prepayment Plan for Hospital Care. Chicago: BCBSA Archives; 1966. p. 19'},{id:"B3",body:'Hacker JS. The Great Risk Shift: The Assault on American Jobs, Families, Health Care, and Retirement, and How You Can Fight Back. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006. p. 145'},{id:"B4",body:'Fuhrmans V. Billing battle. Fights over health claims spawn a new arms race. Wall Street Journal. 2007:A1'},{id:"B5",body:'Schramm C. The Diseconomies of Blue Cross Conversion. Washington, D.C.: Alliance for Advancing Non-Profit Health Care; 2005'},{id:"B6",body:'Silvers JB. This is the Most Realistic Path to Medicare for All. New York Times; 2019'},{id:"B7",body:'Jensen GA, Morrissey MA, Gaffney S, et al. The new dominance of managed care: Insurance trends in the 1990s. Health Affairs (Millwood). 1997;16(1):125-136'},{id:"B8",body:'Livingston S. Insurers profit from Medicare Advantage’s incentive to add coding that boosts reimbursement. Modern Healthcare. 2018'},{id:"B9",body:'Geyman JP. Shredding the Social Contract: The Privatization of Medicare. Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press; 2006. p. 206'},{id:"B10",body:'Waddill K. Health insurance consolidation grew from 2014 to 2020. Health Payer Intelligence. 2021'},{id:"B11",body:'Murphy T. United Health Looks Beyond Insurance to Help Fuel 4Q Growth. New York City, New York: Associated Press; 2017'},{id:"B12",body:'Reinhardt UE. Priced Out: The Economic and Ethical Costs of American Health Care. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; 2019. p. 63'},{id:"B13",body:'Saez E, Zucman G. The Triumph of Injustice: How the Rich Dodge Taxes and How to Make Them Pay. New York: W. W. Norton & Company; 2019. p. xi'},{id:"B14",body:'Gillers H. Retiree health benefits cut. Wall Street Journal. 2019'},{id:"B15",body:'KFF Health Affairs. Average Family Premiums Rose 4 Percent to $21,342 in 2020, Benchmark KFF Employer Health Benefit Survey Finds. KFF; 2020'},{id:"B16",body:'Levey NN. Health Insurance Deductibles Soar, Leaving Americans with Unaffordable Bills. Los Angeles Times; 2019'},{id:"B17",body:'Himmelstein DU, Lawless RM, Thorne D, et al. Medical bankruptcy: Still common despite the Affordable Care Act. American Journal of Public Health. 2019;109(3):431-433'},{id:"B18",body:'The Editors. Out of Pocket, out of control. Bloomberg View. 2015'},{id:"B19",body:'Shankaran V. As quoted by Stallings, E. High-deductible health policies linked to delayed diagnosis and treatment. NPR. 2019'},{id:"B20",body:'Silverman RE. For workers, an ‘insurance on insurance.’ Wall Street Journal. 2016:B5'},{id:"B21",body:'Hiltzic M. Why the Short-term Health Plans are Cheap: They Shortchange you on Care. Los Angeles Times; 2019'},{id:"B22",body:'Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. 2016'},{id:"B23",body:'Ockerman E. It Costs $685 Billion a Year to Subsidize U. S. Health Insurance. Bloomberg News; 2018'},{id:"B24",body:'Potter W. Take it from Me, Tweaks won’t Fix Health Care. USA Today; 2018'},{id:"B25",body:'Geruso M, Layton T. Up-coding Inflates Medicare Costs in Excess of $2 Billion Annually. UT News, University of Texas at Austin; 2015'},{id:"B26",body:'Potter W. Despite a Profitable 2021, Expect Higher Deductibles and Premiums in Aetna’s Health Plans for 2022. Wendell Potter NOW; 2022'},{id:"B27",body:'Friedman G. An Open Letter to the New York Times that was Rejected. 2016'},{id:"B28",body:'Tracer Z, Darie T. More than 1 Million in Obamacare to Lose Plans as Insurers Quit. Bloomberg News; 2016'},{id:"B29",body:'Sigerist H. Medical care for all the people. Canadian Journal of Public Health. 1944;35(7):258'},{id:"B30",body:'Case A, Deaton A. The Sickness of Our System. Time; 2020. p. 81'},{id:"B31",body:'Geyman JP. Transformation of U. S. Health Care: 1960-2020: One Family Physician’s Journey. Friday Harbor, WA: Copernicus Healthcare; 2022. p. 160'},{id:"B32",body:'Freidman E. The Case for Medicare for All. Medford, MA: Polity Press; 2020. p. 62'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"John Geyman",address:"jgeyman@uw.edu",affiliation:'
Family Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
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Since then he has been a postdoctoral researcher at the Dipartimento di Ingegneria Meccanica e Gestionale of the Politecnico di Bari, Italy. His research interests are in the fields of Biomechanics, Mechanobiology and Optical Metrology. 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Then, the chapter will discuss three aspects of 5G which are, namely, (1) Regulations, (2) security, and (3) the 5 enabling Technologies. Then, the chapter will discuss the real-life case of South Korea mobile carrier.",book:{id:"8511",slug:"cyberspace",title:"Cyberspace",fullTitle:"Cyberspace"},signatures:"Evon Abu-Taieh, Issam H. Al Hadid and Ali Zolait",authors:null},{id:"68561",title:"Cyberspace and Artificial Intelligence: The New Face of Cyber-Enhanced Hybrid Threats",slug:"cyberspace-and-artificial-intelligence-the-new-face-of-cyber-enhanced-hybrid-threats",totalDownloads:1236,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"While, until recently, cyber operations have constituted a specific subset of defense and security concerns, the synergization of cyberspace and artificial intelligence (AI), which are driving the Fourth Industrial Revolution, has raised the threat level of cyber operations, making them a centerpiece of what are called hybrid threats. The concept of hybrid threat is presently a key concern for the defense and security community; cyber-enabled and cyber-enhanced hybrid operations have been amplified in scope, frequency, speed, and threat level due to the synergies that come from the use of cyberspace and machine learning (ML)-based solutions. In the present work, we address the relevance of cyberspace-based operations and artificial intelligence for the implementation of hybrid operations and reflect on what this cyber dimension of hybrid operations implies for the concept of what constitutes a cyberweapon, the concept of hybrid human intelligence (hybrid HUMINT) and possible responses to the hybrid threat patterns.",book:{id:"8511",slug:"cyberspace",title:"Cyberspace",fullTitle:"Cyberspace"},signatures:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",authors:[{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves"}]},{id:"52156",title:"Case Study: Installing RFID Systems in Supermarkets",slug:"case-study-installing-rfid-systems-in-supermarkets",totalDownloads:2471,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Radio frequency identification technology (RFID) is considered as the reference technology for wireless identification and item traceability. Supermarkets are one of those scenarios where the RFID potential can be harnessed. In theory, RFID in supermarkets shows several advantages compared with traditional barcode systems, offering real‐time inventory, stock control, cash queues, among others. In practice, its massive and global implementation is still being delayed due to the high quantity of factors that degrade the RFID system performance in these scenarios, causing uncontrolled items and identification losses and, at the end, economical losses. Some works in the scientific literature studied a single or a set of problems related to RFID performance, mostly focused on a specific communication layer: antennas and hardware design, interferences at physical layer, medium access control (MAC) protocols, security issues, or middleware challenges. However, there are no works describing in depth the set of factors affecting RFID performance in a specific scenario and contemplating the entire communication layer stack. The first challenge of this chapter is to provide a complete analysis of those physical and environmental factors, hardware and software limitations, and standard and regulation restrictions that have a direct impact on the RFID system performance in supermarkets. This analysis is addressed by communication layers, paying attention to the point of view of providers, supermarket companies, and final customers. Some of the most feasible and influential research works that address individual problems are also enumerated. Finally, taking the results extracted from this study, this chapter provides a Guide of Good Practices (GGPs), giving a global vision for addressing a successful RFID implementation project, useful for researchers, developers, and installers.",book:{id:"5368",slug:"radio-frequency-identification",title:"Radio Frequency Identification",fullTitle:"Radio Frequency Identification"},signatures:"María-Victoria Bueno‐Delgado, Francesc Burrull and Pablo Pavón‐\nMariño",authors:[{id:"186584",title:"Dr.",name:"M.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Bueno-Delgado",slug:"m.v.-bueno-delgado",fullName:"M.V. Bueno-Delgado"},{id:"194375",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesc",middleName:null,surname:"Burrull",slug:"francesc-burrull",fullName:"Francesc Burrull"},{id:"194376",title:"Prof.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Pavón-Mariño",slug:"pablo-pavon-marino",fullName:"Pablo Pavón-Mariño"}]},{id:"52083",title:"A Methodology for Evaluating Security in Commercial RFID Systems",slug:"a-methodology-for-evaluating-security-in-commercial-rfid-systems",totalDownloads:1711,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:"Although RFID has become a widespread technology, the developers of numerous commercial systems have not taken care of security properly. This chapter presents a methodology for detecting common security flaws. The methodology is put in practice using an open-source RFID platform (Proxmark 3), and it is tested in different fields, such as public transportation or animal identification. The results obtained show that the consistent application of the methodology allows researchers to perform security audits easily and detect, mitigate, or avoid risks and possible attacks.",book:{id:"5368",slug:"radio-frequency-identification",title:"Radio Frequency Identification",fullTitle:"Radio Frequency Identification"},signatures:"Tiago M. Fernández-Caramés, Paula Fraga-Lamas, Manuel Suárez-\nAlbela and Luis Castedo",authors:[{id:"186818",title:"Dr.",name:"Tiago M.",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández-Caramés",slug:"tiago-m.-fernandez-carames",fullName:"Tiago M. Fernández-Caramés"},{id:"193724",title:"Dr.",name:"Paula",middleName:null,surname:"Fraga-Lamas",slug:"paula-fraga-lamas",fullName:"Paula Fraga-Lamas"},{id:"193725",title:"Mr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Suárez-Albela",slug:"manuel-suarez-albela",fullName:"Manuel Suárez-Albela"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"551",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,annualVolume:null,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11402,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:58,paginationItems:[{id:"81961",title:"Antioxidants as an Adjuncts to Periodontal Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105016",signatures:"Sura Dakhil Jassim and Ali Abbas Abdulkareem",slug:"antioxidants-as-an-adjuncts-to-periodontal-therapy",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Trauma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11567.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"82357",title:"Caries Management Aided by Fluorescence-Based Devices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105567",signatures:"Atena Galuscan, Daniela Jumanca and Aurora Doris Fratila",slug:"caries-management-aided-by-fluorescence-based-devices",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Caries - The Selection of Restoration Methods and Restorative Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11565.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"81894",title:"Diet and Nutrition and Their Relationship with Early Childhood Dental Caries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105123",signatures:"Luanna Gonçalves Ferreira, Giuliana de Campos Chaves Lamarque and Francisco Wanderley Garcia Paula-Silva",slug:"diet-and-nutrition-and-their-relationship-with-early-childhood-dental-caries",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Caries - The Selection of Restoration Methods and Restorative Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11565.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"81595",title:"Prosthetic Concepts in Dental Implantology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104725",signatures:"Ivica Pelivan",slug:"prosthetic-concepts-in-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:27,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:8,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6668",title:"Dental Caries",subtitle:"Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6668.jpg",slug:"dental-caries-diagnosis-prevention-and-management",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan",hash:"b0f7667770a391f772726c3013c1b9ba",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Dental Caries - Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7572",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7572.jpg",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"July 3rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Serdar Gözler",hash:"7cb94732cfb315f8d1e70ebf500eb8a9",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7060",title:"Gingival Disease",subtitle:"A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7060.jpg",slug:"gingival-disease-a-professional-approach-for-treatment-and-prevention",publishedDate:"October 23rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",hash:"b81d39988cba3a3cf746c1616912cf41",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Gingival Disease - A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",editors:[{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. 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\r\n\tIf we aim to prosper as a society and as a species, there is no alternative to sustainability-oriented development and growth. Sustainable development is no longer a choice but a necessity for us all. Ecosystems and preserving ecosystem services and inclusive urban development present promising solutions to environmental problems. Contextually, the emphasis on studying these fields will enable us to identify and define the critical factors for territorial success in the upcoming decades to be considered by the main-actors, decision and policy makers, technicians, and public in general.
\r\n
\r\n\tHolistic urban planning and environmental management are therefore crucial spheres that will define sustainable trajectories for our urbanizing planet. This urban and environmental planning topic aims to attract contributions that address sustainable urban development challenges and solutions, including integrated urban water management, planning for the urban circular economy, monitoring of risks, contingency planning and response to disasters, among several other challenges and solutions.
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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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