Cost benefit analysis of plastic lining on 1 km of channel
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
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\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8909",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Slope Engineering",title:"Slope Engineering",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The field of slope engineering encompasses slope stability analysis and design, movement monitoring, and slope safety management and maintenance. Engineers in this field are concerned with landslides and other gravity-stimulated mass movements. Their job is to frequently evaluate existing and proposed slopes to assess their stability. As such, this book provides information on remote sensing in landslide detection, tunnel face stability, stability analysis and maintenance of cut slopes, design techniques in rock and soil engineering, statistical models for landslide risk mapping, slope stability analysis in open-pit mines, ecological engineering for slope stabilization, and asphalt-stabilized strengthening in open-pit coal mining.",isbn:"978-1-83962-924-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-923-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-946-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82508",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"slope-engineering",numberOfPages:206,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"9be2d5801074590ab1d79845ee5c47e9",bookSignature:"Ali Ismet Kanlı",publishedDate:"March 17th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8909.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3634,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:3,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 30th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 21st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 19th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 8th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 6th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"243975",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali Ismet",middleName:null,surname:"Kanlı",slug:"ali-ismet-kanli",fullName:"Ali Ismet Kanlı",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243975/images/system/243975.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Ali Ismet Kanlı received his undergraduate degree in 1989 from Istanbul University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Geophysical Engineering. In 1994, he graduated from Istanbul University, Institute of Science with an MSc, and in 1998, he completed his doctorate at the same institute. He began his academic career in 1992 as a research assistant in Istanbul University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Geophysical Engineering, Division of Applied Geophysics. He became an assistant professor in 2001, an associate professor in 2010, and a full professor in 2016 for the same division. Dr. Kanli is the head of the Applied Geophysics Division of the Geophysical Engineering Department. He has carried out and directed many international and national projects and has several national and international scientific publications to his credit. He is an editorial board member of ten international journals and a reviewer for many international and national journals. He has also been a referee in many international and national projects. Dr. Ali is a member of three national and eight international scientific associations. His areas of scientific interest include applied and near-surface geophysics, engineering and environmental geophysics, engineering seismology, exploration seismology, structural geophysics, earthquake engineering, geotechnical geophysics, borehole geophysics and well logging, alternative energy, and geothermal exploration.",institutionString:"Istanbul University Cerrahpaşa",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Istanbul University Cerrahpaşa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"708",title:"Geotechnical Engineering",slug:"engineering-civil-engineering-geotechnical-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"75354",title:"Design and Construction for Tunnel Face Stability: Theoretical and Modeling Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96277",slug:"design-and-construction-for-tunnel-face-stability-theoretical-and-modeling-approach",totalDownloads:357,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Tunneling is considered to be among the most important projects in all countries worldwide. However, interspersed, some tunnels rise to problems of instability during excavation. This chapter is a case study of the tunnel of “Djebel El Kantour” which is part of the East–West Algerian Highway. Face stability is the most critical problems that affect the subject of our research. This study is carried out via analytical and numerical methods based on the instability relationship, characteristics of the ground and the geometry of the tunnel, to draw conclusions and recommendations for overcoming this problem.",signatures:"Adel Aissi, Abdelghani Brikat, Ali Ismet Kanlı, Aissa Benselhoub and Oussama Kessal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75354",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75354",authors:[{id:"243975",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali Ismet",surname:"Kanlı",slug:"ali-ismet-kanli",fullName:"Ali Ismet Kanlı"},{id:"324217",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Aissa",surname:"Benselhoub",slug:"aissa-benselhoub",fullName:"Aissa Benselhoub"},{id:"339147",title:"Dr.",name:"Adelghani",surname:"Brikat",slug:"adelghani-brikat",fullName:"Adelghani Brikat"},{id:"339149",title:"Dr.",name:"Adel",surname:"Aissi",slug:"adel-aissi",fullName:"Adel Aissi"},{id:"344729",title:"Dr.",name:"Oussama",surname:"Kessal",slug:"oussama-kessal",fullName:"Oussama Kessal"}],corrections:null},{id:"74438",title:"Geoysynthetic Reinforced Embankment Slopes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95106",slug:"geoysynthetic-reinforced-embankment-slopes",totalDownloads:578,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Slope failures lead to loss of life and damage to property. Slope instability of natural slope depends on natural and manmade factors such as excessive rainfall, earthquakes, deforestation, unplanned construction activity, etc. Manmade slopes are formed for embankments and cuttings. Steepening of slopes for construction of rail/road embankments or for widening of existing roads is a necessity for development. Use of geosynthetics for steep slope construction considering design and environmental aspects could be a viable alternative to these issues. Methods developed for unreinforced slopes have been extended to analyze geosynthetic reinforced slopes accounting for the presence of reinforcement. Designing geosynthetic reinforced slope with minimum length of geosynthetics leads to economy. This chapter presents review of literature and design methodologies available for reinforced slopes with granular and marginal backfills. Optimization of reinforcement length from face end of the slope and slope - reinforcement interactions are also presented.",signatures:"Akshay Kumar Jha and Madhav Madhira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74438",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74438",authors:[{id:"327589",title:"Dr.",name:"Akshay Kumar",surname:"Jha",slug:"akshay-kumar-jha",fullName:"Akshay Kumar Jha"},{id:"329058",title:"Prof.",name:"M.R.",surname:"Madhav",slug:"m.r.-madhav",fullName:"M.R. Madhav"}],corrections:null},{id:"75210",title:"Design Techniques in Rock and Soil Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90195",slug:"design-techniques-in-rock-and-soil-engineering",totalDownloads:400,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"At the initial stage of tunnel design, the tunnel stability can be assessed by different design techniques which are broadly classified into three categories i.e. Mathematical Analysis, Empirical Methods and Numerical Analysis. Mathematical methods or closed form solutions are more precise methods; however, its use is limited to simple geometries and almost impossible for complex geometries due to complex and tedious calculations involved. In practice, Empirical and Numerical Methods are usually used for stability analysis of tunnels. It should be noted that it is not the replacement of final design. Empirical design methods use information about the structural geology and other rock mass properties as input that can be easily obtained at the initial stage of a project. Numerical Methods commonly require mechanical properties, especially strength and deformation of rocks. Numerical methods are also considered as precise due to provision of allowance for variable inputs and geometry and having ability for sensitivity analysis. It is good practice to evaluate the stability of tunnels using at least two Empirical methods and validated through Numerical methods.",signatures:"Zahid Ur Rehman, Sajjad Hussain, Noor Mohammad, Akhtar Gul and Bushra Nawaz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75210",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75210",authors:[{id:"280305",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Zahid Ur",surname:"Rehman",slug:"zahid-ur-rehman",fullName:"Zahid Ur Rehman"},{id:"314395",title:"Mr.",name:"Sajjad",surname:"Hussain",slug:"sajjad-hussain",fullName:"Sajjad Hussain"},{id:"314396",title:"Ms.",name:"Bushra",surname:"Nawaz",slug:"bushra-nawaz",fullName:"Bushra Nawaz"},{id:"344014",title:"Dr.",name:"Noor",surname:"Mohammad",slug:"noor-mohammad",fullName:"Noor Mohammad"},{id:"344015",title:"Mr.",name:"Akhtar",surname:"Gul",slug:"akhtar-gul",fullName:"Akhtar Gul"}],corrections:null},{id:"73684",title:"Three Dimensional Slope Stability Analysis of Open Pit Mine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94088",slug:"three-dimensional-slope-stability-analysis-of-open-pit-mine",totalDownloads:486,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The 3-dimensional slope stability analysis has been developing rapidly since the last decade, and currently a number of geomechanical researchers in the world have put forward ideas for optimization of slope design related to the economics and safety of mining operations. The 3-dimensional slope stability analysis methods has answered the assumption of spatial parameters in determining safety factors and the failure probability, thus the volume of failed material and the location of the most critical slopes can be determined. This chapter discusses two methods of 3-dimensional slope stability analysis, namely the limit equilibrium method (LEM) and finite element method (FEM). LEM 3D requires an assumption of failure type with the variable of analysis are the maximum number of columns, the amount of grid points, increment radius, and type of slip surface. On the other hand, FEM 3D requires an assumption of convergence type, absolute force and energy, with the variable of analysis are mesh type and maximum number of iterations. LEM 3D shows that the cuckoo algorithm is reliable in obtaining position and shape of slip surface. Meanwhile FEM 3D, the optimum iteration number needs to be considered to improve analysis efficiency and preserving accuracy.",signatures:"Masagus Ahmad Azizi, Irfan Marwanza, Muhammad Kemal Ghifari and Afiat Anugrahadi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73684",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73684",authors:[{id:"326051",title:"Dr.",name:"Masagus Ahmad",surname:"Azizi",slug:"masagus-ahmad-azizi",fullName:"Masagus Ahmad Azizi"},{id:"331111",title:"Dr.",name:"Irfan",surname:"Marwanza",slug:"irfan-marwanza",fullName:"Irfan Marwanza"},{id:"331112",title:"Dr.",name:"Afiat",surname:"Anugrahadi",slug:"afiat-anugrahadi",fullName:"Afiat Anugrahadi"},{id:"331113",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad Kemal",surname:"Ghifari",slug:"muhammad-kemal-ghifari",fullName:"Muhammad Kemal Ghifari"}],corrections:null},{id:"74343",title:"Asphalt Fill Strengthening of Free Slip Surfaces of Shale Slopes in Asphaltite Open Quarry: Stability Analysis of Free Sliding Surface for Wet Shale Slopes in Avgamasya Asphaltite Open Quarry No 2. Site",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94893",slug:"asphalt-fill-strengthening-of-free-slip-surfaces-of-shale-slopes-in-asphaltite-open-quarry-stability",totalDownloads:403,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The stability analysis carried out by GEO5 software and uses free sliding analysis by wet and pore saturated weight charting provided the safety factor of 1.35. The safety precautions were followed by inclinometers and wire extensometer measurements. The other pore saturated asphalt bound shear box and unaxial test compression tests were resulted in the geotechnical and geoseismical data over sliding soil /shale inter surface quality and the characteristics of free rock falling risk and discontinuity distribution, sub crack density and distribution on stereo nets were determined. The research was firstly followed the perched water levels on geoseismical data over causing water burst or explosion of highly free mud and landslides. The hazardous rock falls over saturated soil and uncohesive rock explosions. The proposed study was secondly as strengthening methods such as asphalt mixing as precautious on shear stabilization and other wire mesh barriers anchored. The free sliding cracks was filled by asphalt and compressed for stabilization strengthening known as the characteristics of avoiding shear falls in the future. The unconditional expectations related to this study was also defined for this region such as the influence of the ground water, rock cracks and slope design, explosion exchange dynamics leading to landslide.",signatures:"Yildırım İsmail Tosun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74343",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74343",authors:[{id:"200229",title:"Dr.",name:"Yıldırım",surname:"İsmail Tosun",slug:"yildirim-ismail-tosun",fullName:"Yıldırım İsmail Tosun"}],corrections:null},{id:"73907",title:"The Potential of Remote Sensing to Assess Conditioning Factors for Landslide Detection at a Regional Scale: The Case in Southeastern Colombia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94251",slug:"the-potential-of-remote-sensing-to-assess-conditioning-factors-for-landslide-detection-at-a-regional",totalDownloads:334,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This landslide detection research applied remote sensing techniques. Morphometry to derive both DEM terrain parameters and land use variables. SAR interferometry (InSAR) for showing that InSAR coherence and InSAR displacement obtained with SRTM DEM 30 m resolution were strongly related to landslides. InSAR coherence values from 0.43 to 0.66 had a high association with landslides. PS-InSAR allowed to estimate terrain velocities in the satellite line-of-sight (LOS) in the range − 10 to 10 mm/year concerning extremely slow landslide displacement rates. SAR polarimetry (PolSAR) was used over L-band UAVSAR quad-pol data, obtaining the scattering mechanism of volume and surface retrodispersion more associated with landslides. The optical remote sensing with a multitemporal approach for change detection by multi-year Landsat (5, 7 and 8)-NDVI, showed that NDVI related to landslides had values between 0.42 and 0.72. All the information was combined into a multidimensional grid product and crossed with training data containing a Colombian Geologic Service (CGS) landslide inventory. A detection model was implemented using the Random Forest supervised method relating the training sample of landslides with multidimensional explanatory variables. A test sample with a proportion of 70:30 allowed to find the accuracy of detection of about 70.8% for slides type.",signatures:"Nixon Alexander Correa-Muñoz and Carol Andrea Murillo-Feo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73907",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73907",authors:[{id:"326644",title:"Prof.",name:"Nixon",surname:"Correa-Munoz",slug:"nixon-correa-munoz",fullName:"Nixon Correa-Munoz"},{id:"326647",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol Andrea",surname:"Murillo-Feo",slug:"carol-andrea-murillo-feo",fullName:"Carol Andrea Murillo-Feo"}],corrections:null},{id:"74242",title:"Comparative Evaluation of Various Statistical Models and Its Accuracy for Landslide Risk Mapping: A Case Study on Part of Himalayan Region, India",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94347",slug:"comparative-evaluation-of-various-statistical-models-and-its-accuracy-for-landslide-risk-mapping-a-c",totalDownloads:371,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Among other natural hazards, Landslides are the most prominent and frequently occurring natural disaster in the state of Himachal Pradesh with higher socio-economical losses. About 0.42 million sq.kms of area are prone to landslide activities in our country that is excluding the snow covered areas. The current research focuses on estimating the landslide risk zones of the Shimla Tehsil, Himachal Pradesh using various statistical models. Landslide contributing factors as such Landuse Landcover, Elevation, Slope, Lithology, Soil, Geology and Geomorphology has been used to assess the Landslide risk factors. Data obtained from LANDSAT 8 OLI sensors, SRTM DEM, Soil and Land Use Survey of India and SOI Toposheets have been used as sources. Weighted Overlay, Fuzzy logic and Analytical Hierarchical Process models will be used to categorize the Vulnerability and risk Zones of the study area. The causative factors were analyzed and processed in GIS environment. These values will be then being integrated using various studied models to produce individual landslide vulnerability and risk zones. The results reveal that most of the study area falls under Very Low risk category with a total coverage of 67.34%. Low and Moderate area covers about 23% and 9.13% of the study area. Higher risk areas only account for about 0.46%. Higher percent of the study area is mostly covered by settlements. National highways, Metal roads, Slopes and Denser settlements are located along the Moderate and low risk areas. The results retrieved from the WOM model reveals a total of 55% of the area comes under very low category. Low and Moderate category covers about 31.4% and 10.6% of the study area. High and Very High category cover a total of 1.9% together.",signatures:"C. Prakasam, Aravinth R., Varinder S. Kanwar and B. Nagarajan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74242",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74242",authors:[{id:"327580",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Dr C",surname:"Prakasam",slug:"dr-c-prakasam",fullName:"Dr C Prakasam"},{id:"334305",title:"Mr.",name:"Aravinth",surname:"R",slug:"aravinth-r",fullName:"Aravinth R"},{id:"334307",title:"Dr.",name:"Varinder",surname:"S Kanwar",slug:"varinder-s-kanwar",fullName:"Varinder S Kanwar"},{id:"334308",title:"Dr.",name:"B",surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"b-nagarajan",fullName:"B Nagarajan"}],corrections:null},{id:"73931",title:"Integrated Analysis Method for Stability Analysis and Maintenance of Cut-Slope in Urban",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94252",slug:"integrated-analysis-method-for-stability-analysis-and-maintenance-of-cut-slope-in-urban",totalDownloads:295,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the process of constructing roads for the development of the city, cut-slopes are made by excavating mountains. However, these cut-slopes are degraded in strength by time-deterioration phenomenon, and progressive slope failure is caused. This study developed an integrated analysis method for stability analysis and maintenance of cut-slopes in urban. The slope stability analysis was performed using the finite element model, and the progressive slope failure by time-dependent deterioration was quantified by using the strength parameters of soil applying the strength reduction factor (SRF). The displacements until the slope failure by slope stability analysis were quantified by cumulative displacement curve, velocity curve, and inverse velocity curve and, applied to the slope maintenance method. The inverse-velocity curve applied to the prediction of the time of slope failure was regressed to the 1st linear equation in the brittle material and the 3rd polynomial equation in the ductile material. This is consistent with the proposed formula of Fukuzono and also shows similar behavior to the failure case in literature. In the future, integrated analysis method should be improved through additional research. And it should be applied to cut-slope to prevent disasters.",signatures:"Mincheol Park, Heuisoo Han and Yoonhwa Jin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73931",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73931",authors:[{id:"327494",title:"Dr.",name:"Mincheol",surname:"Park",slug:"mincheol-park",fullName:"Mincheol Park"}],corrections:null},{id:"73557",title:"Ecological Engineering Measures for Ravine Slope Stabilization and Its Sustainable Productive Utilization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94136",slug:"ecological-engineering-measures-for-ravine-slope-stabilization-and-its-sustainable-productive-utiliz",totalDownloads:411,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The 120 countries have committed to set the UNCCD sustainable development goal on achieving the land degradation neutrality by 2030 including India. The target has to be accomplished in a synergistic and cost-effective manner in accordance with countries’ specific national contexts and development priorities. Globally, the ravine landscapes are considered among the world’s most degraded ecosystems. Therefore, restoring ravines is considered a high priority item in the natural resource management programs. The vegetation cover augmented with appropriate conservation measures is the most sought restoration strategy. The engineering measures are prerequisite for slope stabilization and sustainable productive utilization in ravine ecosystem. The several methods for slope stabilization are available but only few are applied in ravine land. 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In addition, professor Cristiana Pop worked as associated researcher in the Anthropology Institute of the Romanian Academy. She has a PhD in sport sciences and a Master’s in Economics.\nShe has over 30 years of experience in teaching and training, and over 70 publications: 11 books, 2 chapters, numerous articles in journals and proceedings. \nDr. Pop\\'s main research interest is the link between body image, body weight, body composition and their psychological effects, and her main activity is promoting a healthy life style, physical activities, and popular sports among students and overweight people. 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However, the ASB was a place not only for trade but also a cradle for cultures, ideas and agricultural development, a place where impressive irrigation and drainage networks have been established to support the flourishing of the oasis.
Since the ancient days agriculture in the ASB region has been possible only with irrigation but viable for millions of farm families to make a living and to have access to sufficient drinking water and healthy food. Since the 1960s, about 8 million ha of land, including natural forest and desert areas, were transferred to irrigated agricultural production in the ASB. The required ca. 96 km3 of irrigation water was conveyed through 323 000 km of channels [6]. In the past four decades, between 80 to 95% of water from the Amudarya and the Syrdarya rivers – the main feeding rivers of the Aral Sea – with annual flows of around 75 km3 and 34 km3 respectively, has been used for irrigation purposes for production of cotton, rice and other crops. However, the present management of irrigated cropland is becoming increasingly unsustainable with a widespread land and water resources degradation, which further threaten the ecological and economic sustainability as well as food security and health of the population in the ASB region.
The case study region Khorezm is located between 60.05 and 61.39 N and 41.13 and 42.02 E in the northwest of Uzbekistan and ASB. Khorezm is a living habitat to over 1.7 million people (as of 2011). Roughly 260 000 ha of the region are used for irrigation purposes. Agriculture in Khorezm is possible with irrigation only to compensate the difference between the low precipitation (annually 100 mm) and high evaporation rates (up to 1400-1600 mm) resulting from the continental climate. Irrigated agriculture in Khorezm contributes to more than 50% of the regional income, provides more than 98% of hard cash revenues, and employs more than 60% of the economically active population [7].
The probability of adequate water supply has been decreasing over the past years [1]. Seasonal variations in river runoff also decrease water availability during the vegetation period [1]. The mentioned water scarcity has been aggravated by external factors, such as river runoff reduction due to climate change and the growing water demand in upstream countries [2], yet also by internal factors, including the expansion of the production of water intensive crops such as cotton and rice and the poor condition of the irrigation and drainage infrastructure causing high water losses [3].
Low conveyance and irrigation efficiencies are thus the main causes of irrigation water losses in the ASB and Khorezm. Water is mainly conveyed by unlined (earthen) irrigation canals [3]. The loss of irrigation water due to seepage and evaporation out of the irrigation canals has raised groundwater levels, thereby causing water-logging of the soil, increased salt concentrations (via evaporative concentration), and lowered crop yields [8]. Additionally, the quality of drinking water, which is often pumped from groundwater, has been negatively affected by increasing salt concentrations.
It is expected that climate change and increasing water use in upstream regions of the basin will change the quantity and temporal behavior of the water resources available in Khorezm for the worse [4]. This underlines the need for improving irrigation efficiency and adequacy of water management in Khorezm, which presently are notoriously low [3]. The enormous water losses in the irrigation system and the shallow ground water table with outcoming negative consequences call for urgent solutions to improve water supply and to increase water use efficiency. Improving irrigation efficiency is urgently needed to (i) reduce the currently enormous waste of water, (ii) contribute to overcoming the underutilization of agricultural yield potentials, and (iii) lower adverse impacts on the soil and groundwater resources [4].
The Amudarya river is a muddy river and used to bring large amount of sediments with irrigation water. These sediments covered the beds of earthen irrigation channels thus lowering infiltration of water and seepage looses. However, after the construction of the Tuyamuyun water reservoir, which main function is to store water, water discharged from the reservoir to the channels became 10-20 times less muddy. As a result, the channels do not receive sediments for bed covering and infiltration of water in the channels is high, the ground water table in the vicinity of the channels is rising, causing secondary soil salinization processes.
Irrigation water management is supported by and conducted with a larger number of dams, pumping stations also for water lifting, canals (lined but mainly earthen), intake structures, flumes and subsurface and vertical drains. The larger infrastructures used to be regularly maintained and operated in contrast to the smaller structures such as pumping stations and intakes from channels as well as the drains, which are insufficiently maintained [3].
Irrigation distribution network comprised of hundreds interfarm canals in Khorezm is characterized by the excessive length – each ha of irrigated agricultural land is serviced by 37.5 meters of irrigation channels. Irrigation water is conveyed to the farm fields through around 2 445 km of channels, of which only 233 (or less than 10%) have concrete lining.
Around 90% of the channels in the Khorezm region have been constructed without any lining measures and are considered earthen canals. Furthermore, the current layout and status of the irrigation and drainage infrastructure also hinder appropriate operation. The present situation is characterized by a large number of small size irrigation fields and a large number of water users with diversified requirements. On the contrary, the irrigation and drainage network has been constructed to serve large production units (kolkhozes and sovkhozes) with high uniformity [2]. With this regards the delivery performance ratio The relation between actual and intended amount of water directed to a scheme or part of a scheme is the most important indicator to assess the operational performance of water distribution
Many measures to increase water use efficiency at different levels have been developed so far, varying from measures for improving conveyance and distribution efficiency to measures for increasing irrigation efficiency at field level. Since irrigated agriculture is the dominant livelihood form in the study region, crop production should be ensured under conditions of reduced water supply, which would necessitate upgrading irrigation networks and management practices and improving water application at field level. The present lack of maintenance of the irrigation infrastructure engraves the on-going deterioration as evidenced by the ever-growing number of silted up and damaged canals, broken gates, outdated pumps, lack of spare parts, and so on. Hence, an improvement of the irrigation infrastructure bears high potential to decrease overall water losses, although it recently was postulated that rehabilitating and renovating the irrigation systems by, for instance, concrete lining of channels could reduce irrigation water losses, but would require extraordinary high investments [12].
Given the present economic and ecological situation, it is necessary to consider not only high returns to investments, as predominantly has been emphasized in the past, but also their relevance for environmental sustainability, while considering also the financial viability of the technical measures for improving conveyance, irrigation, and management efficiencies. At field level water use reduction can be achieved by implementing improved irrigation technologies and water-wise options such as laser guided land leveling, drip or sprinkler irrigation and other through which water use efficiency at field level could be increased but where the costs of technologies showed an inverse relationship [13].
At channel level there also exist various methods for reducing water loss due to seepage and infiltration including: reinforced and unreinforced concrete; geomembranes; flocculant polymers; compacted soils and clays; mud; and plastic liners [14]. These methods have their advantages and disadvantages, but have the common explicit objective to reduce water loss, to lower groundwater level and improve water quality. None of these methods have been examined for their efficiency in the irrigated systems in Central Asia and ASB. In our study we selected the plastic lining to decrease water loss and lower groundwater levels due to appropriateness for the soil type and climate, low cost, local availability of resources, and low maintenance needs, which would potentially be to the benefit of farmers.
Seepage of irrigation water in the earthen canals can be reduced by placing a plastic liner on the canal bed prior to irrigation season. Lining of canals is a well-tested remediation method for minimizing seepage loss from canals.
In 2009-2012 researchers from Urgench State University in Khorezm together with one of the Water Consumers Associations in Khorezm have tested the technology of plastic lining on one of the small interfarm earthen channels in the region.
The selected channel, 2.6 km long, provided irrigation water to 400 ha of farm land and had the discharge capacity of 1.5-2 m3 per second. The average performance ratio hardly reached 0.49, meaning that 51% of water in the channel was lost due to seepage and infiltration.
When applying the technology an area slightly larger than the banks and bottom of the canal was cleaned and excavated of soil. Prior to excavation works the channel was checked for elevation with the use of special leveling laser tools as to ensure gravity flow of water after plastic lining. Approximately 10 to 15 cm of sand was placed as a base on the cleaned bottom of the channel (refer to the photos). The plastic was laid on top of the sand. The plastic was then covered by up to 0.5 m layer of compacted soil to keep the plastic in place, and prevent exposure to the sun.
Appearance of the channel prior to plastic lining
Cleaning the bottom and the banks of the channel
Lining of plastic
Covering of plastic with compacted soil
Gravity flow of water in the plastic lined channel
Specifications of the plastic liner included 100 μm thickness, 7 m wide, and elasticity of 250%. Such plastic is locally available and is usually and widely used by the rural population to cover the temporary greenhouses for year round production of vegetables and green vegetables. The plastic laid at the bottom of the channel can last up to 50 years given the proper coverage by compacted soil and non-exposure to the UV sun rays.
Concurrent with application of plastic liner, fields irrigated from the selected channel were lazer leveled to improve gravity flow. The combination of enhanced gravity flow and water saved resulted in less use of mechanized pumps.
The major achievement of the technology was that average performance ratio in the lined channel increased from 50 to 89% during the growing season. Overall the findings illustrate that plastic lining was effective at reducing water loss due to seepage, groundwater levels decreased in the plastic-lined canal. This was the intended effect of the plastic liner. However, though the plastic lining remained effective at reducing water seepage, as seen in the consistently lower groundwater level, it could not counteract movement of groundwater from nearby areas. High hydraulic conductivity values allowed groundwater from nearby irrigation to seep into the area around the canal thus increasing groundwater levels, which is a common, annually observed phenomena in the entire region [8]. The reasons may include the absence or low efficiency of particular crops contributing biodrainage potential in the irrigated area [15].
Reduced seepage or infiltration of irrigation water allowed saving enormous amount of water (over 10 million m3 during one irrigation season for the total length of 2.6 km), which was used to irrigate additional cropping areas amounting to about 500 ha in the tail end of the channel. Thus, the results showed that given the same amount of water in the channel and given virtually no seepage losses farmers can irrigated twice as large cropping areas, can get additional revenues from additional cropping areas, but also from higher yields (i.e. cotton yield was at least 15% higher compared to other fields) caused by the timely delivery of irrigation water and lower ground water level.
Another major achievement was the gravity flow of water in the lined channel due to leveling measures. Gravity flow allowed the farmers to stop using pumps for delivering water both to the tail end of the channel and to the fields with higher elevation levels compared to the channel. Thus, the farmers could save enormous financial resources for electricity or diesel, not talking about the benefits to the environment.
Water shortage often happens during the peak irrigation season negatively affecting crop yields. Plastic-lined channels hold potential to be used also as decentralized water reservoirs for tackling the problem of temporarily unreliable water supplies. Filling the reservoirs (lined channels) during periods of oversupply of irrigation water could make the farmers more independent from the water supply by the network.
Along with all the evident benefits of plastic lining as an efficient water saving option, there are some obstacles for further dissemination in the region. This is in the first place the financial aspect or high costs of plastic lining (over 15 thousand USD per 1 km of channel). Farmers in the ASB are predominantly not rich and could not afford adopting this option individually. Broad adoption of this technology would require the joint efforts of many farmers using the same channel for irrigating their fields. However, interested in this water saving technology are farmers in the tail end of the channel, whereas farmers in the head of the channel receive water in any case and do not usually want to cooperate and to invest in the technology to the benefit of other farmers. Thus not farmers, but higher level structures, such as Water Consumers Associations, local governments, etc. and decision makers should become the major driving force for disseminating water saving technologies in the environmentally degraded ASB region.
Any innovation, any technology to be accepted and adopted by local farmers and decision makers on higher level should be financially analyzed to show the costs, the benefits and payoff period of the required investments. Economists from Urgench State University have conducted cost benefit analysis of the plastic lining technology both per 1 km of interfarm channel (rather small channel with 5-7 m width) and for the whole Khorezm region.
The technology of plastic lining required 15.3 thousand USD per 1 km of channel length (Table 1). Since it was possible to save around 4 million m3 of irrigation water per 1 km of channel and given the cost of water delivery of around 0.002 USD per m3 the farmers could save around 9.5 thousand USD on water delivery. Furthermore, due to gravity flow in the lined channel, the farmers could save around 3 thousand USD on energy costs for pumps and around 0.5 thousand USD on pumps maintenance.
The timely and in required amount delivery of water to the fields resulted in an increase in particular of cotton yields of up to 0.4 tons per ha. Cotton was used in analysis since it is the main cash crop cultivated in the region. If we assume that at least half of the cropping area supplied by the channel is covered with cotton, then additional income from increased cotton yield could reach 35.6 thousand USD (Table 1).
The efficiency or profitability of plastic lining technology can be analyzed from two perspectives: (1) on farmers’ level (without the consideration of benefits from water delivery costs saving) and (2) on Water Consumers Association level (without the consideration of benefits from increased cotton yields). The farmers thus could receive up to 39 thousand USD of net benefit in the first year if accounted for cotton or 3.6 thousand USD not accounting for cotton revenues. The payoff period for farmers would be 0.4 years with cotton revenues, but more than 4 years without cotton revenues. The payoff period for the Water Consumers Association would be slightly over 1 year.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
1 | \n\t\t\tPL costs, USD | \n\t\t\t15 324,4 | \n\t\t
2 | \n\t\t\tAdditional irrigated area, ha | \n\t\t\t276,3 | \n\t\t
3 | \n\t\t\tTotal irrigated area, ha | \n\t\t\t476,3 | \n\t\t
4 | \n\t\t\tCanal efficiency, % | \n\t\t\t89 | \n\t\t
5 | \n\t\t\tIncrease in canal efficiency, % | \n\t\t\t39 | \n\t\t
6 | \n\t\t\tWater saving, m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t4 019 593,8 | \n\t\t
7 | \n\t\t\tSaved water delivery costs, USD | \n\t\t\t9 570,5 | \n\t\t
8 | \n\t\t\tEnergy for pump, KVt | \n\t\t\t60 000,0 | \n\t\t
9 | \n\t\t\tEnergy saving, USD | \n\t\t\t3 205,7 | \n\t\t
10 | \n\t\t\tMaintanance costs for pump, USD | \n\t\t\t476,2 | \n\t\t
11 | \n\t\t\tIncreased yield, t/ha | \n\t\t\t0,39 | \n\t\t
12 | \n\t\t\tExtra-yield income of cotton, USD | \n\t\t\t35 622 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
13 | \n\t\t\tTotal benefits from PL, USD (9+10+12) | \n\t\t\t39 304 | \n\t\t
14 | \n\t\t\tTotal benefits from PL without cotton, USD (9+10) | \n\t\t\t3 682 | \n\t\t
15 | \n\t\t\tNet benefits from PL, USD (13-1) | \n\t\t\t23 979,3 | \n\t\t
16 | \n\t\t\tNet benefits from PL without cotton (14-1) | \n\t\t\t-11 642,5 | \n\t\t
17 | \n\t\t\tCost recovery, in years (1/13) | \n\t\t\t0,4 | \n\t\t
18 | \n\t\t\tCost recovery without cotton, in years (1/14) | \n\t\t\t4,2 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
19 | \n\t\t\tTotal benefits from PL, USD (7+9+10) | \n\t\t\t13 252 | \n\t\t
20 | \n\t\t\tNet benefits from PL (19-1) | \n\t\t\t-2 072,0 | \n\t\t
21 | \n\t\t\tCost recovery, in years (19/1) | \n\t\t\t1,2 | \n\t\t
Cost benefit analysis of plastic lining on 1 km of channel
PL=plastic lining
Irrigation channels in the Khorezm region were laid on soil of various types from loamy to sandy, which determines the varying delivery performance ratio (or seepage amounts) of channels across the region. The technology of plastic lining could be applied to all the in-farm and interfarm channels in the region, but due to high investment costs, it would make sense to line in the first place channels with beds (bottoms) laid on sand loamy, light loamy and sandy soils, i.e. where most infiltration of irrigation water occurs. According the GIS lab of Urgench State University, there are 1 080 km of such channels in the Khorezm region. Furthermore, if only in-farm and interfarm, small channels are selected, then plastic lining should be applied to only 557 km of channels (Table 2).
Table 2 presents the results of economic feasibility of applying plastic lining in the whole region. The analysis was conducted according to 4 scenarios: scenario 1 covers all irrigation channels; scenario 2 covers interfarm and in-farm channels laid on all soil types; scenario 3 presents calculations for interfarm and in-farm channels laid on light loamy, sandy loamy and sandy soils; and finally scenario 4 covers 40% of the channels from scenario 3 since this amount of channels has the specified width of 5-7 meters. Scenario 4 can be considered the real and first hand to do scenario in the region in order to urgently prevent high water loss due to seepage in the irrigation channels.
Current water loss from all channels in the Khorezm region due to seepage reaches 2.2 km3 of valuable irrigation water, or about 920 thousand m3 of irrigation water per 1 km of channel length. Based on rough calculations after plastic lining of all the channels, water loss would amount to 0.5 km3 of water or 202 thousand m3 of water per 1 km of channel (Table 2). Thus, water saving potential as a result of plastic lining measures in the framework of the real scenario 4 stands at 0.4 km3 of irrigation water or about 9% of total annual water intake from the Amudarya river for irrigation purposes of the Khorezm region. This saved water instead of being infiltrated to the groundwater and thus lost, alternatively could be used to irrigate more than 22 thousand ha of agricultural lands in the region.
According to scenario 4 the region would need to invest around 8.5 million USD (Table 2), whereas the benefits in the first year after plastic lining would reach 6.5 million USD including:
Saving on water delivery – 952 thousand USD
Saving on energy (pumps) – up to 1.8 million USD
Saving on pumps maintenance costs – 265 thousand USD
Additional revenue from increased cotton yields – 3.6 million USD
If taking into account additional revenue from increased cotton yields, the payoff period for plastic lining in the whole region will come due in slightly over 1 year, or 2.8 years without cotton revenues.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Canal length, km | \n\t\t\t2 445 | \n\t\t\t2 029 | \n\t\t\t1 080 | \n\t\t\t557 | \n\t\t
Total intake, km3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t
Conveyance losses, % | \n\t\t\t50 | \n\t\t\t50 | \n\t\t\t50 | \n\t\t\t50 | \n\t\t
Conveyance losses, km3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t2,25 | \n\t\t\t1,87 | \n\t\t\t0,99 | \n\t\t\t0,51 | \n\t\t
Conveyance losses per 1 km, m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t920 328,21 | \n\t\t\t920 328,21 | \n\t\t\t920 328,21 | \n\t\t\t920 328,21 | \n\t\t
Efficiency in canals prior to PL | \n\t\t\t0,39 | \n\t\t\t0,39 | \n\t\t\t0,39 | \n\t\t\t0,39 | \n\t\t
Efficiency in canals after PL | \n\t\t\t0,89 | \n\t\t\t0,89 | \n\t\t\t0,89 | \n\t\t\t0,89 | \n\t\t
Conveyance losses after PL, % | \n\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t
Conveyance losses after PL, m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0,50 | \n\t\t\t0,41 | \n\t\t\t0,22 | \n\t\t\t0,11 | \n\t\t
Conveyance losses after PL per 1 km, m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t202 472,21 | \n\t\t\t202 472,21 | \n\t\t\t202 472,21 | \n\t\t\t202 472,21 | \n\t\t
Water saving, km3 after PL | \n\t\t\t1,76 | \n\t\t\t1,46 | \n\t\t\t0,78 | \n\t\t\t0,40 | \n\t\t
Water saving, in % to total water intake | \n\t\t\t39 | \n\t\t\t32 | \n\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t\t9 | \n\t\t
Cost of PL, USD | \n\t\t\t37 464 705 | \n\t\t\t31 086 253 | \n\t\t\t16 547 203 | \n\t\t\t8 538 512 | \n\t\t
Saved water delivery costs, USD | \n\t\t\t4 178 571 | \n\t\t\t3 467 160 | \n\t\t\t1 845 568 | \n\t\t\t952 331 | \n\t\t
Energy consumption for pumps, KVt | \n\t\t\t146 686 800 | \n\t\t\t121 713 035 | \n\t\t\t64 787 813 | \n\t\t\t33 431 119 | \n\t\t
Energy saving after PL, USD | \n\t\t\t7 837 266 | \n\t\t\t6 502 954 | \n\t\t\t3 461 520 | \n\t\t\t1 786 177 | \n\t\t
Cost savings for maintenance of pumps, USD | \n\t\t\t1 164 181 | \n\t\t\t965 976 | \n\t\t\t514 189 | \n\t\t\t265 326 | \n\t\t
Average area under cotton, ha | \n\t\t\t105 000 | \n\t\t\t87 124 | \n\t\t\t46 376 | \n\t\t\t23 930 | \n\t\t
Increase in yield (15%), tons per ha | \n\t\t\t0,39 | \n\t\t\t0,39 | \n\t\t\t0,39 | \n\t\t\t0,39 | \n\t\t
Increase in income from cotton, USD | \n\t\t\t15 707 250 | \n\t\t\t13 033 055 | \n\t\t\t6 937 491 | \n\t\t\t3 579 810 | \n\t\t
Total benefits from PL, USD | \n\t\t\t28 887 269 | \n\t\t\t23 969 145 | \n\t\t\t12 758 769 | \n\t\t\t6 583 644 | \n\t\t
Total benefits without cotton revenues, USD | \n\t\t\t13 180 019 | \n\t\t\t10 936 090 | \n\t\t\t5 821 278 | \n\t\t\t3 003 834 | \n\t\t
Net benefits from PL, USD | \n\t\t\t-8 577 436 | \n\t\t\t-7 117 108 | \n\t\t\t-3 788 435 | \n\t\t\t-1 954 868 | \n\t\t
Net benefits without cotton revenues, USD | \n\t\t\t-24 284 686 | \n\t\t\t-20 150 163 | \n\t\t\t-10 725 926 | \n\t\t\t-5 534 678 | \n\t\t
Cost recovery, years | \n\t\t\t1,30 | \n\t\t\t1,30 | \n\t\t\t1,30 | \n\t\t\t1,30 | \n\t\t
Cost recovery without cotton revenues, years | \n\t\t\t2,84 | \n\t\t\t2,84 | \n\t\t\t2,84 | \n\t\t\t2,84 | \n\t\t
Economic feasibility of plastic lining technology for the whole Khorezm region
Plastic lining was studied as a first step towards addressing in general counterbalancing lower crop yields in Khorezm due to raised groundwater tables causing soil salinisation. Soil salinization and near-surface groundwater levels are a global problem. As global water supplies come under increased pressure due to population growth and climate change, measures to balance agriculture and the hydrologic system are critical. This study contributes by providing a better understanding of the promises and limitations of a lined canal for addressing increased groundwater levels and salinity resulting from intensely irrigated agriculture. Research impacts will allow Uzbek stakeholders, such as land managers and policy officials, to better address regional water resource issues (supply and quality), as well as potential soil improvement options.
Furthermore, combining the introduction of water-saving measures as plastic lining with decentralized reservoirs would create a win-win situation by tackling both shortcomings that affect the water productivity, i.e., unreliable water supplies and irrigation timing. This should go hand in hand with raising the willingness of farmers to introduce and invest in water-saving technologies.
The results showed that plastic lining of channel beds as water saving technology is a viable, efficient and rather acceptably moderate-cost option for preventing water loss and lowering ground water in the region. However the question comes on the source for required investments. The farmers in the region do not possess enough farm capital to uptake this option themselves. Thus decision makers on higher level, such as Water Consumers Association, local governments or even environmental funds should take the leading role in disseminating this technology throughout the region.
Chronic exposure to environmental noise is a widespread problem around the world, causing significant impacts on human health and well-being. Road traffic is the predominant source of noise in urban areas and represents the second most important health risk factor after air pollution [1]. In Europe, it is estimated that about 20% of the total population is exposed to road traffic noise levels considered harmful to health [2]. Moreover, the problem is expected to become more severe in the next decades. In the European Union, the population exposed to high road noise levels is projected to rise both inside and outside urban areas over the next years due to urban growth and increased demand for mobility [3].
In the last decades, the introduction of more stringent environmental noise legislation has resulted in a series of noise abatement measures of varied nature. These included urban planning measures (such as the designation of noise-sensitive areas, or regulations on vehicle speed limits or traffic restrictions), measures to improve the acoustic performance of vehicles, pavements and buildings, and the construction of noise barriers. Currently, noise barriers have become frequent features along many roads and railways.
The history of noise barriers precedes the appearance of the first generation of environmental regulations in the World. The first documented noise barrier installed on a road was built in 1963 [4]. In the following years, several new design criteria and new materials for barriers were rapidly introduced. And so, the first lightweight barriers with an absorptive treatment on the panel surface date back to the early 1970s [5]. By 1975, Japan had already built noise barriers along 79 km of new highways [6], and the USA had installed about 57 km of barriers at certain types of highway projects [4].
In the 1960s and 1970s, the first research studies were initiated to analyze the acoustic properties of barriers and calculate noise attenuation levels. Probably the most famous of these studies was the Maekawa empirical chart of 1968 [7], as well as the formulations developed by other authors based on Maekawa\'s original proposal [8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. It was also during this period that the first regulations for noise management and abatement were adopted in countries such as the USA (1972), Canada (1973), Germany (1974) and Japan (1974).
Since the 1980s, many countries have adopted Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) legislation that requires the evaluation of, among others, proposed road projects that are likely to have significant environmental impacts. As part of the EIA process, the project developer is required to evaluate road traffic noise and must determine appropriate mitigation measures to minimize its effects. Constructing a noise barrier is probably the most mentioned mitigation measure in EIAs conducted around the world [13]. As an example of the extensive use of these devices, it was estimated that the global production of noise barriers reached approximately 370 million m2 in 2014 [14]. In the European Union, these devices have become the most prominent noise mitigation measure applied to major roads located outside residential areas [15]; in the USA, about 5700 km of barriers have been built to date [4].
Noise barriers have been made of many different materials and have taken many different forms over time. In the past, simple reflecting barriers made of concrete, masonry blocks, or earth berms were often used, but modern barriers tend to have absorptive treatments which minimize the level of reflected noise. In recent years, a number of innovative barriers are being developed, such as combined noise and safety barriers, low-height barriers, photovoltaic barriers, noise walls with titanium dioxide (TiO₂) coating, inox/corten steel barriers, or acoustic devices based on sonic crystals [16].
The growth in the use of noise barriers has also been coupled with a growing interest in their effectiveness as a tool to reduce noise pollution. The evaluation of this effectiveness is, however, a difficult task, given that these devices are placed outdoors under very varied conditions, with diverse barrier designs and locations, fluctuating noise sources, and changing environmental conditions. This chapter outlines the fundamentals of the acoustic performance of barriers, describes the main approaches for the evaluation of their effectiveness, as well as the main findings obtained in the studies conducted on the attenuation levels measured.
A noise barrier is a structure that obstructs the direct transmission of airborne noise produced by a source, such as road traffic, and redistributes the sound energy into several paths (Figure 1):
A reflected path, so that the noise wave reaching the exposed side of the barrier partly reflects on it. The barrier can also absorb other parts of the sound energy. Based on these acoustic properties, noise barriers are usually divided into two main groups: absorptive barriers, which are specifically designed to absorb part of the acoustic energy, and reflective barriers, from which noise is largely reflected (a special group consists of reactive barriers, which are devices that contain cavities or resonators).
A transmitted path, so that the noise reaching the exposed side of the barrier transmits through the device itself. Therefore, the transmitted energy must be as low as possible.
A diffracted path, over the top and around the ends of the barrier, so that the barrier acts as an obstacle to the noise propagation, diffracts noise waves, and then propagates to the protected side of the barrier with less energy. Noise diffraction is largely determined by the difference between the source-receiver direct path length and the extended path length due to the presence of the barrier.
The acoustic performance of a noise barrier (based on [
Noise barriers cause an area of decreased sound energy behind the barrier (also called shadow zone) which is a combination of reflection, diffraction, and transmission losses. Due to the nature of sound, diffraction does not bend all frequencies uniformly: higher frequencies are diffracted to a lesser degree; lower frequencies are, by contrast, diffracted deeper into the shadow zone behind the barrier. As a result, noise barriers are generally more effective in attenuating the higher frequencies.
The acoustic performance of a noise barrier depends on a set of intrinsic and extrinsic characteristics [18]. Intrinsic characteristics refer to the properties of individual components of the barrier, such as the type, thickness, and design of the materials used. Extrinsic characteristics consider the attenuation of the barrier once it has been installed. These characteristics are mainly determined by a set of context-specific conditions, such as:
The position of the barrier relative to the source and the receiver, and its effective height and length to block propagation paths.
The nature of the noise source in terms of traffic volume, traffic speed, types of vehicles, and road pavement.
The characteristics of the propagation medium, i.e., wind conditions, air temperature, and relative humidity.
The nature of the terrain between the road and the receiver, i.e., interfering obstacles and the acoustic impedance of the ground surface.
These contextual properties largely determine the diffraction characteristics of the barrier and the global noise attenuation that can be achieved. The noise diffracted on the top and around the ends of the barrier is the most important factor limiting its acoustic performance [18].
Determining the effectiveness of noise barriers has attracted the attention of researchers for the past 40 years, and a wide variety of both mathematical and experimental approaches have been developed. Mathematical methods have been widely used to determine the diffraction properties of the barriers. These methods can be based on the boundary element method [19, 20], the finite element method [21, 22], and the finite difference method [23].
Experimental studies have been based on diverse approaches relating to (i) the assessment of perceived annoyance reduction efficiency of noise barriers [24, 25], (ii) the effects of noise barriers on the perception of urban soundscape quality [26], (iii) the measurement of noise attenuation based on scale model experiments [27, 28], and (iv) the measurement of the acoustic properties of full-scale barriers. The latter experiments have been the most reported in the literature, and have addressed the analysis of the effectiveness of barriers based on their various acoustic characteristics:
Some research studies have addressed the intrinsic characteristics of barriers, such as sound absorption and insulation. Two types of measurement methods are commonly used to evaluate these properties: laboratory methods, using a diffuse sound field in a reverberation room, and
Other studies assessed barrier performance by measuring its “Insertion Loss”, which is defined as the difference in sound pressure level before and after the barrier is constructed.
The methods for
A substantial part of the scientific literature on the evaluation of the acoustic properties of noise barriers has been based on the
In Europe,
The measurement system consists of a fixed source (loudspeaker) reproducing a maximum length sequence (MLS) signal [30, 31] or a gunshot [29]. With these kinds of signals, the impulse response of an acoustic system can be obtained. In addition, background noise is eliminated [35]. Then a microphone is located behind the barrier to measure noise transmission or/and in front of the screen to measure noise reflection (Figure 2).
Measurement according to the “Adrienne” method (left) [
These methods are focused on the measurement at the near field (placing the microphones close to the surface to be measured) since, according to the standards, the lower power of the waves reflected, the difficulty of discerning between emitted and reflected sound, and the influence of background noise, make it really difficult to obtain meaningful results more distance [30, 31]. For this reason, some researchers prefer to extrapolate reflectivity data measured in the near field toward the effect in the far-field.
However, other researchers based on the standard EN 1793-4 [32], where receiver microphones are placed 2 m behind the barrier (see Figure 3), have situated the receiver microphones at greater distances from the screen (from 10 to 40 m) [36] considering these distances better to estimate the real IL.
Standard 1793-4 microphone location (based on [
In addition, according to Kim et al. [36], since the European test methods are based on an impulsive signal, they could be eliminating the influences of reflected sounds by ground and any other objects around the test area. So that, methods such as conventional Japanese and Kim et al. use traffic signal for their measurements.
Part of the research studies conducted to date has been based on the evaluation of the effectiveness of barriers on the calculation of Insertion Loss (IL), which is defined as the difference in the noise level before and after the installation of the barrier [37]. The IL is an extrinsic characteristic of noise barriers, depending mostly on the site geometry, meteorological conditions, ground impedance, and the relative positions of the noise source and the receiver [17]. These factors are in general not independent of each other, so the total IL cannot be calculated by the addition of partial insertion losses [17].
The international standard ISO 10847:1997 [37] establishes two methods of in situ IL measurement and calculation; direct and indirect measurement methods:
The direct method is used when the barrier has not been installed yet or can be removed. The noise level is measured before and after the installation of the barrier to determine the IL. In this method, it must be ensured that measurements before and after the installation of the barrier are performed under equivalent weather and traffic conditions.
The indirect method is used when the barrier is already installed and cannot be removed. In this case, an estimated “before” noise level is obtained by the measurement at a site that is considered equivalent to the study site.
The American standard ANSI/ASA S12.8-1998 [38] describes an additional “indirect predicted” method, which uses measurements at the site with a barrier to determine "after" noise levels, and a traffic noise prediction model to predict “before” levels at the same site without the barrier.
The ISO standard specifies general criteria for in-situ measurement of barrier IL including microphone positions, noise source conditions, and acoustic environments of the measurement sites. It also suggests generic principles for ensuring that sufficiently equivalent conditions are maintained between “before” and “after” measurements to permit reliable determination of barrier IL. The noise descriptor recommended is A-weighted equivalent sound pressure level. The materialization of the general criteria suggested by ISO has been resolved in different ways in studies based on both the direct and indirect methods.
The direct method described in the ISO 10847 standard is the approach to be used when the barrier has not been installed yet or can be removed. The method requires measurements before the barrier has been constructed to determine “before” levels and measurements at the same site after construction to determine “after” levels. According to US Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) [17, 39] this method ensures identical site geometric characteristics but also requires equivalent “before” and “after” meteorological and traffic conditions that may be difficult to reproduce. These meteorological equivalence conditions include wind, temperature, humidity, and cloud cover. In case of strong winds, “before” and “after” measurements should be avoided.
The factors to be considered in the determination of the measurement sites and procedures are briefly described below:
The ISO standard recommends the traffic itself as the sound source for the “before” and “after” measurements. Using traffic noise signal has the advantage of measuring the signal which is wanted to evaluate. However, the fluctuations in traffic may affect the accuracy of the results, so that the measurement period must be taken into consideration.
The standard recommends the use of a reference microphone, which allows for calibration of “before” and “after” measured levels and helps to consider variations in the characteristics of the noise source [17, 39].
When the reference microphone is used, it is placed in most cases according to the ISO standard, i.e., at a point on a vertical plane including the barrier, and at a height, at least, 1.5 m above the barrier edge. When the barrier is located less than 15 m from the near road lane, the microphone may be placed at 15 m from the center of the road lane, and at a height such that the line-of-sight angle between the microphone and barrier top, as measured from the center of the near road lane, is at least 10° (Figure 4) [17].
Alternative positions for reference microphones—blue circle—(based on [
Microphone location at receiver positions depends on the study objectives since the location of the microphones (distance from the barrier, height above the ground) are determinants to establish diffraction effects. In some studies, a single microphone is located at a height of 1.5 m above the ground. The most common situation is, however, to place microphones at different distances and heights [17, 39, 40, 41] for a better understanding of the performance of the shadow zone (Figure 5).
Measurement microphones in the study of Anfosso-Lédée et al. [
A range from 2 to 30 min is the usual sampling period for measurements. When weather conditions are fluctuating, longer sampling periods, such as 1 or 24 h, could be more accurate [17]. It has been suggested [40] that 2-min measurements, as specified in the standard, are too short for a stable and reliable evaluation of sound pressure levels. The optimal measurement periods are 15–30 min, as longer periods would possibly introduce atmospheric changes [40]. However, other researchers [41] established a 10 min measurement period.
The FHWA suggests avoiding measurements when wind speed exceeds 17 km/h or while raining since raindrops generate noise and tire noise increases on wet pavements. The Agency also recommends avoiding measurements when traffic flow is congested since the traffic noise level will be lowered, making it more difficult to evaluate the IL.
There is a lack of evidence on the effectiveness of barriers based on the direct method. In the study conducted by Anfosso-Lédée et al. [40], the authors suggest that it could be due to the poor applicability of the method since it took 3 years for his team to complete the measurements due to the time waited for the installation of the barrier and the difficulty to find the equivalence of traffic, weather conditions, and ground impedance.
The experiment was based on measurements at 30 m and 100 m from the barrier (or where the barrier was supposed to be installed) (Figure 5). The measurements “before” took place in 1996, and the measurements “after” (when the barrier was already installed) were implemented from June 1998 to August 1999. Results showed IL values range from 4 to 8 dB(A) at 100 and 30 m from the road.
Parnell et al. [41] constructed a new barrier 80 m long and 2.4 m high and measured, with and without the barrier, at a distance of 2.4 m in front of the barrier and 2.4 and 4.8 m behind the barrier (Figure 5). Results of the experiment showed a 6–8 dB(A) difference in measurements “before” and “after” the barrier installation.
The indirect method is, according to ISO 10847:1997, the approach to be used when the noise barrier has already been installed and cannot be removed for measurements. In this case, an estimated “before” noise level is obtained by the measurement at a site that is considered equivalent to the study site. To ensure consistency of results, the “before” and “after” measurements should be performed simultaneously.
The indirect method is the only practicable approach in the case of most new roads, where the noise barriers have been installed during road construction, and therefore it is not possible to obtain a "before" measurement under normal traffic conditions. The primary advantage of using this method is that it ensures the same environmental conditions (meteorological and traffic conditions), so this method, as highlighted by some authors [17, 42], would be preferred over the direct measurement method.
The use of the indirect method involves the identification of another measurement site that is deemed to be equivalent. For these equivalent sites, a close match is required in emission characteristics, relative positions of source, barrier and receiver, acoustic performance of ground surface, terrain profile, interfering obstacles, reflecting surfaces, and meteorological conditions. The factors to be considered in the determination of the measurement sites and procedures are briefly described below.
According to ISO 10847:1997, the “before” site must have a terrain profile, interfering obstacles, and reflecting surfaces equivalent to those of the real barrier site within a sector extending 60° on either side of the line connecting the receiver positions towards the source position, so that similar noise propagation can be achieved.
It is also necessary to ensure the equivalence of ground surface, which refers to the acoustic impedance of the ground along the source-receiver propagation path (i.e., acoustic characteristics of soil coverage, such as paved soil, vegetation on loose or packed soil, gravel, etc.) (Figure 6). The standard ISO additionally requires that the environment in the region within 30 m behind and to the side of the receiver positions shall be similar.
An example of "after" and equivalent "before" locations at one of the sites studied by the authors in Spain (aerial photograph from Iberpix, OrtoPNOA 2020 CC-BY 4.0 scne.es).
The main difficulty of the method is that an adjacent equivalent site may not always be available, especially in dense urban areas [17, 40]. As an example, a study conducted in Spain [42], which was based on an initial sample of 84 measurement sites, had to reject 54 potential locations due to various causes; the main cause was the different acoustic environment at the "before" and "after" positions due to significant differences in terrain profile and the presence of other noise sources.
Most of the indirect method-based studies use road traffic as a noise source. The ISO standard proposes that naturally occurring road noise should be used as the sound source equivalence for the “before” and “after” measurements. The use of traffic noise has the obvious advantage of representing the natural source, but also the disadvantage of describing fluctuations in traffic volume, speed, and composition that may affect the accuracy of the results.
The use of artificial noise sources is infrequent and is used only when it is not possible to use traffic noise in equivalent conditions. This artificial point source may be based on a loudspeaker that reproduces traffic noise [20] or a regulated artificial signal such as pink noise [43].
One of the key factors in the use of the indirect method is that the locations of the microphones relative to the noise source at the "before" and "after" positions should be identical, in terms of distance from the road and height above the road [39]. Some authors suggest the use of a reference microphone [17, 39], which, as mentioned before (Section 3.1.2) takes into account the effect of possible fluctuations of the noise source.
Only a few studies have considered the use of the reference microphone [39, 44], so it is understood that the rest of the studies assume that possible traffic fluctuations during the measurements are not expected to significantly affect the results.
The location of the receiver microphones varies according to the purpose of the study. The choice of these locations is sometimes determined by the possibility of finding equivalent locations at the "before" site.
In most studies, microphones are placed at regular distances from the barrier (5, 10, 15 m), or corresponding to incremental doublings of the distance (e.g., 7.5, 15, 30 m) [42, 44]. Some studies determine IL levels by placing a single microphone in the near field behind the barrier, at distances of 1–5 m [20, 43, 45, 46]. The most common height for the microphone is 1.5 m, although there are studies that consider additional heights, which are similar to or higher than the barrier height (e.g., 2, 4, 6 m). Both the distances and incremental heights of the microphone positions are intended to better understand the performance of diffraction shadow zones (Figure 7).
The experimental design of studies based on the indirect method depends on the purpose of the study. Above, a microphone distribution is intended to better understand the pattern of the shadow zone [
There is no general standard for receiver locations. The ISO standard proposes general criteria that are a very general characterization of the open space behind the barrier [47]. In recent years, the European Committee for Standardization adopted the CEN/TS 16272-7:2015 standard for railway noise barriers [48], which recommends nine locations for receiver microphones. These microphones are located at a distance of 7.5, 12.5, and 25 m away from the lines, and at a height of 3.5, 6, and 9 m above the ground. However, this standard does not appear to be in use in studies relating to the measurement of Insertion Loss at railway noise barriers [47].
The selection of the measurement period should first consider when to measure along the daily time. One of the factors to be taken into consideration concerns favorable weather conditions, in particular wind speed and direction. The preferred conditions are for daily periods when low wind or calm is expected. Some studies [42] have conducted measurements in the period after peak traffic time in order to find dense but fluid traffic conditions, where traffic fluctuations are less prominent. In most of the studies, the “before” and “after” measurements have been undertaken simultaneously to ensure the same environmental conditions (i.e., background noise, traffic, and meteorological conditions).
The duration of the measurements in studies based on the indirect method depends on the nature of the noise source. In the case of studies using an equivalent artificial noise source, the duration of measurements is usually short (such as 2 min) in accordance with the ISO standard [43]. In the case of road traffic noise, the period is usually long enough to ensure the representativeness of the spectrum of the traffic noise. In practice, measurement duration in most studies ranges from 10 to 30 min, and the most common value is 15 min. Some studies [17] have suggested using longer periods (such as 1 h, or a day) when noise variations are expected to be substantial, but these longer periods do not seem to be used in practice.
In other studies [39, 49] the procedure consists of measuring noise levels, wind speed and direction, and temperature lapse rate for a 4-h block of time in 1-min increments. Thus, the results are broken down into short periods and continuous equivalent levels and meteorological conditions are individually determined for each short period. This procedure anticipates the problem of
Occasionally [42], the choice of the measurement duration was based on traffic variations at the time of sampling. Thus, measurements were prolonged until the observed variation in the sound level meter did not vary more than a certain value (such as 0.1 dB(A)) over a certain time period (at least 1–2 min).
The results obtained in the different research studies conducted revealed moderate Insertion Loss values of the noise barriers. Attenuation values obtained in the near field, at distances from the barrier of 5–7 m, and heights above ground of 1.2–1.5 m, range between 7 and 10 dB(A) [20, 42, 44, 45, 46, 50]. Insertion Loss levels are higher at shorter distances from the barrier, such as 1 m [43]. The IL values at comparable greater distances from the barrier (20–30 m) tend to decrease to values of 3–5 dB(A) [40, 42, 44], although one study reports much higher attenuation levels of up to 10 dB(A) at intermediate distances (15 m) [51]. Attenuation levels measured at greater distances (up to 100 m) tend to decrease slightly [40].
These results seem to indicate that the barrier attenuation levels are, above a certain distance, clearly lower than expected. It is, however, generally assumed that an effective noise barrier typically reduces noise levels by about 5–10 dB(A) [16, 44]. Effectiveness usually depends on its dimensions, material type, and location relative to the source and receiver positions. In the dimensioning of the barrier, the contribution to the total sound field of the components diffracted around the top and side edges are the key elements to determine the minimum barrier height/length for which the influence of the side edges diffraction may be neglected.
The best noise reduction effect is in the frequency range of 250–4000 Hz, at which the traffic noise is dominant. The average value of Insertion Loss for the octave bands between 250 Hz and 4 kHz ranges from 4 to 9 dB(A) [42, 50]. Noise abatement reaches a maximum at 4000 Hz, and the smallest reductions are encountered for the lowest frequencies (Figure 8) [42, 50, 52].
An example of Insertion Loss levels in the range of frequencies of the octave bands at two distances (5 and 25 m) from the noise barrier [
The type of barrier material does not appear to have a significant effect on attenuation levels [42, 51]. The differences found are rather related to locational factors, such as the distance from the barrier to the source (or receiver). Thus, the Insertion Loss measured at earth berms is lower than at noise walls because the top edge of the barrier is usually further away from the source and/or receiver positions.
There is little evidence of equivalence of the results obtained with the direct and indirect methods. In the only study conducted to date evaluating the IL of the same site (the same noise barrier) using both methods [40], the results reveal that the direct and indirect methods are not equivalent. The observed differences range from −2 dB(A) to +4 dB(A). The causes of these differences were attributed in the study to variations in wind conditions (wind speed and direction) and vertical temperature gradient. The effect of microphone positions and other environmental factors on noise levels measurements also needs to be better known.
The amount of literature on the effectiveness of noise barriers has not provided sufficient evidence on the actual attenuation achieved by these devices, and there is uncertainty over the noise reduction capabilities of existing barriers. The methods described in the ISO 10847:1997 standard have drawbacks that make it difficult to obtain reliable attenuation measurements.
The direct method ensures identical propagation characteristics since the source of noise, the barrier, and the receiver are at the same positions, but the equivalence of source and meteorological conditions may not be fully satisfied. The indirect method ensures that the same local weather and traffic conditions are maintained, but the equivalence of terrain profiles, obstacles, and ground surface conditions may not be fully achieved. In addition, the usage of provisions of the ISO standard sometimes is complicated when at the site point exists a relatively high background noise level, or adverse meteorological conditions [54].
According to the ISO standard, the recommended method is the direct method, although most studies have been based on the indirect method because the barriers were installed during road construction, and therefore it was not possible to obtain equivalent "before" measurements.
The ISO standard provides generic methods for determining Insertion Loss at receiver locations. However, there are no universally acknowledged receiver positions for measurements. It is important to note that barriers are relatively ineffective at some distance from the road. The effective distance range is limited to a few tens of meters, so it is unclear that many receivers can benefit from barrier attenuation. Many of the studies conducted have calculated Insertion Loss levels at barrier near-field distances, so the noise reduction capabilities of barriers were only partially assessed. The IL levels measured at comparable greater distances from the barrier (20–30 m) were, in most cases, very moderate. This supports the argument that the barrier attenuation levels are, above a certain distance, clearly lower than expected.
Additionally, the ISO standard specifies measurements of equivalent continuous A-weighted sound pressure levels to calculate the attenuation of the barrier. However, A-weighting tends to underestimate the effects of low-frequency noise [47]. Several studies have highlighted that A-weighting does not adequately consider the perceived annoyance produced by predominantly low-frequency noise. This is the case of road traffic noise, which is characterized by the wide variability in the relative level of low-frequency noise [25, 55]. Noise barriers increase the relative level of low-frequency of noise on the shielded side of the barrier. Thus, the attenuation in A-weighted measured levels level may overestimate the estimated reduction in perceived annoyance due to the increase in the relative level of low-frequency sound [47].
In summary, the literature has described some critical points about the applicability and reliability of ISO methods. These points were dealing with (i) the reliability of results (i.e., direct IL measurements obtained at different moments, and indirect IL measurements obtained at equivalent locations), (ii) the equivalence of results of direct and indirect methods, (iii) the nature of the indicator used (A-weighted levels), and (vi) the relevance of operational factors such as weather conditions, traffic fluctuations, ground impedance, and background noise.
The effect of these factors on noise levels measurements needs to be better known. More research studies in this domain are required to bring improvements in measurement methods.
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",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
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\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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This chapter considers the use of different capacitated clustering problems and models that fits better in real-life applications such as household waste collection, IT teams layout in software factories, wholesales distribution, and staff’s home collection or delivery to/from workplace. Each application is explored in its regular form as it is being developed by contractors and/or users. We consider for each application the aspects of solving the problem by the appropriate mathematical programming model and decision support methodology (using aggregated Geographical Information System and mobile technology) to hold correctly and most precisely the problems and difficulties related to instances in evaluation. The experience on these fields is here revealed in detailed form as the results obtained by using the techniques here explained.
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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). 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