Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
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Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6796",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Grasses as Food and Feed",title:"Grasses as Food and Feed",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The grass or Poaceae family includes all cereal crops and forage grasses. Hence, they play a significant role in the economy of both the developed and developing world. Similar to other crop types, grasses are continuously challenged by a variety of environmental constraints. These constraints include a variety of biotic and abiotic stresses, and an enabling environment, which mainly refers to policy-related issues that affect productivity. In this book, the importance of selected cereal crops and grasses as well as associated constraints are presented. In addition, techniques proven to improve the productivity of these groups of crops are discussed. The techniques include variety development, soil and crop management practices, and biological control of fungal pathogens using different types of bacterial strains.",isbn:"978-1-78984-799-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-798-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-712-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73063",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"grasses-as-food-and-feed",numberOfPages:178,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"447c0887d0c1c6c543d44cc4c2eaba29",bookSignature:"Zerihun Tadele",publishedDate:"December 12th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6796.jpg",numberOfDownloads:10908,numberOfWosCitations:23,numberOfCrossrefCitations:20,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:43,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:86,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 16th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 9th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 8th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 27th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 25th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"176084",title:"Dr.",name:"Zerihun",middleName:null,surname:"Tadele",slug:"zerihun-tadele",fullName:"Zerihun Tadele",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/176084/images/6400_n.png",biography:"Zerihun Tadele holds PhD in Botany from the University of Basel, MSc in Agronomy from Haramaya University and BSc from Addis Ababa University. He did his habilitation at the University of Bern in Switzerland. At the present time, he is a Group Leader at the Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern and Adjunct Associate Professor at Addis Ababa University, Institute of Biotechnology. He is also a member of CDE (Center for Development and Environment) at the University of Bern. His current research focuses on tackling major yield limiting factors in tef (Eragrostis tef), a cereal crop extensively cultivated in Ethiopia. His group collaborates with several institutions in Switzerland, Ethiopia and other countries; and implements agronomic, genetic and genomic tools to develop tef cultivars with desirable traits",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Bern",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Switzerland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"29",title:"Agronomy",slug:"agronomy"}],chapters:[{id:"62275",title:"New Genotypes of Long and Thin Grain Rice and Technology for Production in Mexico: Michoacán State as an Example",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79152",slug:"new-genotypes-of-long-and-thin-grain-rice-and-technology-for-production-in-mexico-michoac-n-state-as",totalDownloads:868,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In Mexico, the national demand for rice exceeds four times the consumption of the grain produced internally, which has caused growing volumes of imported rice. Long and thin-type rice is the one with the highest consumption. Faced with this problem, a strategy was implemented based on the evaluation, validation, and release of rice materials. Since Michoacán State is involved in rice production, evaluations have allowed the selection of materials, which has resulted in the current availability of a number of advanced experimental lines. Also, the technology that has traditionally been used in the cultivation had changed, so that continuous improvement programs have been developed represented by the system of cultivation in direct sowing in furrows and continuous irrigation. The new varieties do not require continuous flooding, which allows for a greater efficiency in the use of water and soil resources. Studies on rice nutrition in Mexico are still scarce, especially under irrigated conditions. The current has focused on the nitrogen fertilization of this crop since the exploration of the efficient management of soil nutrition is a vitally important issue. Other aspects integrated to the rice technology are the use of a low seed rate and weed management using a new generation of herbicides.",signatures:"Juan Carlos Álvarez-Hernández, Luis Mario Tapia-Vargas and Anselmo Hernández-Perez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62275",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62275",authors:[{id:"212259",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",surname:"Álvarez-Hernández",slug:"juan-carlos-alvarez-hernandez",fullName:"Juan Carlos Álvarez-Hernández"},{id:"240822",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Mario",surname:"Tapia-Vargas",slug:"luis-mario-tapia-vargas",fullName:"Luis Mario Tapia-Vargas"},{id:"240823",title:"MSc.",name:"Anselmo",surname:"Hernández-Pérez",slug:"anselmo-hernandez-perez",fullName:"Anselmo Hernández-Pérez"}],corrections:null},{id:"62190",title:"Economic Analysis of the Barley Market and Related Uses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78967",slug:"economic-analysis-of-the-barley-market-and-related-uses",totalDownloads:1848,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:31,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Barley is an important cereal worldwide cultivated since about 10,000 years. Barley crop is the fourth most important cereal in the world, after wheat, corn, and rice. It could be a food source for millions of people even though today it is mainly used as animal feed and brewing. So, recently, more than 70% of barley crop has been used for feed; about 21% has been intended to malting, brewing, and distilling industries; lesser than 6% has been consumed as human food. In addition, a growing interest in renewable energy has led to the modest use of barley grain for the production of fuel ethanol. The prominence of barley as food is mainly due to its potentialities in the production of healthy food, as an excellent source of dietary fiber, and a functional food ingredient such as β-glucan. The purpose of this chapter is to carry out an analysis of barley market and to present, in summary, its principal uses.",signatures:"Caterina Tricase, Vera Amicarelli, Emilia Lamonaca and Roberto Leonardo Rana",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62190",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62190",authors:[{id:"246406",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Caterina",surname:"Tricase",slug:"caterina-tricase",fullName:"Caterina Tricase"},{id:"258059",title:"Prof.",name:"Vera",surname:"Amicarelli",slug:"vera-amicarelli",fullName:"Vera Amicarelli"},{id:"258061",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilia",surname:"Lamonaca",slug:"emilia-lamonaca",fullName:"Emilia Lamonaca"},{id:"258062",title:"Prof.",name:"Roberto Leonardo",surname:"Rana",slug:"roberto-leonardo-rana",fullName:"Roberto Leonardo Rana"}],corrections:null},{id:"62517",title:"Management Practices and Bioproductivity in Grassland of Dry Areas",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79411",slug:"management-practices-and-bioproductivity-in-grassland-of-dry-areas",totalDownloads:930,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In Mexico, the grassland represents 40.1% of the total area of the country and it is a source of feed for livestock, although suffers different degrees of degradation due to lack of management and adverse climatic conditions. The problem of the grasslands is complex since it involves diverse type’s soils, presence of invasive plants, low success in the establishment of grasses or replanting, high fluctuation in the rainfall distribution, as well as the low capacity of the soil to retain moisture. Among these constraints, the limited availability of soil moisture in arid conditions, makes these areas more fragile to the degradation of the environment which results in low productivity of the grassland. In this chapter, major ecological limitations of the grassland and techniques which improve the soils moisture retention capacity of the grassland especially in moisture deficit areas will be discussed.",signatures:"Luis G. Yáñez-Chávez, Aurelio Pedroza-Sandoval, Ignacio Sánchez-Cohen, Miguel A. Velásquez-Valle and Ricardo Trejo-Calzada",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62517",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62517",authors:[{id:"29811",title:"Dr.",name:"Ignacio",surname:"Sánchez Cohen",slug:"ignacio-sanchez-cohen",fullName:"Ignacio Sánchez Cohen"},{id:"204170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aurelio",surname:"Pedroza-Sandoval",slug:"aurelio-pedroza-sandoval",fullName:"Aurelio Pedroza-Sandoval"},{id:"204243",title:"MSc.",name:"Luis Gerardo",surname:"Yañez-Chavez",slug:"luis-gerardo-yanez-chavez",fullName:"Luis Gerardo Yañez-Chavez"},{id:"204245",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo",surname:"Trejo-Calzada",slug:"ricardo-trejo-calzada",fullName:"Ricardo Trejo-Calzada"},{id:"243555",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel Agustin",surname:"Velasquez-Valle",slug:"miguel-agustin-velasquez-valle",fullName:"Miguel Agustin Velasquez-Valle"}],corrections:null},{id:"62414",title:"Grasses in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands: The Multi-Benefits of the Indigenous Grasses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79151",slug:"grasses-in-arid-and-semi-arid-lands-the-multi-benefits-of-the-indigenous-grasses",totalDownloads:1403,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Drought regions are the most critical areas of the world. The challenging environmental conditions create severe concerns in arid and semi-arid lands. Consequently, the management task is crucial to face the proposed complicated ecological conditions. The main objective of this chapter is to focus on the vital roles of the indigenous grasses in drought areas and how the same could be a perfect solution in the urban planning of such places sustainably. Examples of the indigenous grasses of arid and semi-arid regions from the Poaceae family will be illustrated along their multi-economic values. In addition, promising innovative approaches required to face the demanding future of the agricultural sector will be presented and discussed.",signatures:"Suzan Shahin and Mohammed Salem",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62414",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62414",authors:[{id:"246394",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed",surname:"Salem",slug:"mohammed-salem",fullName:"Mohammed Salem"},{id:"249907",title:"Dr.",name:"Suzan",surname:"Shahin",slug:"suzan-shahin",fullName:"Suzan Shahin"}],corrections:null},{id:"62313",title:"Potential for Use of a Perennial C3 Grass in a Warm-Temperate Region with Pastures Dominated by C4 Grasses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79231",slug:"potential-for-use-of-a-perennial-c3-grass-in-a-warm-temperate-region-with-pastures-dominated-by-c4-g",totalDownloads:1073,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Tall fescue is a perennial cool-season forage grass utilized over an extensive area of the USA; however, adaptation is limited across the Coastal Plain region of the southeastern states including Louisiana. Stands of the original variety, Kentucky 31, from early plantings either failed to persist or were replaced as adverse effects on grazing livestock by an ergot alkaloid toxin from an association of tall fescue with an endophytic fungus were recognized. Management approaches can moderate the adverse effects allowing productive use of existing tall fescue pastures. Endophyte removal from tall fescue allowed development of useful cultivars for the primary tall fescue growing area, but these endophyte-free cultivars proved to be less persistent in marginal areas such as Louisiana. Recently available varieties with novel, nontoxin-producing endophytes have shown potential in northern Louisiana with stand persistence for 4 years on some sites. Cool-season perennial grass pastures can be realistic components of forage systems in areas such as northern Louisiana. Existing remnant stands can be beneficial with appropriate management, and, as indicated by ongoing research, new novel-endophyte varieties may prove useful on selected sites.",signatures:"Montgomery W. Alison, William D. Pitman, Glen E. Aiken and Kun-Jun Han",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62313",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62313",authors:[{id:"241731",title:"Dr.",name:"William",surname:"Pitman",slug:"william-pitman",fullName:"William Pitman"},{id:"241735",title:"Dr.",name:"Montgomery",surname:"Alison",slug:"montgomery-alison",fullName:"Montgomery Alison"},{id:"252834",title:"Dr.",name:"Glen",surname:"Aiken",slug:"glen-aiken",fullName:"Glen Aiken"},{id:"252835",title:"Dr.",name:"Kun-Jun",surname:"Han",slug:"kun-jun-han",fullName:"Kun-Jun Han"}],corrections:null},{id:"63126",title:"Protein Supplementation Is Vital for Beef Cattle Fed with Tropical Pasture",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79813",slug:"protein-supplementation-is-vital-for-beef-cattle-fed-with-tropical-pasture",totalDownloads:1220,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The production of beef on pasture is one of the potentials of Brazilian agriculture, mainly due to the territorial extension and climatic conditions. Therefore, the production of beef on tropical pastures mainly consists of the use of tropical forages; when correctly handled, forage plants show good productivity and improvement in the nutritive value. Among main factors that affect the performance of beef cattle fed on pastures, the availability and quality of the pasture stand first. In tropical regions, during the dry period of the year, the production of forage as well as its nutritive value is diminished. Hence, it is necessary to use protein supplements as a feed strategy to promote increased intake and improved nutrient utilization efficiency by animals. In view of this, by-products of biodiesel from oilseeds, such as peanuts, cottonseed and sunflower seeds, with high nutritional values can be used as an animal feed alternative to the protein sources commonly used for the formulation of supplements. Protein supplementation contributes to an increase in live weight gain as well as improvement in ruminal microbiota activity and, consequently, potentiates nutrient utilization efficiency in beef cattle fed with tropical pasture.",signatures:"Leilson R. Bezerra, Raimundo R. Ferreira, Ricardo L. Edvan, Severino G. Neto, Alex L. da Silva and Marcos J. de Araújo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63126",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63126",authors:[{id:"173155",title:"Dr.",name:"Leilson",surname:"Bezerra",slug:"leilson-bezerra",fullName:"Leilson Bezerra"},{id:"258462",title:"MSc.",name:"Raimundo",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"raimundo-ferreira",fullName:"Raimundo Ferreira"},{id:"258463",title:"Dr.",name:"Severino",surname:"Neto",slug:"severino-neto",fullName:"Severino Neto"},{id:"283266",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo",surname:"Loiola Edvan",slug:"ricardo-loiola-edvan",fullName:"Ricardo Loiola Edvan"}],corrections:null},{id:"62668",title:"Planting Geometry and Herbicides for Weed Control in Rice: Implications and Challenges",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79579",slug:"planting-geometry-and-herbicides-for-weed-control-in-rice-implications-and-challenges",totalDownloads:1593,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Weeds are one of the major biological threats to higher rice productivity worldwide. Various cultural, biological, physical and chemical practices affect the composition and intensity of weeds in rice fields. Generally, weeds can be controlled through herbicides; nevertheless, chemical weed control is not a sustainable option on a long term. Various agronomic practices such as the use of tolerant cultivars, adjusting sowing time, tillage permutations and plant geometry may reduce the weed pressure in rice. Integrated approaches for weed management, emphasizing on the combination of management practices and scientific knowledge, may reduce the economic costs and improve weed control owing to the complexity of the weed community. The present chapter reveals the role of planting geometry and herbicides as weed management strategies in rice, and discusses the issue of herbicide resistance associated with chemical weed control. Moreover, the research and knowledge gaps in rice weed management through planting geometry and herbicides were also highlighted.",signatures:"Umair Ashraf, Saddam Hussain, Alam Sher, Muhammad Abrar, Imran Khan and Shakeel A. Anjum",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62668",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62668",authors:[{id:"247858",title:"Dr.",name:"Saddam",surname:"Hussain",slug:"saddam-hussain",fullName:"Saddam Hussain"},{id:"248682",title:"Dr.",name:"Umair",surname:"Ashraf",slug:"umair-ashraf",fullName:"Umair Ashraf"},{id:"253504",title:"Dr.",name:"Alam",surname:"Sher",slug:"alam-sher",fullName:"Alam Sher"},{id:"253505",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Abrar",slug:"muhammad-abrar",fullName:"Muhammad Abrar"},{id:"253850",title:"Dr.",name:"Imran",surname:"Khan",slug:"imran-khan",fullName:"Imran Khan"},{id:"253851",title:"Dr.",name:"Shakeel Ahmad",surname:"Anjum",slug:"shakeel-ahmad-anjum",fullName:"Shakeel Ahmad Anjum"}],corrections:null},{id:"62597",title:"Roots of Perennial Grasses in the Recovery of Soils Degraded by Coal Mining in Southern Brazil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79153",slug:"roots-of-perennial-grasses-in-the-recovery-of-soils-degraded-by-coal-mining-in-southern-brazil",totalDownloads:1037,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Revegetation of degraded soils is crucial to prevent erosion and improve soil structure and quality. We aimed to elucidate the role of the root system of grasses on the reclamation of a soil constructed after coal mining. In Candiota city, in Brazil, perennial grasses (Hemarthria, Paspalum, Cynodon, and Brizantha) were cultivated for 103 months, when soil samples were collected from 0.00–0.30 m layer. The root development of these species substantially decreased in depth, reflecting soil restrictive conditions, as high soil penetration resistance, especially below 0.10 m, assigned to the use of heavy machinery during soil construction. Below 0.10 m depth, fine and flattened roots were observed, which penetrated through the cracks of compacted soil layers. Regardless of the soil layer, all plant species had a greater proportion of roots <0.49 than >0.50 mm diameter class, averaged 92 and 8%, respectively. Below 0.10 m depth, Brizantha increased the proportion of roots >0.50 mm diameter class, while the other grasses increased the proportion of roots <0.49 mm diameter class. The highest root density, volume, and length observed for Brizantha along the soil profile indicate its high potential to improve physical attributes and therefore the quality of the constructed soil.",signatures:"Lizete Stumpf, Otávio dos Anjos Leal, Eloy Antonio Pauletto and Luiz Fernando Spinelli Pinto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62597",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62597",authors:[{id:"243537",title:"Prof.",name:"Lizete",surname:"Stumpf",slug:"lizete-stumpf",fullName:"Lizete Stumpf"},{id:"250104",title:"Dr.",name:"Otávio",surname:"Leal",slug:"otavio-leal",fullName:"Otávio Leal"},{id:"250105",title:"Prof.",name:"Eloy Antonio",surname:"Pauletto",slug:"eloy-antonio-pauletto",fullName:"Eloy Antonio Pauletto"},{id:"250106",title:"Prof.",name:"Luiz Fernando Spinelli",surname:"Pinto",slug:"luiz-fernando-spinelli-pinto",fullName:"Luiz Fernando Spinelli Pinto"}],corrections:null},{id:"64017",title:"Presowing with Bacteria Improved the Productivity and Resistance to Fungal Root Pathogen in Wheat and Barley",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80084",slug:"presowing-with-bacteria-improved-the-productivity-and-resistance-to-fungal-root-pathogen-in-wheat-an",totalDownloads:940,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It is well known that reducing the extent of damage to grain crops by root rot causing agents is one of the most effective ways to increase the yield of agricultural grain crops and improve their quality. These diseases are especially harmful for hard wheat, barley, soft spring wheat, and winter rye. Yield losses due to these diseases may reach 19–20% or more for wheat and 25–30% or more for barley. In order to assess the effectiveness of the bacteria isolated from earthworm coprolites as biological control agents, we conducted a series of field tests in Western Siberia from 2011 to 2015. We compared growth and development indicators of spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L., Irgina variety) and barley (Hordeum vulgare L., Acha variety) where seeds were treated with Bacillus cereus and two strains of Pseudomonas. The results showed that the inoculation increased the grain yield by 0.2–1.0 t ha−1 for spring wheat and by 0.3–1.8 t ha−1 for barley. In addition, the prevalence of the disease in spring wheat plants was significantly reduced from 18.1–61.1% in the control plots to 6.4–50.2% in the inoculated plots. Similarly, the index of root rot development decreased from 18.2–23.0% in the control plots to 13.2–15.8% in the inoculated plots. To understand the mechanism that induces the spring wheat resistance to fungal root rots under the influence of rhizobacteria, we investigated the effect on the guaiacol-dependent peroxidase activity. There was an inverse relationship between the peroxidase activity in wheat tissues and damage of plants caused by root rot agents indicating that the response of peroxidase enzymes to plant inoculation is a meaningful indicator that can be used to assess the potential of a particular strain as a biological agent for protecting spring wheat.",signatures:"Natalia Tereshchenko, Elena Akimova, Oksana Minaeva, Alexandra\nKravets and Tatyana Zyubanova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64017",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64017",authors:[{id:"248684",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia",surname:"Tereshchenko",slug:"natalia-tereshchenko",fullName:"Natalia Tereshchenko"},{id:"249065",title:"Dr.",name:"Oksana",surname:"Minaeva",slug:"oksana-minaeva",fullName:"Oksana Minaeva"},{id:"249066",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",surname:"Akimova",slug:"elena-akimova",fullName:"Elena Akimova"},{id:"261029",title:"BSc.",name:"Alexandra",surname:"Kravets",slug:"alexandra-kravets",fullName:"Alexandra Kravets"},{id:"261030",title:"MSc.",name:"Tatyana",surname:"Zyubanova",slug:"tatyana-zyubanova",fullName:"Tatyana Zyubanova"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6366",title:"Rice Crop",subtitle:"Current Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"628970142dadbc03cfa7f6aca1e19781",slug:"rice-crop-current-developments",bookSignature:"Farooq Shah, Zafar Hayat Khan and Amjad Iqbal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6366.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"211419",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Farooq",surname:"Shah",slug:"farooq-shah",fullName:"Farooq Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6776",title:"Global Wheat 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\r\n\tThe goal of this book is to give the reader an overview of a field related to various applications in chemistry, chemical engineering, and nanotechnology. This book aims to provide information about the design of ion exchangers, their application in environmental technologies, and in biotechnology and pharmaceutical applications. This book will be written by authors in the field of experimental methods and critical reviews from multi-disciplines such as chemistry, membranes, and materials science. Among others, some of the topics covered will be Structure of ion exchangers, Synthesis of ion exchangers, Synthesis of inorganic ion exchangers, Properties of ion exchangers, Ion exchange voltammetry, Ion exchange as a separations method, Ion exchange in analytical chemistry, Ion exchange and extraction, Ion exchange membranes, Preparation of organic-inorganic hybrid ion exchangers, Application in environmental technologies, Application in biotechnology and pharmaceutical applications.
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\r\n\tIn this book, the authors will focus on recent studies, applications, and new technological developments on the fundamental properties of ion exchangers.
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1. Introduction
Essential oil (EO) is a concentrated mixture of organic compounds. EOs are produced by plants as a form of defense in addition to being an attractant to insects for dispersion of pollens and seeds [1, 2]. These oils are formed by the glandular trichomes and specialized secretory structure like secretory hairs, ducts, cavities, and glands; they then diffuse to the surface organs of plant such as leaves and flowers [3, 4]. The process of EOs formation involves three pathways which are the methyl-D-erythritol-4-phosphate (MEP), mevalonate, and malonic acid pathways [5]. The MEP and mevalonate pathways contribute in the biosynthesis of isoprenoids, whereas the malonic acid pathway will form the phenolic compounds [6, 7].
EOs have been used for many years for different purposes, such as to preserve raw and processed food because it can inhibit the growth of microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, and fungi [1, 8, 9]. Besides food, EO was also utilized in the area of perfumery for many years especially for ancient civilizations of India, Greece, Egypt, and Rome [10, 11].
In addition, EOs also serve as an alternative medicine that is important for local populations to treat severe burns to accelerate healing [11] and also for diseases such as leishmaniasis, schistosomiasis, and malaria [12, 13]. To date, approximately 10% of all EOs have been analyzed and commercially used as an insect repellent, attributed by its low toxicity to mammalian cells and the environment [10, 14]. However, certain EOs may cause toxicity or allergies which results in health and safety problems. Hence, national and international organizations have set standards to control the use of EOs [15].
EOs can be found in various plants species, in particular those that belong to the Coniferae, Myrtaceae, Rutaceae, Labiatae, Umbelliferae, Alliaceae, and Zingiberaceae families [16, 17]. EOs are derived from different plant parts, such as flowers, leaves, wood, roots, seeds, rhizomes, and fruits [18]. See Table 1 for examples of EOs found in each of the plant parts.
In general, EOs can be classified based on their chemical composition, aroma created by the oil, evaporation speed, taxonomy or the families they belong to, their therapeutic uses, consistency, their origin, and the alphabetical order [16, 30]. Classification based on consistency, for example, can be divided into essences, balms, and resins [16, 31]. See Table 2 for definition and examples of each.
Furthermore, there are three classifications of EOs based on their origin which are natural, artificial, and synthetic [16]. The natural EOs are taken from the plant without physical or chemical modifications, while the artificial oils are obtained by enriching the essence with extra components (can be one or more). The synthetic EOs, however, are obtained by combining many chemical substances together [16]. See Table 3 for comparison between natural and synthetic EOs.
Types of essential oil
Disadvantages
Advantages
Natural
Expensive, need a lot of natural sources to create, can cause burns if not diluted [15, 35, 36]
Great smell, helpful for physical and mental health [36]
Synthetic
No therapeutic properties, damaging the skin and respiratory system [36]
Cheap, commonly used as fragrance and taste enhancers, long lasting [15, 36]
Table 3.
Classification of EOs based on their origin.
3. Essential oil extraction
Five thousand years ago, the ancient civilizations have already incorporated the use of machines for EO extraction [11]. However, there has been an expansion of the different extraction methods today. One of the important methods is the hydro-distillation which is divided into water distillation, water-steam distillation, and steam distillation [37, 38]. Hydro-distillation method involves hydro-diffusion, hydrolysis, and decomposition by heat [18]. In addition, steam distillation is performed by using the Clevenger system to extract oil from both fresh and dried plants, and it takes about 3 h [1, 11]. Another method is the expression method which utilizes the machines to compress the EO out of the plant [9, 11]. Additionally, solvent extraction and ultrasonic extraction methods are also routinely used [17].
Throughout the distillation process, water is separated by gravity, and at the end it leaves the volatile liquid behind; this liquid is the EO [16, 39]. EOs that are extracted by the use of chemical solvents cannot be called true EOs according to the National Cancer Institute, because they can cause changes in the clarity, scent, and fragrance of the oil [40]. The four criteria that affect the amount of essential oils produced are (1) time of distillation, (2) temperature, (3) pressure, and (4) plant quality.
3.1 Hydro-distillation
Hydro-distillation is the most commonly used method of extraction of EOs in which the plant is boiled in water [41, 42]. This method takes 1 h of distillation for fresh samples and 1 h and 15 min for dried samples. In the hydro-distillation method, a round-bottomed flask is used to place the plant material in with distilled water; if the plant material is dry, 1000 ml of distilled water should be used for 75 g of plant material, and if it is fresh material, 400 ml of distilled water should be used with 200 g of plant material; if the sample of plant is smaller, however, they can adjust the amount of water using this ratio: 13.3 ml of distilled water for each gram of dry plant. For water distillation, the modified Clevenger trap should be used to extract EO, and at the end the volume of the oil should be determined, and the EO should be analyzed immediately [43, 44, 45]. An advanced distillation method which is the microwave-assisted hydro-distillation can be used to shorten extraction time [46, 47].
3.2 Steam distillation
Steam distillation is the traditional method of extraction of EOs from plants [37]. The fundamental principle of steam distillation is that the mixture is allowed to be distilled at a temperature that is lower than the boiling point of the component; EO substances have a high boiling point that can reach 200°C; however, these substances will be volatile when steam or boiling water is present which is in 100°C; then the hot gas mixture will be condensed to form oil if it passes through a cooling system [48]. In steam distillation, the steam is first passed into a flask that contains the plant material; after that the condensate at the bottom of the flask should be collected which will be the water and oil; then the extract is condensated three times with ethyl ether to ensure that the essential oil is fully extracted; then the moisture should be removed by adding sodium sulfate to the ethyl ether, followed by rotary evaporation to remove ethyl ether; and finally the volume of the EO is determined [43]. The advantages of this method of extraction are that it is rapid and can be controlled by the operator and it gives an acceptable quality than EOs extracted with other methods [48].
3.3 Solvent extraction
Solvent extraction method or liquid-liquid method is done by separating compounds based on their part solubility [49]. The basic principle of the solvent extraction method is that between two immiscible solvents, the solute distributes itself in a fixed ratio, whereby one is usually water and the other is an organic solvent [50]. In this method, the plant material will be grinded in a mortar that contains anhydrous hexane Na2SO4, followed by four rounds of extraction with hexane to obtain the yellow extract, then this is followed by adding a sufficient amount of Norite A charcoal for all extracts to remove the yellow color after low-speed centrifugation, and eventually the solution will be concentrated under air stream at room temperature [37, 43, 49]. A newer method of solvent extraction, called the microwave-assisted simultaneous distillation-solvent extraction (MW-SDE), is faster and simpler and uses fewer solvents to determine volatile compounds than conventional methods [51].
4. Composition of essential oils
4.1 Physical properties of EOs
EOs are volatile and become liquid at room temperature; they might be colorless or slightly yellow in color when extracted. Moreover EOs are lower in density than water, except for sassafras and clove essences [16]. EOs can be either liposoluble or soluble in alcohol and organic solvents, but they are only slightly soluble in water [4, 16, 32].
4.2. Chemical properties of EOs
Plants metabolites are divided into primary and secondary metabolites. The primary metabolites include proteins, DNA, and compounds that are important for cellular function. Secondary metabolites are produced by plants as a response of stress to deter herbivores or animals that would feed on them [52, 53]. Of the secondary metabolites, plant terpenes are the most numerous and diverse natural products of plant secondary metabolites which can be found in EOs [53]. They are found in monoterpene and diterpene oils and may be aliphatic, cyclic, or aromatic depending on the functional group [16]. According to the functional group, they can be alcohols, esters, ethers, hydrocarbon, and aldehydes [16].
The composition varies due to the place of origin, harvesting moment, extraction method, planting time, mineral fertilization, and climate [5, 16, 54]. For example, in warm places there will be more EOs than the cold or hot areas [16]. The concentration of EOs is extremely high due to the extraction methods used [23]. The simplest unit of EOs is the isoprene units that are composed of five carbons which can be assembled to form terpenes [16, 52]. EOs are composed of hydrocarbon molecules. Terpenes, for example, are hydrocarbon molecules that comprise of 10, 15, 20, and 30 carbon atoms and are made out of five-carbon isoprene units [55, 56].
EOs’ main components are divided into terpenoid and non-terpenoid groups present in different concentrations [4]. The non-terpenoid group contains short-chain aliphatic, aromatic, nitrogenated, and sulfated substances [16, 57]. The terpenoid group contains a different composition of hydrocarbon terpenes, terpenoids, and sesquiterpenes which is responsible for the special aroma [5, 58]. In general, the non-terpenoid group is less important than the terpenoid in terms of applications [53].
5. Use of essential oils against multidrug-resistant bacteria
Antibiotics are effective drugs that play an important role in treating infections and decreasing morbidity and mortality rates [59, 60]. In general, antibiotics kill multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria through various mechanisms. Examples include the β-lactam antibiotics that inhibit the bacterial cell wall synthesis, fluoroquinolones that inhibit DNA synthesis, tetracycline which is an inhibitor of protein synthesis, sulfonamides as a metabolic pathway or folic acid synthesis inhibitor, and polymyxin B which interferes with cell membrane integrity [60, 61, 62, 63]. Antibiotic resistance develops naturally but is accelerated when the antibiotics are misused in both human and animals; the bacteria will evolve and develop resistance toward antibiotics, preventing the antibiotic from killing the bacteria [59, 64]. The bacteria subsequently become resistant by many mechanisms depending on the selective pressure incurred by the antibiotic used; for example, if the penicillin is used, the bacteria will become resistant to it by producing enzymes that will act against the antibiotic which is in this situation penicillinase enzyme [39]. For instance, a study conducted in 173 hospitals in Europe showed that high antibiotic consumption hospitals have a higher number of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) [65].
Antibiotic resistance in microorganisms is increasing at a worrisome rate [66]. Hence, over the years, researchers are exploring possible alternative sources that will be helpful to mitigate MDR bacteria. Of all the potential sources, EO was identified as one of the good alternative sources, because of their effectiveness in folk medicine [67]. Bacteria can be divided into two main types: the gram-positive and the gram-negative. The gram-positive have a thicker peptidoglycan layer than the gram-negative bacteria [68]. Besides that, the gram-negative bacteria also have an outer membrane that is absent in the gram-positive bacteria (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Schematic of different gram-positive (at the top) and gram-negative (at the bottom) cell walls.
Generally, the gram-positive bacteria are less resistant to EOs than gram-negative bacteria [69, 70]. In gram-positive bacteria, hydrophobic molecules are able to penetrate the cell and act on the cell wall and cytoplasm. This is exemplified by the phenolic compounds in EOs against gram-positive bacteria [66]. In the gram-negative bacteria, a thin layer of peptidoglycans is present with an outer membrane that contains LPS. LPS consists of lipid A, core LPS, and O-side chain, which makes the gram-negative bacteria more resistant to EOs than gram-positive bacteria [66, 71]. Small hydrophilic solutes will make use of the porin proteins in the gram-negative bacteria to pass through the outer membrane; it is this porin selectivity that also makes the gram-negative bacteria less susceptible to hydrophobic antibiotics [66, 72, 73].
EOs via their different components have different targets against microorganisms such as the membrane and the cytoplasm [8]. Scientists have also found that the solubility of EO in water allowed them to decipher how EOs penetrated the cell wall of microbes; in other words EOs, being soluble in the cell membrane phospholipid bilayer, diffuse through the membrane [74]. A study done using the EO of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) against MDR gram-negative bacteria (e.g., Escherichia coli and carbapenem-resistant K. pneumoniae) and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) showed that there is a bactericidal effect of tea tree EO on these microorganisms [75]. This indicated that the EO can be used to kill resistant bacteria [74]. Moreover, EO phenolic compounds’ effect is concentration-dependent, whereby at low concentrations the phenolic compound will work with enzymes to produce energy, while at high concentration it will denature proteins [66, 76].
5.1 Determination of MIC of EOs for bacteria
Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) is the lowest concentration of a specific drug to inhibit the growth of microorganisms such as bacteria [1, 77]. After knowing that a particular EO has bactericidal, viricidal, and antiparasitic effects, the lowest concentration of EO to inhibit microbial growth should be measured [57, 78]. There are many assays to evaluate and screen for antimicrobial activity such as the disk diffusion test, microdilution (resazurin) or broth method, and agar dilution method [79, 80]. The agar disk diffusion test is commonly used to determine the antibacterial activity of the EO, but this method works only for EO with known components. This is because, for the EOs with unknown components, the antimicrobial effect may give rise to false or negative result caused by the unknown components [81]. Previously, in a study performed using the disk diffusion test to examine the antimicrobial activity of Eucalyptus globulus leaves, EO showed that there was a bacterial inhibitory effect on E. coli and S. aureus [82].
The commonly used alternative method to determine antimicrobial activity is the dilution method through a serial dilution of the EO in several tubes, and then determining the MIC after adding the test microorganism, turbidity is measured as a signal for growth [81]. In this method, the EO is first diluted; then it will be added to the medium that contains the broth culture, followed by incubation for 18 h in 37°C [69]. After the incubation period, the tube with the lowest concentration that showed no sign of growth is the MIC of the EO [69, 83]. However, this method requires a large quantity of the plant extract [81]. A study using the redox dye resazurin for the new modified microdilution method has been carried out to determine the MIC for tea tree EO (Melaleuca alternifolia) against the gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. The results showed that the resazurin method is accurate to determine the MIC and is higher in sensitivity than the results obtained from the agar dilution assay [80].
6. Mechanisms of actions with antibiotic
EOs’ mechanism of action is poorly understood, but in general it depends on their chemical composition [8, 66, 84]. As antimicrobial resistance to antibiotics is increasing, scientists are currently exploring the ability of the plant extract to modify bacterial resistance against drugs [39]. The three main types of interactions that occur between the combination of antibiotic and EO are synergism, additivity, and antagonism [85]. Synergistic interaction is when the effect of the combined chemicals is greater than the effect of a chemical alone; additive interaction is when the sum of two chemicals is equal to the sum of chemical effect alone, while antagonism is when the whole effect of the two chemicals is less than the sum of effect of a single chemical alone [86]. In a study performed using the tea tree EO against the MDR bacteria, when a combination of tea tree EO with antibiotic (e.g., oxacillin) was tested on the bacteria, in particular the MRSA, a high synergistic index in the sub-inhibitory concentration was recorded [75]. This indicates that the EO can be used to overcome bacterial resistance to antibiotic. The synergism level increases when the combined effect is higher than the individual effect in the combination therapy [39].
Combination therapy is a new method that combines antibiotics and EO to kill resistant bacteria, via enhancement of the antimicrobial activity [39, 87]. Moreover, EOs have more components possessing different mechanisms of actions for many targets than antibiotics that have only one target. Combination therapy would be useful and able to provide a new treatment option for resistance bacteria [39].
7. Application of essential oils in therapy
Daily, the human body comes into contact with EOs through various sources such as herbs, spices, orange, spearmint, lemongrass, etc., but only limited information about the amount of EO uptake is known [4, 88]. Effects of EO begin to appear after it penetrates the human body in several ways such as by ingestion, by absorbing the EO or diffusion, and by inhalation [4, 89]. EOs can be taken by inhalation through the lungs and distributed into the blood because of their volatility [90, 91, 92]. Moreover, consumption of EO by ingestion should be taken with care because EOs may cause probable toxicity [4]. EOs are used in folk medicine to treat many health problems and can also be used as food preservatives by giving antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammation properties [93, 94].
Many studies investigated the efficiency of EOs in combination with antibiotics to combat bacterial resistance; EOs with its compounds and secondary metabolites have shown promising synergistic interaction as an indication that they would be helpful to treat and decrease bacterial resistance to antibiotics [39, 95]. The advantages that make the EOs preferable are that they will decrease adverse reactions, besides being comparatively more cost-effective, with more public acceptance due to traditional usage, and being renewable with better biodegradability properties [39, 96].
8. Synergistic activity of essential oil
The synergistic effects between the EOs and antibiotics against the MDR bacteria have been investigated [97]. The synergistic effect can be defined as the ability of EO components to act together with the antibiotic component to increase the activity of the EO against MDR bacteria [98]. This is important because it will help to reduce the use of antibiotics and decrease the rates of antibiotic resistance [97]. Some studies have been done to assess the combinatory activities of lavender, cinnamon bark, peppermint, and other EOs against bacteria, and the results show there is a synergistic effect [97]. Some of these EOs will be discussed in the following sections.
8.1 Lavender essential oil
The lavender EO is used in traditional medicine as well as in cosmetic products; this oil is believed to have sedative, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial effects [99]. Lavender EO shows a synergistic effect when combined with piperacillin antibiotic against beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli under study with fractional inhibitory concentration (FIC) index between 0.26 and 0.5 [97]. This finding shows that it’s possible to use the lavender EO as an agent in modifying the antibiotic resistance [97]. Another study which aimed to compare the antimicrobial efficacy of four types of lavender oil on MSSA and MSRA shows that by direct contact the oil inhibits the growth of these microbes [100]. Fusidic acid is one of the compounds within this oil which gives it the antimicrobial activity, the mechanism of which is to cause bacterial cell damage by reducing synthesis of proteins [101].
8.2 Cinnamon bark essential oil
The cinnamon bark EO can be obtained from different parts of the tropical evergreen tree, which is important for human health and agriculture uses [102]. Previously, a study reported that a combination of cinnamon bark EO with piperacillin resulted in a synergistic relationship with FIC ≤ 0.5, and this result indicates the possibility of using cinnamon bark EO as a resistance-modifying agent against MDR bacteria [97, 103]. Cinnamon bark oil contains cinnamaldehyde which is one of the compounds that inhibit the activity of amino acid decarboxylase; this compound with others within the oil gives this oil the ability to inhibit some pathogenic bacteria [104].
8.3 Peppermint essential oil
Peppermint EO is significant in inhibiting the microbial growth and increasing the shelf-life of food by preventing food spoilage [105]. Combination of piperacillin and peppermint EOs with FIC in the range 0.26–0.5 was found showing a synergistic effect that is absent in 31 other combination pairs that were studied, indicating a promising alternative to reduce the use of antibiotic and achieve the reverse beta-lactam antibiotic resistance [91]. The antibacterial activity for this oil is associated with menthol and ethyl acetate in high concentrations [106].
9. Future perspectives
Research about the reversal antibiotic resistance is important to preserve the healthy microbial ecosystem in the human host. It is imperative to understand the cause of antimicrobial resistance and to find solutions to alleviate the present situation. As discussed above, combination therapy between EOs and antibiotic provides a promising alternative to mitigate MDR bacteria, possibly by disrupting the bacterial cell wall. Although EOs have been proven to be useful for mitigating MDR bacteria spread, there is still much to be done in terms of the combination stability, selectivity, definite mechanism of action, chemical nature, availability of these products in human body, optimal dose, and adverse reactions as a treatment. These gaps need to be taken into consideration before applying EOs for clinical usage. In addition, there is also a need for animal study and human trials in the future, if one intends to employ EOs as a therapeutic option in medical settings.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the HCT Research Grants from the Higher Colleges of Technology, UAE for supporting this work.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare they have no competing interests.
\n',keywords:"lavender oil, cinnamon bark oil, peppermint oil, multidrug-resistant bacteria, synergistic interaction, antimicrobial",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/67434.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/67434.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67434",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67434",totalDownloads:1163,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:4,impactScorePercentile:91,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 20th 2018",dateReviewed:"April 29th 2019",datePrePublished:"June 5th 2019",datePublished:"January 8th 2020",dateFinished:"May 30th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Essential oils (EO) are volatile, non-lipid-based oils produced as a plant defense mechanism. Studies from our group have validated the potential usefulness of EOs to synergistically and additively work with antibiotics. In this book chapter, we aim to outline some background on the EOs and their uses and applications, to discuss the different mechanisms of action in partnering with antibiotics, and, finally, to explore their potential use against multidrug-resistant bacteria. Applications of EO in therapy will enable the revival of previously sidelined antibiotics and enhance the development of new drug regimens to better mitigate what may be the biggest health challenge by year 2050.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67434",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67434",book:{id:"7855",slug:"essential-oils-oils-of-nature"},signatures:"Mariam Aljaafari, Maryam Sultan Alhosani, Aisha Abushelaibi, Kok-Song Lai and Swee-Hua Erin Lim",authors:[{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",email:"erinlimsh@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",email:"laikoksong@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},{id:"297610",title:"Ms.",name:"Mariam",middleName:"Nasser",surname:"Aljafari",fullName:"Mariam Aljafari",slug:"mariam-aljafari",email:"H00349760@hct.ac.ae",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"297611",title:"Ms.",name:"Maryam Sultan",middleName:null,surname:"Alhosani",fullName:"Maryam Sultan Alhosani",slug:"maryam-sultan-alhosani",email:"malhosani@hct.ac.ae",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"297612",title:"Dr.",name:"Aisha",middleName:null,surname:"Abushelaibi",fullName:"Aisha Abushelaibi",slug:"aisha-abushelaibi",email:"aabushelaibi@hct.ac.ae",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Classification of essential oils",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Essential oil extraction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Hydro-distillation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Steam distillation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Solvent extraction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Composition of essential oils",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.1 Physical properties of EOs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.2. Chemical properties of EOs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. Use of essential oils against multidrug-resistant bacteria",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.1 Determination of MIC of EOs for bacteria",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"6. Mechanisms of actions with antibiotic",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"7. Application of essential oils in therapy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"8. Synergistic activity of essential oil",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"8.1 Lavender essential oil",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"8.2 Cinnamon bark essential oil",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"8.3 Peppermint essential oil",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18",title:"9. Future perspectives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Sartoratto A, Machado ALM, Delarmelina C, Figueira GM, Duarte MCT, Rehder VLG. Composition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils from aromatic plants used in Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology. 2004;35(4):275-280'},{id:"B2",body:'Maia MF, Moore SJ. Plant-based insect repellents: A review of their efficacy, development and testing. Malaria Journal. 2011;10(1):S11'},{id:"B3",body:'Sharifi-Rad J, Sureda A, Tenore GC, Daglia M, Sharifi-Rad M, Valussi M, et al. 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Antimicrobial properties of plant essential oils against human pathogens and their mode of action: An updated review. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine [Internet]. 2016;2016:1-21. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5206475/ [Cited: January 22, 2019]'},{id:"B96",body:'Yap PSX, Yang SK, Lai KS, ErinLim SH. Essential oils: The ultimate solution to antimicrobial resistance in Escherichia coli? 2017. Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/books/-i-escherichia-coli-i-recent-advances-on-physiology-pathogenesis-and-biotechnological-applications/essential-oils-the-ultimate-solution-to-antimicrobial-resistance-in-i-escherichia-coli-i- [Cited: January 26, 2019]'},{id:"B97",body:'Yap PSX, Lim SHE, Hu CP, Yiap BC. Combination of essential oils and antibiotics reduce antibiotic resistance in plasmid-conferred multidrug resistant bacteria. Phytomedicine. 2013;20(8):710-713'},{id:"B98",body:'Wendy TL, Edwin JAV, Burt S. 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Arabian Journal of Chemistry. 2015;8(3):322-328'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Mariam Aljaafari",address:null,affiliation:'
Health Science Division, Abu Dhabi Women’s College, Higher Colleges of Technology, United Arab Emirates
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Maryam Sultan Alhosani",address:null,affiliation:'
Health Science Division, Abu Dhabi Women’s College, Higher Colleges of Technology, United Arab Emirates
Health Science Division, Abu Dhabi Women’s College, Higher Colleges of Technology, United Arab Emirates
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1. Introduction
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When the UN has adopted Agenda 2030 in 2015 for sustainable development, it committed itself and the member states to work on achieving a social, environmental, and economically sustainable world by the year 2030 [1]. According to Agenda, by 2030 everyone will have access to safe green areas and public places. Unfortunately, not all green areas and public places are perceived as safe. According to the Swedish National Council for Crime Prevention (Brå) due to the fear of being exposed to crime, people change their pattern of movement [2]. Almost a quarter of the population in Sweden takes a different route or a different mode of transport than desired due to the fear of crime [2]. According to the Swedish security survey [2], those areas that have exposure to crime generated a higher level of concern for the respondents to be exposed to crime themselves. This worry left people with a limited choice in terms of when and where they move within the city [2]. It has been argued that sustainability as a whole cannot be achieved unless all of the residents feel safe [3].
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The feeling of being unsafe can be problematic both at a personal level and at the level of society. Several empirical studies have sought that there is not always a connection between feeling unsafe and being actually in danger, conversely, it is quite possible to feel unsafe in an environment that looks completely safe. Safety is a concept that is based on subjective experiences, which means that it can be defined differently. According to UN-Habitat [4], security is defined as the statistical risk to be exposed to criminal acts in one place. If the risk is low, security is high. Whether you are in danger or not, it is the subjective feeling of insecurity that creates a problem in society because it affects human behavior and freedom [5] and makes it difficult to achieve social sustainability. Social sustainability is a concept that contains several factors where the safety aspect is included. Safety is one concept that can vary depending on the context in which the research is presented. Subjective safety reflects the perception of social safety and encompasses fear or anxieties caused by real or presumed fears [6]. Research that exists on safety is most often associated with crime preventative measures and it is therefore important to distinguish between crimes that have taken place and perceived fear of crimes. There is a willingness on the part of actors to work actively with issues of safety in urban planning, but most often there is little or no natural cooperation between them. More knowledge, clearer guidelines, and better coordination can help actors to work more on these issues together [7] to promote smooth urban transition and achieve resilience as a whole. Resilience is mostly defined as ecosystems and climate change. However, this is not the only dimension that is connected to resilience. The demand for safe and secure places continues to upsurge [4]. The challenge for providing such places in developing and third world countries is another serious issue to demonstrate that design can meet the needs of the residents around the world. In this book chapter, the term safety is used as it is explained by Iqbal [8] “the risk of being a victim of crime, the perception of risk of being a victim of crime, and the expression of fear/anxieties of crime”. The term “urban safety is considered to be the quality of the environment and is defined for a person or group in an urban area” [8].
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This book chapter aims to highlight the connection between public spaces regarding crime and fear of crime by (1) showing links between parks and public spaces, and crime and fear of crime, (2) highlighting how different land uses and people’s activities in the built environment can affect people’s perception, (3) understanding socio-technical perspectives i.e., how technological systems and equipment’s (such as lighting sensors, security alarms, security electronic devices, closed-circuit television (CCTV), smartphones or other technological instruments) are influencing safety/security and sustainability, (4) demonstrating the issues and challenges found in Sweden, and, (5) providing recommendations on how these places can be planned and designed to become more sustainable. This book chapter presents a synthesis of earlier work on fear of crime, perceived safety and parks by the author [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. The book chapter begins with a discussion of factors that influence fear of crime and perceived safety in parks and public spaces. Second, a review of the recent literature about perceived safety associated with the physical design perspective of the built environment. Third, how technological systems and equipment (such as lighting sensors, security alarms, security electronic devices, CCTV, smartphones or other technological instruments) are influencing safety/security and sustainability is outlined. Fourth, the issues and challenges found in Stockholm, Sweden will be demonstrated. The context of the empirical studies was the city of Stockholm, therefore, the policy and design recommendations for being safe in the public space discussed in the last section are applicable to other major cities of Sweden or the cities similar to those as Stockholm.
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2. Fear of crime and perceived safety in public spaces
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Public space is characterized as an open space that is accessible to people. In other words, public spaces are the places that provide opportunities for social interactions within the communities. Parks, public squares and streets are some examples of public spaces. To create an inclusive public space, it is important that the various groups of people feel safe and can freely participate in society. Due to its blurred nature of definition boundaries the terms public place and public space are used in this book chapter interchangeably (i.e., for discussion, see [14, 15]. Several studies have shown the positive impact of parks and public spaces on human health and well-being [16] while, others have shown that such places can be a reason for stress and anxiety [5, 17] and affect human life negatively. According to Iqbal and Wilhelmsson [11], not all parks and public spaces have equal amenity value and some may be valued as disamenities. For example, noise around parks, high beam lights from sports arenas, and traffic congestion around parks, street parking near parks, garbage, vandalism, and the gathering of undesirable groups (such as alcoholics, drug addicts, etc.) in public spaces affect individuals negatively [8]. Poor maintenance and criminogenic conditions of the park and public spaces are highlighted by several researchers [9, 11, 18]. A small number of studies have also shown that potential buyers may avoid buying properties located near parks and public spaces with high crime rates [10, 11, 19].
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According to UN-Habitat [4] “crime is defined as an antisocial act that violates a law and for which a punishment can be imposed by the state or in the state’s name”. while fear of crime refers to the “fear of being a victim of a crime instead of the actual possibility of being a victim of crime” [20]. Fear of crime or feeling unsafe is a concept that is complex and based on subjective experiences attached to various other contexts such as age, gender, socioeconomic status and emotional responses to worry or anxiety [5]. According to Ceccato [21], safety is a concept that is shaped by an individual’s actions and interventions in everyday life. Safety is affected by many different factors. These factors can be more easily understood in their context if they support personal, social and physical attributes. For example, there are several strands of literature analyzing the personal and social attributes such as age, gender and socioeconomic status that affect the perceived safety of public spaces [22, 23].
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According to Furedi [24] social and cultural processes guide people on how to respond to threats to their safety [24]. Several researchers highlighted the fear of crime in parks as the most important factor that keeps women out of public spaces [25, 26]. Fear of crime also encourages the separation of women from men in public space [12]. For instance, the creation of safe places for female social interactions and activities to accommodate their outdoor space needs [12, 27]. The international literature shows that some women are mainly fearful of sexual assault [25]. According to Hilinski et al. [28], young age women are targeted for sexual assault and rape [28] then old age women [29]. Following this, there are many places in the world, where the openness in public space is not open for all [12]. In those places, public space is considered as a place where men have more rights than women and where women are often left out because of the fear of harassment [30]. Marginalized groups tend to be more fearful in society because of their vulnerability and feel segregated. Exclusion and loneliness are some of the social attributes in society that enhance the fear of crime. Social integration is essential to reduce the fear of crime and increasing perceived safety. A neighborhood is perceived as safe when it has a social network that includes both regular communication and offered help to all groups. According to Olsson [31], the socially defined space applies when there are social ties between the inhabitants and it is easy to understand and use the public space. It is important to the public space feels open and welcoming for people to make them stay. If the connection with space is missing and identities become unclear, the social control becomes more difficult which resulted in an unsafe place. A socially sustainable, cohesive and resilient public spaces can be achieved by promoting social inclusion and by empowering all groups of people.
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3. Fear of crime and perceived safety: physical design perspective
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In this book chapter, physical design perspective refers to the design attributes of the physical environment of public spaces such as design layouts, mixed land use, street patterns, street furniture (garbage bins and seating arrangements), barriers (actual and symbolic), lighting, accessibility, landscape design and maintenance. Previous research about fear of crime and safety in the urban environment has dealt with situational crime prevention measures [32, 33] and how the physical environment should be designed safely [34, 35, 36]. Situational crime prevention measures are applied when a criminal is motivated to commit a crime and the design of the place makes it difficult to carry out the crime. Situational crime prevention methods deal with the physical, social, and psychological aspects of the place to counteract crimes [37]. The role of the physical environment in promoting safety highlighted by several researchers [34, 35]. Crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) is a concept that explains the relationship between environmental features and crime occurrence through the principles of surveillance, territoriality, access control, target hardening, activity support, and image/maintenance. CPTED is a method that is about how proper development of physical environments can be designed to prevent crime and increase the sense of safety in the built environment. The importance of using CPTED principles is highlighted by many researchers as an inventory in public spaces such as parks [9, 38].
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The best-known theory that explains environmental preferences from an architectural, interior and urban planning perspective and its impact on people is “Prospect-refuge theory”. This theory seeks to describe why certain environments feel secure and thereby meet basic human psychological needs. It is a strategic assessment of how different potential environments enable the ability to observe (prospect) without being seen themselves (refuge). By emphasizing subjective references such as experiences, behaviors and relationships more than architecture, Appleton [39] claims that people evaluate environments functionally and search for strategic opportunities that environments can provide. According to Dosen & Ostwald [40] the physical elements in the planning that creates a perception of spatial arrangements of different components affect human perception and thus the perception of safety. Components that provide the opportunity to move and explore in an environment and whether the effect of shadow and sun is taken into account affects the human perception and experience of safety [40].
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In her seminal work, ‘The life and death of the great American cities’ Jane Jacobs [36] argue how the safety aspect is an important part of a livable urban environment. Jacobs [36] brings forward the idea of mixed land uses of buildings and people by analyzing the uses of different urban elements, such as sidewalks, neighborhood parks, and city neighborhoods. According to Jacobs [36], three requirements should be fulfilled to create perceived safety in the streets. First, a clear division of the public and private space is important. Second, businesses along the street should have large windows facing towards the street. This can create more “eyes upon the streets” that can perceive what takes place in the street space and can help to intervene in potential crime events. The third and the last is to create a continuous flow of people passing by. This increases the number of eyes while encouraging people in the surrounding buildings to look out at the street and observe the events happening in street space. Jacobs believes that no one is interested to look out on an empty street, on the contrary, many people feel entertained when observing a living street [36]. To create the flow of people that makes the street space come alive, Jacobs mentions the importance of having a mixed type of activities that attract people at all hours of the day and provide guardianship. The concept of guardianship is mainly highlighted by Cohen and Felson [41] in routine activity theory. According to them, “in order to take place a crime event, the presence of a motivated offender, the presence of a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian is required” [41]. Capable guardians can be provided with the help of planning a mixed type of activities and mixed land use.
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The role of mixed land use in the built environment is highlighted by various researchers, architects and urban planners. It has been argued that mixed land use activities lead to an active day for a longer period, which contributes to natural surveillance and leads to an increase in the feeling of safety [42]. In a study of parks and crime, Groff and McCord [43] found that mixed land use reduces crime. Larger parks that generate more activities have lower crime levels, which in turn are connected to greater numbers of people using these parks [43]. Contrary to this Iqbal and Ceccato [9] found that large parks can have safety issues due to the big area of the park. Parks can attract criminal activities and in turn have a high number of crimes in certain areas. For instance, cafes, restaurants and sports arenas in summers can also have an increasing number of crimes in parks, such as mishandling incidence, pickpocketing and vandalism [9]. When explaining the fear of crime in parks, overgrown trees and vegetation has an important role in association with fear of crime and disorder and affect perceived safety negatively. The major proposition is given to the idea that trees and vegetation can block the view and can create hiding places [44, 45]. Proper maintenance can help to avoid hiding places and in turn deter the incidents of crimes. Vegetation is also a physical element that is used to define demarcation or create symbolic barriers that question the accessibility of public places. Gehl [46] emphasized the need to eliminate such barriers (both physical and mental) to increase space accessibility (Figure 1).
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Figure 1.
(a) Presence of dark tunnels often limits the prospects and provides refuge for a criminal. (b) Padlocks can increase fear of crime. (Source: Iqbal, A*) *All photographs were taken by the author.
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Accessibility in public places has an important role from the physical design perspective. A public place should feel accessible and open to everyone. Accessibility can be seen from two perspectives. It could be either actual or symbolic barriers that prevent visitors from visiting or staying at a place. Within the physical aspect, accessibility can sometimes be associated with the lack of obstacles and barriers. The perceived accessibility is instead about whether the place is perceived as inclusive for all. It is also very important to understand the dilemma of “public spaces as a public good” — that nobody feels the responsibility of being in charge of publically owned spaces [9, 43] however, at the same time everyone wants to get benefit from it. While explaining accessibility in the public urban space, Olsson [31] argued that an accessible and well-planned public space must be identified as open and attractive. In order to create attractiveness, the presence of other people is identified as the crucial element [31, 46, 47] and a prerequisite for a well-functioning city [31]. Urban events such as cultural events and sports were criticized by Olsson [31] as they are not sustainable solutions to create accessibility and attractiveness in the city.
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Another important physical element that helps to feel safe in an urban environment is the use of street furniture such as the placement of garbage bins and seating arrangements in a public space. In order to investigate how people use the spaces and interact in public places such as squares and parks in New York, William Whyte [47] stated an essential prerequisite for attracting people to squares and parks in the presence of other people as well as access to the seating. Food sales, the presence of water, movable chairs and access to the sun were identified as other significant elements [47]. Public spaces that provide seating with a natural overview mainly allow for social interaction and automatically generates perceived safety. Saville & Cleveland [48] found that park furniture can create natural surveillance if place adequately. The placement of park furniture can work as a source of creating eyes on the street on the other hand they are a major source of creating a social connection among park users. At the same time, they can be part of the noise and other problems in parks [48]. A park or public space with well-groomed trees and vegetation, good lighting, and cleanliness increase the perceived safety.
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Perceived safety is also associated with the disorder in the surroundings. The disorder is mainly affected by physical attributes such as graffiti, poorly maintained landscapes, debris (garbage), vandalism, and poor lighting. According to Broken Windows Theory, physical and social deterioration can affect residents’ perceived safety and may result in a higher fear of crime [23]. The relationship between perceived safety and disorder is recurring. An increase in disorder decreases people’s perceived safety which in turn leads to place avoidance. On the other hand place avoidance leads to further disorder [49].
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When emphasizing crime preventative measures, several researchers found street lighting as an important part of physical features that helps in feeling safe in public spaces [14, 50] However, there are mixed trend results in research that show both positive and negative effects of lighting. In a recent systematic literature study, Ceccato and Nalla [14] mentioned that 72 percent of studies (from their sample research papers) show that good lighting affects positively by reducing crime and/or fear of crime however, the impact on the safety of other security technologies, are inconclusive [51]. According to Rezvani and Sadra [5], lighting and visual accessibility of public places lead to strengthening the sense of feeling safe in the neighborhoods. Physical design affects perceived safety, but it is not just physical planning that administers how safe a public space can be. Sreetheran & van den Bosch [52] argues that physical attributes can be apparent like vandalism or sometimes even more prevailing factors such as lighting or maintenance of an area. Physical factors that indicate disorder in society generate fear and can be perceived as a warning sign of an unsafe place. It is important to keep in mind that the personal, social and physical attributes are interdependent to achieve perceived safety. Investigating negative aspects of light pollution on ecological systems and health, Chepesiuk [53] shows that lighting also has divergent effects on both flora and fauna. It has also been highlighted that light pollution in cities shown a negative effect on people’s sleeping habits [53].
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4. Fear of crime and perceived safety: a socio-technical perspective
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Our cities have developed a lot and access to modern technology such as smartphones, laptops, the internet, etc. has most likely had an impact on how public places are used and how people interact with each other. Since this new era of smartphones and location-based services has started an increasing trend of debate is taking place between various actors in society on the role of socio-technical perspective to design cities that can help to reduce crimes. Cities are comprised of people, infrastructure, physical forms, services, ecosystems and communications. The interaction between society’s complex infrastructures and human behavior has a great role in interconnecting all three forms of sustainability that are, social, physical and ecological. However, it is inappropriate to expect that the sustainability challenges that our cities are facing can be solved by only traditional disciplinary methods of research. Cities require a socio-technical approach rather than a purely technological one because societal functions are achieved by a combination of technology, infrastructure, production systems, policy and legislation, user practices and cultural meaning [54]. When it comes to explaining socio-technical perspectives about crime and fear of crime the most important element is how the use of technological systems and equipment (such as lighting sensors, security alarms, security electronic devices, CCTV, smartphones or other technological instruments) are influencing safety/security and sustainability. So what makes a public place inclusive, safe and resilient from the socio-technological perspective?
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Video surveillance cameras are a common part of the modern world today. The implementation of CCTV cameras has been considered a supplemental tool for surveillance and a potential means of facilitating social control [55]. However, still there are some significant legal and social limitations associated with it [56]. Besides the subjective nature of feeling safe, some people feel that the presence of CCTV makes them feel more confident and safe while others feel it reduces their confidence [57]. To identify the crime prevention effects of CCTV and street lighting Welsh and Farrington [58] found that “CCTV and improved lighting were more effective in reducing property crimes than in reducing violent crimes, with CCTV being significantly more effective than street lighting in reducing property crime” [58]. More focus was given to parking lots and/or garages and little is known about the effectiveness of these crime prevention effects in other public spaces. One example of research on the effectiveness of urban video surveillance in public spaces was assessed by Socha & Kogut [56]. The authors found that the installation of smart surveillance and analysis system in public space supports the use of monitoring systems to prevent and reduce crime and improve safety in public space [56]. Similarly, McCormick and Holland [59] found that CCTV cameras can decrease criminal activities in urban parks. Contrary to this, Surette and Stephenson [60] investigated the relationship between safety and video surveillance camera. The results show that the surveillance cameras had an insignificant effect on the disorder in parks. Ratcliffe [61] identified installation of video surveillance cameras as a tool that increases the risk of facilitating the arrest of the offenders. However, the same study also demonstrated that in general cameras can serve to reduce criminal activity, some locations do not get any benefit from camera installations [61]. In another study, Welsh and Farrington [58] suggest that CCTV works better in well-defined conditions (especially in car parks) than in public places and has the greatest impact on car crime, without having any impact on violent crimes.
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The age of new technology has also contributed to the development of methodological, and ethical challenges. For example, Ceccato [62] emphasized on what happens in public space is getting new expressions, for example, the role of guardians in surveillance has been redefined. “Eyes on the streets” by Jane Jacob [36] is complemented by “apps on streets” [62]. Ceccato explored the concept of surveillance and related terms by evaluating the nature of the data captured by users of an incident-reporting app. Results from this study suggest that the app is often used to report a crime, mostly in residential areas (as opposed to inner-city areas). Findings also indicate that data from a survey of app users can rarely represent the actual population of those using the tool, or the population residing and working in these areas [62]. While exploring spatial patterns of guardianship through civic technology platforms at the level of neighborhood units in England, Solymosi [63] found that it is possible to make use of civic tech data to explore people’s engagement in guardianship and map their guardianship capacity in physical space by using digital traces of behavior available online, however, there are limitations associated with crowdsourced data as they are characterized by bias sample self-selection as well as participation inequality [62] also highlighted technological, legal, institutional, ethical, and cultural—that limits the use of apps/smartphones for planning purposes. The author emphasized that the issues of data privacy, the responsibility of actions (e.g., intervening) and accountability should be addressed before data of this kind is used [62]. So what makes a public place inclusive, safe and resilient from the socio-technological perspective? Beginning from the installation of appropriate street lighting sensors, alarms to CCTV, using smart mobile phones to location-based services, and reporting crimes digitally to crowdsource data reporting various surveillance techniques can work in both ways as they increase the sense of security, and at the same time creates certain worries among people.
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5. Fear of crime and perceived safety in Stockholm, Sweden
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Stockholm the capital of Sweden, is one of the green and also one of the safest cities in Europe and the world. Stockholm is chosen as the case study area for several reasons. First, Stockholm is built in between and around plenty of parks and natural green open spaces (Figure 2 shows 1,046 parks and green spaces in Stockholm For more detail, see [64]). Second, little research has been done to know the relation between crimes in parks and public spaces in Stockholm [9, 10, 11].
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Figure 2.
Public green areas in Stockholm. Source: [2].
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According to the Swedish National Council for Crime Prevention [2], a total of 31 percent of the population (aged 16–84) state that they feel very unsafe or quite unsafe when outdoors alone at night or that they avoid going out alone at night due to the feeling of being unsafe in Stockholm. In particular, Women (42%), complained of feeling unsafe than men (20%). In 2020, 28 percent of the population (aged 16–84) state that they often have chosen another route or another mode of transport as a result of concern about being a victim of crime, while 15 percent have avoided doing an activity often as a result of this concern. Lastly, 10 percent state that their quality of life is affected as a result of being concerned about being a victim of crime in Stockholm [2].
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At a macro scale, field survey observations in a pilot study in 2011 were conducted by the author at twenty-five parks in Stockholm [13]. The main aim behind the fieldwork was to understand the nature of parks and to categorize them as either ‘amenities’ or ‘disamenities’ according to the attributes that exist in the park. During the study, the author investigated activities/functions, aesthetical features, location and management (crime, the safety and security situation) as the main categories. All parks were inspected at two different periods of the year (winter and the summer of 2011. See [10]). The result of the study shows that Stockholm’s central areas are targeted by different types of crimes, with some parks becoming crime attractors [13, 18]. By investigating the incidence of crime in parks, we found that more serious crimes including violence, drugs, assault and graffiti occurred within Hilly Park and Inner City Parks in Stockholm, however, not all parks have high crimes [10]. Some parks, especially parks with Play Grounds, Parks with Squares and Neighborhood Parks had comparatively low crime rates. Several reasons can justify these trends. For instance, no one can deny the existence of students, coaches and parents —who work as capable guardians and have an important role in perceived safety in such public spaces [10]. These findings are in line with the routine activity theory [41] where such guardians assume personal responsibility to react at such places. However, there have been studies that highlight the fact that capable guardians are not always present [65]. Findings also suggest that easy access to a neat, well-managed, and relatively safe Neighborhood Park is valued more in Stockholm. In addition to this park’s location plays a crucial role. The crime and safety situation of a park is directly linked to the management and design of park, without taking into account park location in the city. For instance, parks located at or near the city center are valued positively as compared with parks located in the city’s periphery [10].
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At a micro-scale, Iqbal and Ceccato [9] studied the nature of a park with high crime rates in Stockholm—‘Tantolunden’. Tantolunden is located in the southern part of central Stockholm, Sweden. Tantolunden was nominated as one of the most dangerous parks, with the topmost violent reported crimes in Stockholm [66]. Regarding the effectiveness of CPTED in parks and public spaces, a detailed inventory was developed based on CPTED principles [9]. Sweden like its other neighboring Scandinavian countries was quite late to adopt such an initiative that incorporates the CPTED principle [67]. New sustainable housing was built by using CPTED principles in design and planning [67]. Stockholm police with the National housing board in Stockholm launched the most famous strategical document BoTryggt05 in 2005 that was about the inclusion of CPTED measures in housing construction guidelines. In 2017 Stockholm has adopted a strategy for “Greener Stockholm” that provides guidelines for planning, implementation and management of the city’s parks and nature areas in Stockholm. The main agenda is to highlight the importance of a safe and equal urban environment to promote perceived safety and social cohesion among all groups of people in Stockholm. Well-designed and illuminated squares, streets, sidewalks, parks and playgrounds were highlighted as important measures for the increased experience of safety in the document. However, still, these principles are not being used as the standards in Sweden. For instance, while implying these guidelines, Stockholm park plan documents for individual districts in Stockholm mainly show concern about missing lights and overgrown bushes and trees. No more information at a deeper level has been provided (for details see park plan of each specific area [68]). Recently, BoTryggt 2030 has been launched — that claimed as a tool for building safer cities that covers not only housing but also neighborhoods, public space, commercial places and more to respond to today’s holistic approach in urban planning [69]. To understand authorities’ point of view on the use of CPTED principles and collaborative planning in this large nature area park, a questionnaire was sent by e-mail to the park manager and a crime prevention coordinator working in Stockholm municipality. Findings from the questionnaire suggest that safety guidelines that are used in Stockholm are not categorized under the CPTED umbrella yet. These results are in line with the previous findings that CPTED has not been used in its full capacity as it is used in other parts of the world [66]. A policy recommendation on incorporating CPTED principles could be derived from these results.
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A great deal of CPTED is mainly about increasing natural surveillance, protecting targets, access control and creating environments that encourage activities that can help to limit crimes. CPTED also helps to focus on criminal activity patterns. If compared to the other similar Hilly Parks in Stockholm such as Vitabergsparken, Kronobergsparken and Vanadislunden, Tantolunden still stays at the topmost reported crimes [70]. According to police statistics [70], vandalism is still the topmost reported crime in Tantoulnden between 2017 and 2019 following narcotics and theft that happens mostly in the afternoon and evenings (see Figure 3). The authors found that parks that have large nature areas may have in-between spaces that transform into desolate spaces and, as a consequence, have the potential to attract litter and graffiti that may affect inhabitants negatively [10]. These desolate spaces are also perceived as obstacles to access to other parts of the city. Some of these large-area nature parks are not easy to maintain, and they adopt an atmosphere of disorder and affect negatively [9]. These results are in line with the previous findings of the cyclic relationship between perceived safety and disorder [23, 49]. It has been suggested that a well-maintained park with a sense of belonging among residents and park users can create a positive image [8].
\n
Figure 3.
Reported crimes per crime hour in Tantolunden Park (2017–2020). (Source: [70]).
\n
Results from the interview showed how residents feel about the safety conditions of this large area nature park [9]. A total of four interviews were conducted with park users (two males and two females aged 18–40 years). All of the interviewees showed concern for the presence of the so-called “illegitimate” park users [18] such as homeless individuals, alcoholics/drug users). All of them pointed out that public toilets in the park are frequently being used by illegitimate users [9]. This study also concludes that crime in parks must be considered in perspective with crimes in the neighboring areas because any park with high crime rates is usually associated with high crime rates in the surrounding area [11].
\n
Regarding the socio-technical perspective, neither CCTV cameras nor security guards were found in this large nature area park at the time of field inspection (for instance., see details [9]). This can be associated with the Swedish government policies that require authorization to install CCTV cameras. That also put a limitation on the general use of CCTV cameras in parks and other public spaces. Several researchers found that implementation of technical systems and tools such as CCTV cameras can affect criminal activities in urban parks [59], however, it has been also suggested that “none of these measures could reduce all crimes but each may work for a specific offense category and cumulatively lead to an overall crime reduction” [71].
\n
\n
\n
6. Conclusions and recommendation
\n
Fear of crime has been regarded as a significant social problem in urban areas. As Rezvani and Sadra [5] stated, “the presence of fear of crime in urban environment shows troubles of communities in the modern age” [5]. The ability to be in a park or public space without being fearful is regarded as an individual right and important for the quality of life in a city. The previous discussion shows being safe in a city is such a broad concept that it is not just associated with the actual crimes, many dimensions of the perceived safety that are linked to the built environment should be considered in planning and designing such places to reduce the fear of crime and increase safety. But then which policy or design solutions can create a sense of safety? Which physical attributes discourage crimes in public spaces? Based on the previous discussion, this section provides some of the general policy and design recommendations for being safe in the public space that should be applicable to other major cities of Sweden or cities similar to those as Stockholm.
\n
This book chapter has mainly focused on safety and the influencing physical factors however, other social conditions and factors also play a role in the origin of the crime, and sometimes it is a combination of several factors [52]. Findings suggest that no one can deny the importance of the physical design layout of the parks and public spaces that have an impact on perceived safety. Small area parks and public open spaces with playgrounds are more “preferred” than large nature area parks. Working with the large nature area park’s design can help to remove unused in-between spaces, to reduce criminal activities in parks and public spaces. This can be done by splitting park areas into two or more parts according to the design and its requirement. Introducing new activities also encourages mixed land use or mixed activities/functions that can create the flow of people at different hours of the day. This can also help in providing activity support in terms of new guardianship with more eyes on the streets [36]. In contrast, other environmental characteristics in parks, such as maintenance and management of trees and bushes, access control, installation of CCTV cameras can help to create a positive image of the park. Perception of safety also differs according to the time of the day and the presence of more street lights can contribute to the feeling of being safe in a public space.
\n
A way forward, for the implementation of safety and security guidelines in public spaces in Stockholm, is the creation of programs that highlights the implementation of CPTED principles guidelines in public space. Such practices should be encouraged as good practices designed with people not for people and should be showcase as successful and appropriate approaches. Another important issue is to think about the implementation of CPTED’s appropriateness to ensure safety on a global scale for instance, in other continents. What CPTED can do to create safer cities must also be complemented by other social sustainability measures. CPTED provides tools and good conditions for reducing crime, however, the active participation of community members in the process can help to implement safe public spaces in Stockholm and to maintain them in the longer term. This way public space can work to empower people and a prospect to create social capital.
\n
Creating safe and sustainable cities requires inclusive and collaborative planning between different actors both at the national and the local level [54]. We can create long-term safe and sustainable cities with the help of strategic planning by including social sustainability besides the economic one [72]. For achieving socially sustainable cities and thus also safe cities, the role at the municipal level is extremely important. As per discussion in the previous section, there are many legal and social restrictions associated with such socio-technological systems that put limitations to their use (such as the need for approval to install CCTV cameras in public places). To improve the image of the park or public space an interface between all stakeholders can create a sense of attachment. Following this, it is also important to understand that new solutions demand new forms of policy formation and collaboration. For instance, about the use of technological systems and equipment. It has long been suggested that risks are attached to human activities and managing and controlling these risks has been built on the experience of generation [73]. Similarly, using these technological systems in creating safe cities is not free from risks, for example, techno trash, pollution, malware, and hacking and privacy issues. It is high time to think of other solutions for producing circular and resilient places.
\n
Public spaces have played an important role in building resilience in the cities. Can we promote a positive urban transition where we design our public spaces in a way that supports better resilience and thus creating sustainable cities? In quest of finding an answer to the above question, this book chapter suggests that despite their intangible and immaterial nature overall, parks and public spaces affect positively and investing in the safety of public spaces does not only affects the quality of a place but also increases the quality of life as a whole because safety is an important indicator of overall social health [5] and quality of life [2]. However, the outcomes of this investment depend on the types of public space and the types of crime that are committed at or near the place. It is important to remember that if these physical designs and improvements will be implemented in public spaces, it does not mean that the crimes will disappear completely. Continuous work with all stakeholders involved and getting to the depth of what causes these crimes is equally important. These findings are important for different groups of people: individual citizens who use such public places in their daily life, police and other safety experts who work with these issues in the city, researchers and practitioners who are involved in the process of creating the safe, sustainable and resilient cities.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
Part of this research was undertaken under the supervision of Prof. Vania Ceccato while the author was a student at the School of Architecture and the Built Environment, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden. The author would like to express her thanks to Mikael Blomgren from Stockholm police for providing the current dataset used in this analysis. Special thanks go to Roya Bamzar and the editors of this book for their valuable feedback.
\n
\n',keywords:"Public spaces, perceived safety, fear of crime, sustainable cities",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76318.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/76318.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76318",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76318",totalDownloads:343,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:3,dateSubmitted:"November 25th 2020",dateReviewed:"March 22nd 2021",datePrePublished:"April 16th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"April 16th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The rapid urbanization process of cities is majorly coupled with extreme climate change, housing shortage and urban safety issues. These issues are raising new challenges to address the capability of urban resilience. Enhancing Urban Safety and Security is one of the major principles addressed by UN-Habitat in Sustainable Development Goal number 11. Making cities safe and sustainable means ensuring access to safe and affordable public spaces for all. This book chapter aims to highlight how do the city’s public spaces are linked and affected by crime and fear of crime? How do crime and fear of crime interconnect to the built environment in cities while promoting positive urban transitions in terms of safe and sustainable cities? This book chapter explores answers to these questions through the parks and public spaces of the city as a case study. In other words, the book chapter deals with the issue of safety and security by (1) showing links between parks and public spaces, and crime and fear of crime, (2) highlighting how different attributes in the built environment can affect people’s perception of safety, (3) understanding socio-technical perspectives i.e., how technological systems and equipment’s (such as lighting sensors, security alarms, security electronic devices, closed-circuit television (CCTV), smartphones or other technological instruments) are influencing safety/security and sustainability, (4) demonstrating the issues and challenges found in Stockholm, Sweden, and, (5) providing recommendations on how these places can be planned and designed to become more sustainable.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76318",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76318",signatures:"Asifa Iqbal",book:{id:"10811",type:"book",title:"Urban Transition - Perspectives on Urban Systems and Environments",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Urban Transition - Perspectives on Urban Systems and Environments",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Marita Wallhagen and Dr. Mathias Cehlin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10811.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83962-413-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-412-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-414-8",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"337569",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Marita",middleName:null,surname:"Wallhagen",slug:"marita-wallhagen",fullName:"Marita Wallhagen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Fear of crime and perceived safety in public spaces",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Fear of crime and perceived safety: physical design perspective",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Fear of crime and perceived safety: a socio-technical perspective",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Fear of crime and perceived safety in Stockholm, Sweden",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Conclusions and recommendation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nUN. Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. A/RES/70/1 2015 [cited 2021 25 January]; Available from: https://www.refworld.org/docid/57b6e3e44.html\n\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nThe Swedish National Council for Crime Prevention, B. 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Retrieved from Stockholm police headquarters Web site. 2020.\n'},{id:"B71",body:'\nTilley, N., Community, security and distributive justice, in The urban fabric of crime and fear. 2011, Springer. p. 267-282.\n'},{id:"B72",body:'\nUNDP, Human Development Report 2015. 2015: New York.\n'},{id:"B73",body:'\nSjöberg, L. and T. Thedéen, Reflections on risks and technology, in Risks in technological systems. 2010, Springer. p. 7-17.\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Asifa Iqbal",address:"asifa.iqbal@hig.se",affiliation:'
University of Gävle, Gävle, Sweden
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Open Access Funding
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For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Reynolds and Steven M. Day",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7904.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"220737",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"J. Reynolds",slug:"robert-j.-reynolds",fullName:"Robert J. 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Everyone must undergo this phase of life at his or her own time and pace. In the broader sense, ageing reflects all the changes taking place over the course of life. These changes start from birth—one grows, develops and attains maturity. To the young, ageing is exciting. Middle age is the time when people notice the age-related changes like greying of hair, wrinkled skin and a fair amount of physical decline. Even the healthiest, aesthetically fit cannot escape these changes. Slow and steady physical impairment and functional disability are noticed resulting in increased dependency in the period of old age. According to World Health Organization, ageing is a course of biological reality which starts at conception and ends with death. It has its own dynamics, much beyond human control. However, this process of ageing is also subject to the constructions by which each society makes sense of old age. In most of the developed countries, the age of 60 is considered equivalent to retirement age and it is said to be the beginning of old age. In this chapter, you understand the details of ageing processes and associated physiological changes.",book:{id:"6381",slug:"gerontology",title:"Gerontology",fullTitle:"Gerontology"},signatures:"Shilpa Amarya, Kalyani Singh and Manisha Sabharwal",authors:[{id:"226573",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Shilpa",middleName:null,surname:"Amarya",slug:"shilpa-amarya",fullName:"Shilpa Amarya"},{id:"226593",title:"Dr.",name:"Kalyani",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"kalyani-singh",fullName:"Kalyani Singh"},{id:"243264",title:"Dr.",name:"Manisha",middleName:null,surname:"Sabharwal",slug:"manisha-sabharwal",fullName:"Manisha Sabharwal"}]},{id:"55388",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68944",title:"Beauty, Body Image, and the Media",slug:"beauty-body-image-and-the-media",totalDownloads:7768,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"This chapter analyses the role of the mass media in people’s perceptions of beauty. We summarize the research literature on the mass media, both traditional media and online social media, and how they appear to interact with psychological factors to impact appearance concerns and body image disturbances. There is a strong support for the idea that traditional forms of media (e.g. magazines and music videos) affect perceptions of beauty and appearance concerns by leading women to internalize a very slender body type as ideal or beautiful. Rather than simply being passive recipients of unrealistic beauty ideals communicated to them via the media, a great number of individuals actually seek out idealized images in the media. Finally, we review what is known about the role of social media in impacting society’s perception of beauty and notions of idealized physical forms. Social media are more interactive than traditional media and the effects of self‐presentation strategies on perceptions of beauty have just begun to be studied. This is an emerging area of research that is of high relevance to researchers and clinicians interested in body image and appearance concerns.",book:{id:"5925",slug:"perception-of-beauty",title:"Perception of Beauty",fullTitle:"Perception of Beauty"},signatures:"Jennifer S. Mills, Amy Shannon and Jacqueline Hogue",authors:[{id:"202110",title:"Dr.",name:"Jennifer S.",middleName:null,surname:"Mills",slug:"jennifer-s.-mills",fullName:"Jennifer S. Mills"}]},{id:"59227",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73385",title:"Differentiating Normal Cognitive Aging from Cognitive Impairment No Dementia: A Focus on Constructive and Visuospatial Abilities",slug:"differentiating-normal-cognitive-aging-from-cognitive-impairment-no-dementia-a-focus-on-constructive",totalDownloads:1353,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Constructive and visuospatial abilities in normal and in pathological aging (cognitive impairment, no dementia, CIND) are investigated. The sample includes 188 participants over 60 years of age, divided in 2 groups: healthy subjects (MMSE ≥28), without cognitive complaints, and individuals with CIND (MMSE between 24 and 27 and subjective cognitive complains). Drawing of cube and drawing of house, Benton Visual Retention Test (BVRT), and Block design are used to test the hypothesis that short visuoconstructive and visuospatial tests can distinguish normal from pathological cognitive aging in its very early stages. Results proved the discriminative sensitivity of BVRT general assessment criteria and of omissions and distortions in CIND. The diagnostic sensitivity of a modification of Moore and Wike [1984] scoring system for house and cube drawing tasks was confirmed as well. Drawing of cube and house could be used for quick screening of CIND in subjects over 60. Principal component analysis with oblimin rotation was performed to explore the different dimensions in the visuospatial and visuoconstructive abilities in old age. A four-factor structure was established, all four factors explaining 71% of the variance.",book:{id:"6381",slug:"gerontology",title:"Gerontology",fullTitle:"Gerontology"},signatures:"Radka Ivanova Massaldjieva",authors:[{id:"75907",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Radka Ivanova",middleName:null,surname:"Massaldjieva",slug:"radka-ivanova-massaldjieva",fullName:"Radka Ivanova Massaldjieva"}]},{id:"59658",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74748",title:"Ageing Better in the Netherlands",slug:"ageing-better-in-the-netherlands",totalDownloads:1193,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The Dutch National Care for the Elderly Programme was an initiative organized by the Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development (ZonMw) between 2008 and 2016. The aim of the programme was to collect knowledge about frail elderly, to assess their needs and to provide person-centred and integrated care better suited to their needs. The budget of EUR 88 million was provided by the Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sports. Putting the needs of elderly people at the heart of the programme and ensuring their active participation were key to the programme’s success. The programme outcomes included the establishment of eight geriatric networks around the medical universities with 650 organisations and the completion of 218 projects. These projects, involving 43,000 elderly people and 8500 central caregivers, resulted in the completion of 45 PhD theses and the publication of more than 400 articles and the development of 300 practice toolkits, one database and a website, www.beteroud.nl. The Dutch National Care for the Elderly Programme has since developed into a movement and continues under the consortium Ageing Better, made up of eight organisations. Through the use of ambassadors, Ageing Better promotes the message that ageing is not a disease but a new phase of life.",book:{id:"6381",slug:"gerontology",title:"Gerontology",fullTitle:"Gerontology"},signatures:"Betty Meyboom-de Jong, Klaske Wynia and Anjo Geluk-Bleumink",authors:[{id:"224997",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Betty",middleName:null,surname:"Meyboom-De Jong",slug:"betty-meyboom-de-jong",fullName:"Betty Meyboom-De Jong"},{id:"232900",title:"Dr.",name:"Klaske",middleName:null,surname:"Wynia",slug:"klaske-wynia",fullName:"Klaske Wynia"},{id:"232901",title:"Mrs.",name:"Anjo",middleName:null,surname:"Geluk-Bleumink",slug:"anjo-geluk-bleumink",fullName:"Anjo Geluk-Bleumink"}]},{id:"55890",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69529",title:"Mindfulness Meditation and the Perception of Beauty: Implications for an Ecological Well-Being",slug:"mindfulness-meditation-and-the-perception-of-beauty-implications-for-an-ecological-well-being",totalDownloads:1428,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Meditation is a first-person method for contemplating ourselves and the world, with more than 2500 years of history, rooted in the philosophical and contemplative traditions of the east. The present chapter aims to explore this worldview in order to demonstrate its relevance to our capacity for the appreciation of beauty. To this end, the aesthetic experience, the contemplative experience and their relationship with the practice of mindfulness are analysed. We suggest that the contemplative meditative experience bestows a state of consciousness and acceptance of life which places the practitioner in a progressive encounter with a self-concept that begins to detach from a static sense of the self and from the categories that define it, so that it may be experienced as an ongoing mental event, removed from cultural ideals of beauty or positivity. The result of this de-identification from the static self is a greater degree of psychological flexibility and a more genuine way of seeing the world, leading to a new perception of the self that is connected to an experience of freedom, and contributes to one’s own well-being, as well as to that of others and of the environment.",book:{id:"5925",slug:"perception-of-beauty",title:"Perception of Beauty",fullTitle:"Perception of Beauty"},signatures:"Álvaro I. Langer, Carlos Schmidt and Edwin Krogh",authors:[{id:"199843",title:"Dr.",name:"Álvaro",middleName:null,surname:"Langer",slug:"alvaro-langer",fullName:"Álvaro Langer"},{id:"201865",title:"MSc.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Schmidt",slug:"carlos-schmidt",fullName:"Carlos Schmidt"},{id:"201866",title:"Dr.",name:"Edwin",middleName:null,surname:"Krogh",slug:"edwin-krogh",fullName:"Edwin Krogh"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"60564",title:"Ageing Process and Physiological Changes",slug:"ageing-process-and-physiological-changes",totalDownloads:6996,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:"Ageing is a natural process. Everyone must undergo this phase of life at his or her own time and pace. In the broader sense, ageing reflects all the changes taking place over the course of life. These changes start from birth—one grows, develops and attains maturity. To the young, ageing is exciting. Middle age is the time when people notice the age-related changes like greying of hair, wrinkled skin and a fair amount of physical decline. Even the healthiest, aesthetically fit cannot escape these changes. Slow and steady physical impairment and functional disability are noticed resulting in increased dependency in the period of old age. According to World Health Organization, ageing is a course of biological reality which starts at conception and ends with death. It has its own dynamics, much beyond human control. However, this process of ageing is also subject to the constructions by which each society makes sense of old age. In most of the developed countries, the age of 60 is considered equivalent to retirement age and it is said to be the beginning of old age. In this chapter, you understand the details of ageing processes and associated physiological changes.",book:{id:"6381",slug:"gerontology",title:"Gerontology",fullTitle:"Gerontology"},signatures:"Shilpa Amarya, Kalyani Singh and Manisha Sabharwal",authors:[{id:"226573",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Shilpa",middleName:null,surname:"Amarya",slug:"shilpa-amarya",fullName:"Shilpa Amarya"},{id:"226593",title:"Dr.",name:"Kalyani",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"kalyani-singh",fullName:"Kalyani Singh"},{id:"243264",title:"Dr.",name:"Manisha",middleName:null,surname:"Sabharwal",slug:"manisha-sabharwal",fullName:"Manisha Sabharwal"}]},{id:"55388",title:"Beauty, Body Image, and the Media",slug:"beauty-body-image-and-the-media",totalDownloads:7764,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"This chapter analyses the role of the mass media in people’s perceptions of beauty. We summarize the research literature on the mass media, both traditional media and online social media, and how they appear to interact with psychological factors to impact appearance concerns and body image disturbances. There is a strong support for the idea that traditional forms of media (e.g. magazines and music videos) affect perceptions of beauty and appearance concerns by leading women to internalize a very slender body type as ideal or beautiful. Rather than simply being passive recipients of unrealistic beauty ideals communicated to them via the media, a great number of individuals actually seek out idealized images in the media. Finally, we review what is known about the role of social media in impacting society’s perception of beauty and notions of idealized physical forms. Social media are more interactive than traditional media and the effects of self‐presentation strategies on perceptions of beauty have just begun to be studied. This is an emerging area of research that is of high relevance to researchers and clinicians interested in body image and appearance concerns.",book:{id:"5925",slug:"perception-of-beauty",title:"Perception of Beauty",fullTitle:"Perception of Beauty"},signatures:"Jennifer S. Mills, Amy Shannon and Jacqueline Hogue",authors:[{id:"202110",title:"Dr.",name:"Jennifer S.",middleName:null,surname:"Mills",slug:"jennifer-s.-mills",fullName:"Jennifer S. Mills"}]},{id:"56505",title:"Aesthetics of the Naked Human Body: From Pornography (Sexualised Lust Object) to Iconography (Aesthetics of Human Nobility and Wisdom) in an Anthropology of Physical Beauty",slug:"aesthetics-of-the-naked-human-body-from-pornography-sexualised-lust-object-to-iconography-aesthetics",totalDownloads:2100,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In many religious circles and philosophies of life, the human body is excluded from the realm of spirituality and meaning. Due to a dualistic approach, nudity is viewed as merely a physical and corporeal category. In social media, there is the real danger that the naked human body is exploited for commercial gain. Advertisements often leave the impression that the body, very specifically the genitals, is designed merely for physical desire and corporeal chemistry. They become easily objects for lust, excluded from the beauty of graceful existence and noble courage. It is argued that the naked human body is not designed for pornographic exploitation and promiscuous sensuality but for compassionate intimacy and nurturing care in order to instil a humane dimension in human and sexual encounters. In this regard, antiquity and the Michelangelesque perspective can contribute to a paradigm shift from abusive exploitation to the beauty of vulnerable sensitivity. In order to foster an integrative approach to theory formation in anthropology, the methodology of stereometric thinking is proposed.",book:{id:"5925",slug:"perception-of-beauty",title:"Perception of Beauty",fullTitle:"Perception of Beauty"},signatures:"Daniel J Louw",authors:[{id:"200645",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Johannes",surname:"Louw",slug:"daniel-louw",fullName:"Daniel Louw"}]},{id:"56059",title:"A Plastic Surgeon’s Perspective on Stereotyping and the Perception of Beauty",slug:"a-plastic-surgeon-s-perspective-on-stereotyping-and-the-perception-of-beauty",totalDownloads:1918,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In the world of plastic surgery, misconceptions may lead to irrational requests or outcomes not appreciated by patients. Those who manage aesthetics should always listen and recognize the variability of cultural identities, desires, attitudes, anxieties and uncertainties of the patient. Emerging from a diversity of cultures and its transforming trends, the scope of cosmetic surgery and its practice reflect not only the individual’s personality, but also the culture as a whole. When counseling an individual, one has to recognize that even in groups of seemingly identical social or cultural standards; there are subtle differences in expectations. To illustrate the potential for inaccuracy of ethnic profiling in the field of plastic surgery authors quote their own work on Asian subjects and facial beauty and resort to experience of others. To reaffirm their opinion and to exemplify how sometimes “fine” differences in the perception of beauty exist, an original study that evaluates the preferences among selected groups of Latina women in respect to buttock aesthetics has been included. This dissertation will focus on how cultural factors influence beauty perception; strengthen the fact that beauty is in the eye of the beholder and how variable differences exist even between small subgroups.",book:{id:"5925",slug:"perception-of-beauty",title:"Perception of Beauty",fullTitle:"Perception of Beauty"},signatures:"Johanna D’Agostino and Marek Dobke",authors:[{id:"17590",title:"Dr.",name:"Marek K.",middleName:null,surname:"Dobke",slug:"marek-k.-dobke",fullName:"Marek K. Dobke"},{id:"201244",title:"Dr.",name:"Johanna",middleName:null,surname:"D'Agostino",slug:"johanna-d'agostino",fullName:"Johanna D'Agostino"}]},{id:"80326",title:"Anti-Senescence Therapy",slug:"anti-senescence-therapy",totalDownloads:110,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The development of therapeutic strategies aimed at the aging process of cells has attracted increasing attention in recent decades due to the involvement of this process in the development of many chronic and age-related diseases. Interestingly, preclinical studies have shown the success of a number of anti-aging approaches in the treatment of a range of chronic diseases. These approaches are directed against aging processes such as oxidative stress, telomerase shortening, inflammation, and deficient autophagy. Many strategies has been shown to be effective in delaying aging, including antiaging strategies based on establishing healthy lifestyle habits and pharmacological interventions aimed at disrupting senescent cells and senescent-associated secretory phenotype. Caloric restriction and intermittent fasting were reported to activate autophagy and reduce inflammation. In turn, immune-based strategies, senolytic agents, and senomorphics mediate their effects either by eliminating senescent cells through inducing apoptosis or by disrupting pathways by which senescent cells mediate their detrimental effects. In addition, given the association of the decline in the regenerative potential of stem cells with aging, many experimental and clinical studies indicate the effectiveness of stem cell transplantation in preventing or slowing the progress of age-related diseases by enhancing the repairing mechanisms and the secretion of many growth factors and cytokines.",book:{id:"10935",slug:null,title:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence",fullTitle:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence"},signatures:"Raghad Alshadidi",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"235",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82112",title:"Comparative Senescence and Lifespan",slug:"comparative-senescence-and-lifespan",totalDownloads:17,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105137",abstract:"The word senescence is derived from the Latin word “senex” (meaning old). In biology, senescence is a process by which a cell ages and permanently stops dividing. Senescence is a natural universal phenomenon affecting all living organisms (e.g., humans, animals, and plants). It is the process of growing old (aging). The underlying mechanisms of senescence and aging at the cellular level are not fully understood. Senescence is a multifactorial process that can be induced by several stimuli including cellular stress, DNA damage, telomere shortening, and oncogene activation. The most popular theory to explain aging is the free radical theory. Senescence plays a role in the development of several age-related chronic diseases in humans (e.g., ischemic heart disease, osteoporosis, and cancer). Lifespan is a biological characteristic of every species. The lifespan of living organisms ranges from few hours (with mayfly) to potential eternity (with jellyfish and hydra). The maximum theoretical lifespan in humans is around 120 years. The lifespan in humans is influenced by multiple factors including genetic, epigenetic, lifestyle, environmental, metabolic, and endocrine factors. There are several ways to potentially extend the lifespan of humans and eventually surpass the maximum theoretical lifespan of 120 years. The tools that can be proposed include lifestyle, reduction of several life-threatening diseases and disabilities, hormonal replacement, antioxidants, autophagy inducers, senolytic drugs, stem cell therapy, and gene therapy.",book:{id:"10935",title:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg"},signatures:"Hassan M. Heshmati"},{id:"81638",title:"Aging and Neuropsychiatric Disease: A General Overview of Prevalence and Trends",slug:"aging-and-neuropsychiatric-disease-a-general-overview-of-prevalence-and-trends",totalDownloads:30,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103102",abstract:"The increasing trend of life-expectancy is becoming a significant demographic, societal and economic challenge. Currently, global number of people above sixty years of age is 900 million, while United Nations expect this number to rise to over 1.4 billion in 2030 and over 2.5 billion by 2050. Concordant to this trend, numerous physiological changes are associated with aging and brain-related ones are associated with neuropsychiatric diseases. The main goal of this chapter is to identify the most important neuropsychiatric diseases to assess in older patients to help to promote health and prevent diseases and complications associated with chronic illness, as these changes are progressive and require important psychological and setting-related social adjustments. Findings identify several health-aspects highly present in elderly: stroke, white matter lesions, dementia rise with age, changes in levels of neurotransmitters and hormones, depression as well as the bereavement following loss of the loved one, and the most common neurodegenerative disease—Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s. In conclusion, studying the aging process should include all developmental, circumstantial, and individual aspects of aging. This offers opportunities to improve the health of elderly by using a wide range of skills and knowledge. Thus, further studies are necessary to elucidate what can be done do to improve the aging process and health of elderly in the future.",book:{id:"10935",title:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg"},signatures:"Jelena Milić"},{id:"80326",title:"Anti-Senescence Therapy",slug:"anti-senescence-therapy",totalDownloads:110,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101585",abstract:"The development of therapeutic strategies aimed at the aging process of cells has attracted increasing attention in recent decades due to the involvement of this process in the development of many chronic and age-related diseases. Interestingly, preclinical studies have shown the success of a number of anti-aging approaches in the treatment of a range of chronic diseases. These approaches are directed against aging processes such as oxidative stress, telomerase shortening, inflammation, and deficient autophagy. Many strategies has been shown to be effective in delaying aging, including antiaging strategies based on establishing healthy lifestyle habits and pharmacological interventions aimed at disrupting senescent cells and senescent-associated secretory phenotype. Caloric restriction and intermittent fasting were reported to activate autophagy and reduce inflammation. In turn, immune-based strategies, senolytic agents, and senomorphics mediate their effects either by eliminating senescent cells through inducing apoptosis or by disrupting pathways by which senescent cells mediate their detrimental effects. In addition, given the association of the decline in the regenerative potential of stem cells with aging, many experimental and clinical studies indicate the effectiveness of stem cell transplantation in preventing or slowing the progress of age-related diseases by enhancing the repairing mechanisms and the secretion of many growth factors and cytokines.",book:{id:"10935",title:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg"},signatures:"Raghad Alshadidi"},{id:"79828",title:"Cellular Senescence in Bone",slug:"cellular-senescence-in-bone",totalDownloads:119,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101803",abstract:"Senescence is an irreversible cell-cycle arrest process induced by environmental, genetic, and epigenetic factors. An accumulation of senescent cells in bone results in age-related disorders, and one of the common problems is osteoporosis. Deciphering the basic mechanisms contributing to the chronic ailments of aging may uncover new avenues for targeted treatment. This review focuses on the mechanisms and the most relevant research advancements in skeletal cellular senescence. To identify new options for the treatment or prevention of age-related chronic diseases, researchers have targeted hallmarks of aging, including telomere attrition, genomic instability, cellular senescence, and epigenetic alterations. First, this chapter provides an overview of the fundamentals of bone tissue, the causes of skeletal involution, and the role of cellular senescence in bone and bone diseases such as osteoporosis. Next, this review will discuss the utilization of pharmacological interventions in aging tissues and, more specifically, highlight the role of senescent cells to identify the most effective and safe strategies.",book:{id:"10935",title:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg"},signatures:"Danielle Wang and Haitao Wang"},{id:"79668",title:"Identification of RNA Species That Bind to the hnRNP A1 in Normal and Senescent Human Fibroblasts",slug:"identification-of-rna-species-that-bind-to-the-hnrnp-a1-in-normal-and-senescent-human-fibroblasts",totalDownloads:81,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101525",abstract:"hnRNP A1 is a member of the hnRNPs (heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins) family of proteins that play a central role in regulating genes responsible for cell proliferation, DNA repair, apoptosis, and telomere biogenesis. Previous studies have shown that hnRNPA1 had reduced protein levels and increased cytoplasmic accumulation in senescent human diploid fibroblasts. The consequence of reduced protein expression and altered cellular localization may account for the alterations in gene expression observed during senescence. There is limited information for gene targets of hnRNP A1 as well as its in vivo function. In these studies, we performed RNA co-immunoprecipitation experiments using hnRNP A1 as the target protein to identify potential mRNA species in ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes. Using this approach, we identified the human double minute 2 (HDM2) mRNA as a binding target for hnRNP A1 in young and senescent human diploid fibroblasts cells. It was also observed that alterations of hnRNP A1 expression modulate HDM2 mRNA levels in young IMR-90 cells. We also demonstrated that the levels of HDM2 mRNA increased with the downregulation of hnRNP A1 and decrease with the overexpression of hnRNP A1. Although we did not observe a significant decrease in HDM2 protein level, a concomitant increase in p53 protein level was detected with the overexpression of hnRNP A1. Our studies also show that hnRNP A1 directly interacts with HDM2 mRNA at a region corresponding to its 3′ UTR (untranslated region of a gene). The results from this study demonstrate that hnRNP A1 has a novel role in participating in the regulation of HDM2 gene expression.",book:{id:"10935",title:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg"},signatures:"Heriberto Moran, Shanaz A. Ghandhi, Naoko Shimada and Karen Hubbard"},{id:"79295",title:"Genetic and Epigenetic Influences on Cutaneous Cellular Senescence",slug:"genetic-and-epigenetic-influences-on-cutaneous-cellular-senescence",totalDownloads:136,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101152",abstract:"Skin is the largest human organ system, and its protective function is critical to survival. The epithelial, dermal, and subcutaneous compartments are heterogeneous mixtures of cell types, yet they all display age-related skin dysfunction through the accumulation of an altered phenotypic cellular state called senescence. Cellular senescence is triggered by complex and dynamic genetic and epigenetic processes. A senescence steady state is achieved in different cell types under various and overlapping conditions of chronological age, toxic injury, oxidative stress, replicative exhaustion, DNA damage, metabolic dysfunction, and chromosomal structural changes. These inputs lead to outputs of cell-cycle withdrawal and the appearance of a senescence-associated secretory phenotype, both of which accumulate as tissue pathology observed clinically in aged skin. This review details the influence of genetic and epigenetic factors that converge on normal cutaneous cellular processes to create the senescent state, thereby dictating the response of the skin to the forces of both intrinsic and extrinsic aging. From this work, it is clear that no single biomarker or process leads to senescence, but that it is a convergence of factors resulting in an overt aging phenotype.",book:{id:"10935",title:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg"},signatures:"Tapash Jay Sarkar, Maiko Hermsmeier, Jessica L. Ross and G. Scott Herron"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:6},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Engineering, University of Naples “Parthenope,” Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Italy. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plants, logistics, manufacturing, and safety. She serves as an associate editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process and is an editorial board member for several other journals. She is also a member of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) Academy.",institutionString:"Parthenope University of Naples",institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the 'new normal'. Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.",institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. Current research interests include trophic flows across ecosystems; watershed impacts of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning; ecological civilization and water resource management; urban ecology and urban/rural sustainable development.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Soochow University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. He holds a Master’s Degree in Urban Development Planning from the University College of London (UCL), and a Ph.D. in Urban Planning & Engineering from TU Berlin. He has conducted applied research on urban planning and infrastructure issues in over 20 countries in Africa and Asia. In 2005 he joined Eawag-Sandec as Leader of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning Group. Since 2015 he heads the research department Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for Development (Sandec) at the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology (Eawag).",institutionString:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Switzerland",institution:{name:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Switzerland"}}},editorTwo:{id:"290571",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Castanho",slug:"rui-alexandre-castanho",fullName:"Rui Alexandre Castanho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290571/images/system/290571.jpg",biography:"Rui Alexandre Castanho has a master\\'s degree in Planning, Audit, and Control in Urban Green Spaces and an international Ph.D. in Sustainable Planning in Borderlands. Currently, he is a professor at WSB University, Poland, and a visiting professor at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. 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