Summary information for ice core sites.
\r\n\tHydrogen gas is the key energy source for hydrogen-based society. Ozone dissolved water is expected as the sterilization and cleaning agent that can comply with the new law enacted by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The law “FDA Food Safety Modernization Act” requires sterilization and washing of foods to prevent food poisoning and has a strict provision that vegetables, meat, and fish must be washed with non-chlorine cleaning agents to make E. coli adhering to food down to “zero”. If ozone dissolved water could be successively applied in this field, electrochemistry would make a significant contribution to society.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tOxygen-enriched water is said to promote the growth of farmed fish. Hydrogen dissolved water is said to be able to efficiently remove minute dust on the silicon wafer when used in combination with ultrasonic irradiation.
\r\n\tAt present researches on direct water electrolysis have shown significant progress. For example, boron-doped diamonds and complex metal oxides are widely used as an electrode, and the interposing polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) between electrodes has become one of the major processes of water electrolysis.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThe purpose of this book is to show the latest water electrolysis technology and the future of society applying it.
Created for various purposes (hunting, meat, ornamentation, eggs) the production of quail is a reality worldwide. Countries such as Spain, France, China and the United States stand out for the production of meat, however, when the production is intended to egg production, countries, as China, Japan and Brazil are highlights.
Quail farming in Brazil in the year 2015 reached a total of 21.99 million head, either for meat or for eggs and 447.47 million dozens of eggs [1], which means an increase of 8.1 and 13.9%, respectively, in relation to 2014.
The success of the activity in Brazil is due to the large producing companies that have settled in the territory and to the creation of research groups inserted in Academic Center, with studies directed to the genetic improvement, management and production, and nutrition of quail. The Centers that stand out are: Group of Studies and Poultry Technologies—Federal University of Paraiba, Areia, PB; Nucleus of Fish and Bird Studies—Federal University of Paraiba, Bananeiras, PB; Nucleus of Studies in Poultry Science and Technology—Federal University of Lavras, Lavras, MG. As well as research groups located at the University of Espirito Santo, Alegre—ES, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Maringa State University, Maringa, PR, and Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa, MG, and the last three groups differ from the firsts, because they also present a breeding program. Worldwide countries such as India, France, Spain and Egypt also stand out with quail research.
[2] World studies on quails date back to 1992, and since 2002 the number of studies in the various research Centers has increased, both in the world and in Brazil. This advance in the Brazilian researches is concomitant with advances in methodologies for food evaluation and nutritional requirements [3, 4], in the knowledge of cellular biochemistry, physiology and animal nutrition, in the development of laboratories in the Research Centers, and in industrial manufacturing of amino acids, premix, etc.
Although of the same family (Phasianidae), commercial poultry, broilers, chickens and quail are of different genres. The latter belong to the genus Coturnix, while the former are of the Gallus genus. Faced with this taxonomic difference, quails have peculiar digestive physiology, and in addition, growth and early reproductive activity, and among others, have low feed intake, which gives them a higher rate of passage in the gastric tract. These differences denote a specific nutritional requirement, mainly protein and amino acid.
Several methodologies applied to chickens and laying hens [4] are effective in quail use; however, they need a more careful evaluation, due to peculiarities inherent to the Coturnix genus, in order to provide consistent results. Another aggravating factor is the lack of quail standard lineages that makes nutrition dynamism even more peculiar with quail. There are few reputable and reputable companies in Brazil that work on quail breeding and provide genetic material for sale. There are few reputable companies in Brazil that work on quail breeding and provide genetic material for sale.
There are two basic methods (dose response and factorial method) for determining the nutritional requirements of birds. However, several mathematical models and techniques for formulating diets that are allied, to the dose‐response method, and techniques such as comparative slaughter (CS) and nitrogen balance (NB), used in the factorial model to predict the nutritional requirement values of crude protein and amino acids for birds.
In this chapter, we will discuss the peculiarities of Japanese quails in relation to broilers, laying hens and heavy matrices, and the need to use with criteria, the methodologies to estimate digestibility and requirement, and also review the use of mathematical models, diet formulation and the methodologies of CS and NB.
Part of the requirements for amino acids and protein for maintenance (laying hens and quail) is directly related to precocity, intestinal gastric tract size (IGT), feather production, development of the reproductive tract, and part of the gain requirement is related to egg weight (inside the same species), and also, rate of muscle deposition (maturity).
Quails, whether intended for laying or cutting, have early maturity and are related to growth rate, and also to size of animals [5, 6], and thus, smaller animals have higher growth rates and lower age to maturity.
Precocity in growth is related to the time the animal takes to achieve sexual maturity, is a guiding parameter in breeding programs, and also denotes different requirements for animals. In this sense, the models that describe growth curves [7–10] validate the premise that each species/lineages and animal category have different nutritional requirements.
Comparing the Gompertz growth curves for Japanese quails [9], meat quails [7, 9], light and semi‐heavy laying hens [11] and broilers [8, 10], it is worth mentioning, that between maturity rates (0.720, 0.0594 and 0.0694, 0.0245 and 0.0230, 0.0373 and 0.0411), respectively, and Japanese quails have the highest maturity rate, which refers to higher nutritional needs, protein and amino acids.
Japanese quails have a lower weight of IGT than chickens, laying hens and heavy matrices, but, a higher relative weight in relation to body weight and this factor predisposes a higher rate of passage of the digest by IGT [12–14].
Japanese quail [15] presented weight absolute and relative oviduct of 10.18 g and 3.05%, and ovary of 6.36 g and 2.16%, that are lower in relative to laying hens [16] that presented absolute and relative oviduct weight of 76.98 g and 6.58%, and absolute and relative ovary weight of 36.04 g and 3.08%. However, the relative weight of quail eggs is higher, and may reach 10% of body weight. The weight of eggs of quails has a mean value of 12 g [17–20] and eggs of laying hens around 65 g [21–24].
The protein and amino acids requirements for quails can be defined by the method of dose and factorial method. The most common is dose‐response method and has generated a lot of information’s. However, considering the more accurate method, in predicting the requirement of amino acids and crude protein, in this topic of proteins, we will approach a subject only on the factorial model. The approach of the dose‐response method will be in the topic about amino acids.
Some studies have been carried out to estimate crude protein (CP) requirements for commercial bird keeping, gain and production using CS and NB techniques.
There studying the requirements of CP for maintenance and gain with Japanese quails in production using the CS technique, [18] obtained the following equation: CP (g/bird/day) = 6.71 × body weight0.75 + 0.615 × weight gain + 0.258 × egg mass.
The requirement of CP for maintenance and gain for growing Japanese quails was estimated in the period from 01 to 32 days of age, through the CS technique. The predicted equations were: CP (g/bird/day) = 2.845 × body weight0.75 + 0.461 × weight gain for quails aged 01–12 days of age and CP (g/bird/day) = 4.752 × body weight0.75 + 0.843 × weight gain for quails in the period from 15 to 32 days of age [25, 26].
The CP requirement for maintenance and gain using the BN technique was determined by the following equation for the 52 week old Lohmann LSL® laying hens: CP (g/bird/day) = 1.94 × body weight0.75 + 0.480 × weight gain + 0.301 × egg mass [27].
Using the NB technique to determine the maintenance and gaining needs of Ross® broilers, at 7 days of age of 56, [28] the following equation was obtained: CP (g/bird/day) = 1.323 × body weight0.75 + 0.272 × weight gain for males and the following equation for females: CP (g/bird/day) = 1.748 × body weight0.75 + 0.277 × weight gain.
Working with 5‐week‐old Hubbard® matrices, [29] determined the CP (g/bird/day) values for maintenance using the CS and NB techniques, and values their obtained, respectively, were 3.77 and 2.02 × body weight0.75, and the mean value for CP requirement for gain was 0.406 × weight gain, for techniques CS.
Working with light replacement pullets, Lohmann LSL®, from the age of 42–63 days, using the CS technique, [30] found CP (g/bird/day) values for maintenance and gain of: 4.7625 × body weight0.75 and 0.313 × weight gain.
When evaluating laying hens Hubbard® at age 36–46 weeks of age, [31] estimated the following equation to predict protein requirements: CP (g/bird/day) = 2.282 × body weight0.75 + 0.356 × weight gain + 0.262 × egg mass.
It is known that nutritional needs are changed according to species, animal category, room temperature, diet composition and animal density. However, another important factor that changes the nutritional needs is the methodologies used [18, 25–31], such as the CS and NB techniques used in the elaboration of prediction equations.
In an attempt to elucidate the effects of the two techniques in determining PB requirements for maintenance and gain, the values predicted by these two techniques will be compared.
The CP (g/bird/day) requirements for maintenance were predicted by the CS technique, with growing animals, in the studies [26, 29, 30], which, respectively, used: pullets (42–63 days of age), heavy matrices (3–20 weeks of age) and Japanese quails (15–32 days of age). The values are similar between the species, 4.765 and 4.752 × body weight0.75 for pullets and quails; however, they are discrepant when compared to heavy matrices 3.77 × body weight0.75.
Using the NB technique to determine CP (g/bird/day) requirements for maintenance, the values predicted by the authors, [27, 28, 31], who, respectively, worked with broiler chickens (7–56 days of age), laying hens, and heavy matrices, were: 1.323; 1.94 and 2.28 × body weight0.75. It can be observed that there is no similarity between the all determined values. However, the values are consistent when analyzing animals in the same category [27, 31] which were: 1.94 and 2.28 × body weight0.75.
It can be observed that the net requirement of CP (g/bird/day) for gain, determined by the two techniques (CS and NB) and reported in the works of [18, 25–31], is, respectively: 0.615; 0.461; 0.843; 0.480; 0.272; 0.406; 0.313 and 0.356 × weight gain. Comparing the requirements of CP (g/bird/day) to gain, with the CS technique, the values are: 0.406; 0.461; 0.615 and 0.843 × weight gain. Those predicted in the NB technique are: 0.272; 0.356 and 0.480 × weight gain.
A relevant comparison is to analyze the same technique and animal’s age, growth and posture. Within the CS technique, with growing animals, the values were: 0.313; 0.461 and 0.843 × weight gain, respectively, pullets (42–63 days of age), quails (01–12 days) and quails (15–32 days of age). In NB technique for growing animals, the values were, respectively: 0.272 × weight gain, for broilers; and for the animals in posture were: 0.356 and 0.480 × weight gain, respectively for, laying hens and heavy matrices.
The values of requirement of CP (g/bird/day) estimated for egg mass production in laying hens and Japanese quails were, respectively, 0.301 × egg mass [26], and 0.258 × egg mass [18]. However, the first one presents a lower requirement of amino acids and CP, evidencing that the greater requirement of quails is related to the higher maturity rate, that is, higher precocity [9–11]. Corroborating the findings of [18, 25–27, 29], where these authors found a requirement of CP for greater maintenance and gain for Japanese quails in relation to laying hens and heavy matrices.
It is clear from the aforementioned works that the CS and NB techniques used to determine PB requirements for maintenance and gain provide conflicting, inter and intraspecific values, which makes comparison difficult. In an attempt to elucidate this difference between the methodologies, [32] described the potential of nitrogen retention in laying pullets by analyzing the two techniques: CS and NB. The authors describe that excreted nitrogen measured in the BN technique does not seem to contain all possible physiological effects, except for amino acid oxidation, in relation to the CS technique. This factor suggested by the authors seems to be the accounting for the nitrogen lost in feathers (NF), which is not measured when used in the NB technique, and with that, the CP requirement values for maintenance between the two techniques are more discrepant.
For [33], the use of the BN technique is even more aggravating, because in this technique, diets are formulated with different levels of protein to generate deficiency and excess CP in the animals’ diet. In this sense, the relationship between the protein level and the loss of NF was established, described by the equation NF = 0.3007 + 0.0086 N, where, for each gram of increase in the nitrogen concentration of the diet, there was a loss of 8.6 mg of nitrogen in feathers, that is, the deficiency in proteins leads to less deposition of amino acids in the feathers, thus, changes the requirement of maintenance the animals. [34] Also verified the influence of nitrogen losses on feathers on the need for maintenance, using the BN technique.
Using the correction value of nitrogen losses in the feathers found by [33], [32] in their work using this correction could conclude that differences between CP needs for maintenance between the two techniques, CS and NB, decreased fell from of 1.56: 1 for 1.28: 1, comparing CS: NB.
The requirements of amino acids have been described by two methodologies: empirical and factorial method [4]. To evaluate the nutritional requirements in the dose‐response or empirical method, the diets are formulated with increasing levels amino acid, gradually, and observed the response of the animals through polynomials (linear and quadratic), broken line and hyperbolic and analyzed in order to estimate the requirements of birds. In the factorial method, the requirements are described in function of the maintenance, growth and production, and relate to the metabolic weight, weight gain and eggs mass production. This method was described in the topic of proteins.
In addition to the methodologies, there are also techniques for formulating diets that also change the requirements. One of the techniques consists of gradual increases of the nutrient tests [35], the other prioritizes the dilution of the diets, which consists of formulating a diet free of the test nutrient and another diet with the same nutrient in excess, and the nutrient levels studied will be obtained by the dilution of the two diets [36].
The success in determining the requirements is a thin line, that is, the robustness of the proposed models and determined requirement are allied to the knowledge and interpretation of each physiological factor of the animals, and mathematical model, in order to promote satisfactory performance to birds.
In the technique proposed by [35], the supplementation of a single amino acid generates imbalances in the relations between amino acids and amino acids/lysine. This point is crucial, since it refers to the ideal protein concept proposed by [37], where the diet needs to have an optimal balance of amino acids to provide maximum performance to the animals with lower nitrogen excretion.
The supplementation technique is widely used [38–45] and has generated a large number of discrepant nutritional information. The main factor is the imbalance between amino acids. The main antagonist relationships between amino acids are: arginine and lysine and the relationship between leucine, isoleucine and valine.
The excess of lysine in the diets, when using the technique proposed by [35], to assessing the lysine requirements, promotes an increase in serum lysine levels, and consequently, a greater loss of arginine by renal catabolism due to the increase in enzyme arginase [46], and generating confusion in the determination of the optimal levels of lysine.
Ref. [45] evaluated different levels of digestible arginine in the diet of Japanese quails, with diets formulated by the supplementation technique, estimated an ideal dietary arginine level of 1.148% in diets with 1.083% digestible lysine and relation arginine/lysine of 1.06.
Refs. [47, 48] evaluated the requirement of digestible lysine with Japanese laying quails, using the supplementation technique, but these authors maintained the relationships between the amino acids of the diets. The authors found digestible lysine levels of 1.117 and 1.120%, respectively, in diets with arginine/lysine ratios of 1.26 and 1.16, respectively.
Ref. [17] found levels of digestible lysine for Japanese quails in production of 1.030% in diets formulated by the supplementation technique and without correction of the arginine/lysine ratio.
The Brazilian Poultry and Swine Table [49] and the Table for Japanese and European Quails [50] present, respectively, digestible lysine values of 1.083 and 1.030% and digestible arginine of 1.256 and 1.260%, respectively, with arginine/lysine ratios of 1.16 and 1.22.
Looking at the data, mentioned above, it is evident that the imbalance of the diets promotes different results among the authors [17, 47, 48]. However, [47, 48] found values equal, but maintained the relationship between the major amino acids; however, this practice of supplementing all amino acids to maintain relationships raises the cost of formulating diets.
Another known, but poorly studied amino acid relationship is branched‐chain amino acids (isoleucine, leucine and valine). These three amino acids compete for the same intestinal transporter and for the same enzymes in cell metabolism [46].
When applying the concept of protein reduction and ideal protein, the basal diets composed of corn and soybean meal have increased maize levels, with this there is an increase in dietary leucine levels in relation to isoleucine and valine. Excess leucine [46] in the diet depresses the use of valine and isoleucine by animals, decreasing their performance.
Ref. [51] observed that high concentrations of isoleucine and low levels of valine and leucine affected the performance of laying hens in the laying phase. This same effect was verified by [52] when evaluating valine/lysine and isoleucine/lysine relations for Japanese quails in production. The author recommends relations, respectively, of 0.75 and 0.82, for isoleucine and valine.
Analyzing the diets [52] of experiment I, where valine/lysine relations were evaluated, and the level of isoleucine in the diets was 1.0%. In experiment II, where the ideal isoleucine/lysine relations was verified, the level of valine in the diets was 0.75%, the latter was determined in experiment I. The higher levels of isoleucine (1.0%) used in the diets of experiment I, may have promoted lower performance in the animals, even in diets with higher levels of valine (0.75, 0.80, 0.85, 0.90, 0.95 and 1.05%).
This assumption is found in Experiment II, where the ideal level of isoleucine was 0.82%, when the diet contained 0.75% valine, indicating that excess isoleucine (1.0%—in experiment I) affected performance of the birds, not allowing to verify improvement, even with higher levels of valine, or even the level of 0.82% of isoleucine that promoted the best performance the birds was limited to the value of 0.75% valine in the diet, since in experiment II levels of isoleucine were of 0.65, 0.70, 0.75, 0.80, 0.85 and 0.90%, corroborating the findings of [51]. In addition, in both experiments (I and II), the diets contained near levels of leucine, respectively, 1.597 and 1.537%.
Aiming to understand the relationship between valine/isoleucine and recommend the best level of valine and isoleucine in the diet of Japanese laying quails [53], proposed the following methodology. In experiment I, were studied valine levels of 0.74, 0.81, 0.88, 0.95 and 1.02%, with fixed level of isoleucine (0.70%). In experiment II, the same levels of valine were evaluated, now, with different levels of isoleucine (0.64, 0.70, 0.76, 0.82 and 0.88%). The author recommends valine levels of 0.74 and 0.64% of isoleucine in the diet of Japanese quails in production. In addition, the leucine level used in both experiments was 1.47%.
It is noteworthy that the interpretations of the results of [53] do not repeat with those of [52], and these findings show that there are other factors involved in the study of the relationship between branched chain amino acids, intestinal transporters and metabolic enzymes, and which have not yet been described.
Comparing the two techniques of diet formulation [54], in his work proposed to study the technique of supplementation and dilution of diets, and to evaluate the levels of digestible lysine for broilers from 01 to 42 days of age. The author suggests the most appropriate dilution technique to formulate the diets, since it promotes better performance to the animals, and this technique reduces the use of supplemental amino acids to maintain the relationship between amino acids, since many of them have high cost of supplementation.
The two methodologies used to evaluate the amino acid requirements for poultry are the empirical method and the factorial method, and have as diet formulation techniques, supplementation and dilution, discussed above. In this topic, we will address the methodologies, specifically the dose‐response method, since the factorial method has already been described in the topic on proteins.
In the empirical method, the requirement is determined through the addition of the nutrient test in the diets. The levels studied should promote a response curve where they can observe deficiency, gain, stability and toxicity [55]. The response curve can be interpreted by several mathematical models [4], and the choice of them can change the value of the animal requirements.
The models used are: first and second degree polynomials, the broken line model and exponential.
The first polynomial models and the interrupted line model describe the linear performance of the animal due to the addition of nutrients. In addition, the interrupted line model predicts that, from a given level of nutrient supplementation, there is no effect, establishing whether a plateau, where the requirement is determined by the intercept of the line with the plateau. In the first model (first‐degree polynomial), there is no predict an optimal level, but only data behavior, increasing or decreasing, and it is not possible to infer whether the behaviors of the line will be kept at lower levels or higher doses high.
The description of the behavior of the data in a linear way is the premise of the response of a single animal however, the population response pattern tends to be curvilinear, since the animals have different responses, even those of the same genetics and age [56], and thus, linear models do not accurately predict the requirements of animals.
The quadratic model presents an advantage in relation to the two models already mentioned, since the answer is curvilinear, describing the population pattern; however, in this model, the optimum point tends to be in the middle of the points studied, since there is a tendency of symmetry between the points to generate the response curve, so the authors work with the estimated value of 95% as the requirement of the animals.
For [57, 58], the models used to predict the requirements must have biological and mathematical meaning.
Nonlinear models predict that the animal’s response tends to decrease as it reaches maximum performance or asymptotic point. However, in this type of model, the exponential, the maximum performance would never reach, that is, it never reaches the asymptotic point, so, the authors suggest assigning a percentage ranging from 95 to 99% of the asymptotic response [4] as being the requirement of the animals.
Several are the works that use the empirical method to determine the requirements of amino acids with Japanese quail, using the most diverse mathematical models. The choice of model should be judicious, and the model should most accurately describe the animal’s response.
For [59] the linear, polynomial and exponential models, within their limitations, present good adjustments; however, the answers are varied, with this, there is indecision about the best to be recommended level. In this way, [59–61] propose the use of the reading model in an attempt to overcome the indecision generated in the choice of the mathematical model to estimate the nutritional requirements of amino acids, since this model allows a better interpretation of the behavior of the population in function of the levels studied.
Ref. [62] reviewed the reading model and noted that it would allow better estimation, in relation to the mathematical models used in the dose‐response method. However, other factors that affect nutritional requirements such as temperature and type of lodging are not possible to include in the model.
As previously reported, the factorial method, described in the topic on proteins, is considered the most appropriate, since in this methodology, it is possible to fractionate the requirements in maintenance, gain and production, and it is possible to add other factors such as temperature, etc.
The mathematical models of prediction with amino acids resemble their construction, with the models already described in the topic on protein, through the factorial method. All peculiarities inherent to quails in relation to broilers and laying hens need to be weighed in the construction of the prediction equations for amino acids.
Due to the scarcity of work in these molds for Japanese quails, and especially with amino acids, no research data will be presented for comparison and elucidation of the techniques, since the premises discussed in the models of protein requirements are the same.
The Brazilian Poultry and Swine Tables [49] indicate the lysine requirements for Japanese quails in posture by the factorial method, but are approximate data of other species.
The digestibility of the amino acids can be influenced by the physiology of the animal and the technique/methodology used. The digestibility is measured by comparing the amount of amino acids present in the test feed, and the intake of the same by the animals and the difference of what are recovered in the excreta.
Quails have a higher relative weight of large intestine in relation to broilers and laying hens. In the large intestine of the animals, there is microorganism that ferments the cecal content and with this can contribute to cecal production of amino acids and or nitrogen, underestimating the digestibility of the amino acids and altering the nitrogen balance. In this sense, quails would present values of amino acid digestibility, less than roosters, laying hens and broilers [63, 64] and allied to this factor, the greater passage rate would contribute to greater escape of protein/amino acids to the large intestine, greater amino acid excretion and fecal nitrogen, further underestimating the results.
To avoid increased cecal amino acid production, ileal content collection, cecectomy, and accurate feeding techniques are suggested to predict amino acid digestibility [49, 50, 65–67]. In addition, fasting [65], used in the precise feeding technique, is criticized by several authors, since fasting animals have patterns of endogenous loss of amino acids different from fed animals. Values of digestible amino acids determined with quails and using the above techniques are scarce.
Using the precise feeding technique, with intact and cecectomized roosters and intact Japanese quail, [68] studied the amino acid digestibility of different foods (maize, low tannin sorghum) and verified that the digestibility of amino acids with cecectomized roosters is greater in relation to intact roosters for most of the amino acids present in maize, with the exception of the amino acids: cystine, threonine, arginine and histidine. The digestibility of the amino acids present in the sorghum did not change due to the cecectomy, except for methionine, where the cecectomized roosters had a higher value. When comparing quails with intact roosters, the authors concluded that the digestible amino acid values with quails are larger, analyzing the corn, but with sorghum, there was no difference except for the amino acid histidine.
Although the authors [68] did not present statistical data comparing the amino acid digestibility values of cecectomized roosters and quails, in absolute values, for maize, the data presented similarities, but when comparing sorghum, values with Japanese quails showed the lower digestibility values. For the amino acid proline (2% points) and histidine (36% points), the other amino acids on average the difference were around seven percentage points less in the digestibility values for quails. These data for maize suggest that although quails have proportionately larger ceca, this factor did not interfere with digestible amino acid values. Another important factor is that using digestible amino acid values of intact roosters for quails is not recommended.
Some authors [69, 70] have suggested, respectively, some methodologies to stabilize the endogenous loss of amino acids by the animals, such as protein‐free diet (PFD) and enzymatically hydrolyzed casein (EHC) techniques.
All these methodologies were worked with broilers and laying hens, and several authors criticized their use [71, 72]. However [73] suggest the PFD technique associated with amino acid supplementation, as being the one that best estimates the endogenous loss of amino acids by birds.
Studies evaluating these techniques with quails are scarce, especially those that evaluate the EHC and PFD and PFD techniques associated with industrial amino acid supplementation, as well as the technique of cecectomy and collection of ileal content.
The above‐mentioned propositions suggest that formulating diets based on recommendations of digestible amino acids determined with intact and cecectomized roosters is not recommended for Japanese quails and should make considerations about the digestive physiology of quails, as well as the methodologies described. In quail nutrition, there are rare papers describing mathematical models to predict the requirement for amino acids.
Quails present physiological and behavioral peculiarities in relation to laying hens, heavy matrices and broilers. The differences between species of industrial poultry are premised to develop specific feeding programs for each species, lineage and animal category.
The nitrogen balance and comparative slaughter technique provide discrepant data, but are more consistent and close when the correction factor for nitrogen deposited in feathers is used.
The mathematical models used to describe nutritional requirements, in dose‐response method, must be used with discretion, since the ideal model must have not only mathematical meaning but also biological meaning.
Prediction equations developed with broilers and laying hens should not be used to predict the protein and amino acids requirement for quails, should developing models appropriate for the each species, and animal category.
The Antarctic Peninsula (AP) is the only landmass that cuts across the sub-Antarctic zone, transecting the circumpolar trough and forming a partial bridge between the Antarctic ice sheet and South America. Moreover, the AP forms a barrier to the strong south-westerly winds in the lower troposphere, separating the maritime climate from the Bellingshausen Sea from the continental climate on the Weddell Sea side [1, 2, 3]. These features highlight the AP as a unique observational platform to study the climatic interaction between low and high latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere. Indeed, climate records from this region add valuable information to understand how heat is transferred and how this has varied over time.
Instrumental observations in the AP are sparse and relatively short, only supported by a network of meteorological stations since the late 1940s [4]. The lack of long-term observational records hinders the possibility to put modern observations into a climatic perspective. However, ice cores retrieved from this region offer the possibility to evaluate climate over longer timescales. Chemical constituents and physical properties preserved in ice cores can be calibrated with meteorological and environmental observations to develop climatic reconstructions based on proxy records [5].
In this chapter, we evaluate the climate of the AP in recent decades, as expressed in the instrumental records, and highlight the important contribution that ice cores have made in expanding our understanding of climate variability over decadal to centennial timescales. We focus on two well-established ice core proxies (1) stable water isotopes, a proxy for past surface temperatures and (2) snow accumulation, a proxy for precipitation. We also demonstrate how both of these parameters have allowed us to investigate changes in large-scale atmospheric circulation beyond the instrumental period.
The AP is a region of high snow accumulation, capturing the seasonal deposition of chemical species in the ice [15], which when coupled with known volcanic horizons, allow high accuracy in the dating [16]. A significant advantage of the AP is that surface temperatures coincide with air temperature during cloud condensation, allowing a direct reconstruction of surface temperatures using stable water isotopes [17]. The best sites for ice core drilling are located on ice rises on the east coast, on ice domes, or on the central AP ice divide, where ice disturbance by deep flow is minimum [15, 17].
Since the mid-1970s, several ice cores have been drilled in the AP [6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 17, 18, 19]. The high annual accumulation, especially on the western coast, limits the temporal range of ice cores in this region, with only a few extending beyond the first half of the twentieth century (Figure 1; Table 1). The significantly different climatic regimes that prevail on each side of the AP makes it necessary to group these ice cores as west-coast regime and east-coast regime. In this chapter, we will focus our study on the ice cores retrieved from the western side of the AP.
Map of the Antarctic Peninsula showing the location of ice cores that extend back to the early twentieth century and beyond.
Site name | Longitude | Latitude | Elevation (m a.s.l) | Depth (m) | Data span (AD) | Data source |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
West coast regime | ||||||
Lange | −58.61 | −62.11 | 690 | 50 | 1918–1995 | [6] |
Bruce Plateau | −64.07 | −66.03 | 1976 | 448 | 1750–2009 | [7, 8] |
Dyer Plateau | −64.87 | −70.67 | 2002 | 190 | 1504–1990 | [9] |
Palmer | −65.46 | −73.86 | 1897 | – | – | [10] |
Gomez | −70.36 | −73.59 | 1400 | 136 | 1858–2006 | [11] |
Jurassic | −73.06 | −74.33 | 1139 | – | – | [10] |
Rendezvous | −78.16 | −74.45 | 1006 | – | – | [10] |
Bryan Coast | −81.67 | −74.49 | 1171 | 140 | 1712–2010 | [10, 12] |
Siple Station | −84.25 | −75.92 | 1054 | 302 | 1410–1985 | [13] |
Ferrigno | −86.90 | −74.57 | 1350 | 136 | 1703–2010 | [10] |
East coast regime | ||||||
James Ross Island | −57.68 | −64.20 | 1542 | 364 | ~14,000 (year BP)–2007 | [14] |
Dolleman Island | −60.93 | −70.58 | 398 | 133 | 1795–1986 | [15] |
Summary information for ice core sites.
The surface temperature records are available from instrumental records at manned research stations and automatic weather stations, as global reanalysis data and obtained via remote sensing during the satellite era. In ice cores the stable water isotope record has been used as a proxy for past surface temperatures over centennial to millennial timescales.
Long-term trends in surface temperatures show that most of Antarctica has been warming since the records began [4]. The largest warming trends in the continent are concentrated on the western and northern parts of the AP [20, 21, 22], a region that exhibits the largest inter-annual variability in the whole continent [4]. Temperature measurements in Antarctica began in the early twentieth century [4] with the greatest density of records in the AP. The AP network includes the longest continuous Antarctic temperature record (Orcadas Station, South Orkney Islands), which extends back to 1903 [16]. After the International Geophysical Year (1957–1958), over a dozen permanent stations began to continuously record meteorological parameters. In addition to the station network, since the early 1980s, several Automatic Weather Stations (AWS) have been deployed in the region. These stations have helped to improve the spatial coverage of meteorological observations, as well as providing data from remote locations [4].
The longest surface temperature record, from Orcadas Station, exhibits a trend of +0.21°C per decade since 1904 [22] with evidence from several stations of a significant warming since the early 1950s [22]. Most notably, the largest statistically significant trend of +0.54°C per decade observed on Faraday/Vernadsky station (1951–2011). Radiosonde data indicates that the largest warming has been confined to the lowest layers of the atmosphere (mainly the lower troposphere) [23]. The largest warming occurs during winter, with trends reaching up to +1.01°C per decade between 1950 and 2011 [24] and the greatest monthly temperature rise has been recorded in July (+1.7°C per decade between 1979 and 2007) [24]. Ultimately, the winter warming has caused an overall decrease in the annual temperature range and a change in the seasonal cycle [4].
Despite the strong regional warming trends measured in western AP in the late twentieth century, the annual mean temperature since the 1990s (1999–2014) has decreased at a statistically significant rate (<5% level), with the most rapid cooling during the summer season [25]. Additionally, Turner et al. [25] suggests that the rapid warming in the AP since the 1950s and subsequent cooling since the late 1990s are part of the large natural decadal-scale climate variability of the region. These findings highlight the need for longer surface temperature records to set the recent changes in a longer-term perspective and to assess the regional climate variability.
Ice cores from western AP provide climate records that extend back up to 600 years (Table 1). The linear relationship between local surface temperatures and stable isotopes in precipitation, at middle and high latitudes, allows us to reconstruct past surface temperatures from ice cores [26]. This approach has been applied at several locations in Antarctica over centennial to millennial timescales [27, 28, 29, 30].
Isotopic temperature proxy data spanning the twentieth century is available from five ice core sites in the AP region (Bruce Plateau, Dyer Plateau, Gomez, Siple Station and Ferrigno) (Figure 2). A strong correlation between surface temperature measurements and temperatures reconstructed from ice cores (except for Dyer Plateau [9]), confirm the use of these records as valid proxies for local and regional temperatures on the west AP. A combination of these five ice cores provides a north–south transect along the AP which can be used to study latitudinal changes in the AP.
11-year running mean isotope temperature proxies from ice cores in the AP region and annual mean surface temperature record from Faraday/Vernadsky Station (F/V), between 1700 and 2010.
The five temperature proxy records do not provide a perfectly consistent picture of climate variability in the AP in the last five centuries. There are periods when most of the cores exhibit a similar temperature trend, but also periods when they show opposing trends. This probably reflects the degree to which ice core sites capture local and regional variability and the imprint of local high-frequency processes that complicate the interpretation [9]. The consistent feature is the recent rapid change in the isotopic composition, likely associated with the twentieth century warming trend measured in the meteorological record. For example, the reconstructed warming from Gomez ice core (+0.055°C per year) is consistent with the warming observed at Faraday/Vernadsky station (+0.054°C per year) (1955–2005) [31].
Overall, temperatures reconstructed from ice cores in the western AP show large inter-annual to inter-decadal variability [22, 31]. In particular, the onset of the warming since the 1950s in the southern cores (Gomez, Ferrigno and Siple Station) is delayed compared to the northern sites (Bruce Plateau and Dyer Plateau) and less pronounced at Siple Station [9, 13]. This could indicate that changes in the conditions in the northern AP did not impact the southern AP until some decades after [8]. Another consistent aspect among these records is a general cooling trend from ~1840/1850 to ~1920/1930 (absent in Siple Station ice core).
Even though some records identify the last decades of the record as the warmest of the last centuries (Dyer Plateau and Gomez) [9, 31], others show larger warming trends and warmer decades occurring in the last centuries (Bruce Plateau, Ferrigno, Siple Station) [8, 9, 19]. In particular, in the Ferrigno ice core, Thomas et al. [19] reported larger 50-year warming trends occurring in the middle to late eighteenth century and in the middle nineteenth century. The analysis of the Ferrigno core revealed a reduction in the multi-decadal variability of surface temperatures during the twentieth century and suggested that the warming since the 1950s has not yet taken the system outside the natural range of climate variability [19].
Ice core temperature proxy records from the AP have provided evidence that the warming measured in the instrumental period is not just a local coastal phenomenon, but part of a regional warming trend covering the whole AP and extending back to the early twentieth century. Finally, they have proved that the current warming trends are not unprecedented in the last three centuries, suggesting that in some places the warming still remains within the range of natural range of climate variability.
Several authors have studied the possible drivers of the recent isotopic warming (see [30] and references therein) including the influence of atmospheric circulation and local sea ice conditions (see Section 2.4).
Antarctic surface mass balance (SMB) is the sum of all mass gains (snowfall) and mass losses (drifting snow erosion/deposition, sublimation and melt) from the surface of the Antarctic ice sheet.
Measuring SMB, in the AP is complicated as high precipitation and complex orography limit the availability of observational data. Remote sensing techniques such as Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) [32] and radar back-scattering struggle to capture the small-scale features of the AP, while inverse methods of calculating SMB, including estimating mass discharge and elevation changes from satellite altimetry [33] require surface observations to correct for firn process.
Regional atmospheric climate models have proved reliable in simulating SMB over the Antarctic ice sheet [34, 35] and over the AP at high (14 km) resolution [36]. In addition, global reanalysis products have been used to approximate Antarctic SMB based on the spatial and temporal variability in precipitation-evaporation (P-E). The European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) ERA-40 reanalysis, has been shown to correlate with ice core accumulation records from West Antarctica [37], the southern Antarctic Peninsula [38] and across the majority of the Antarctic Peninsula [39]. The updated ECMWF reanalysis product, ERA-interim, has improved model physics with observational data supplemented by ECMWF’s operational archives and been shown to represent snow accumulation at several sites across the southern AP and Ellsworth Land [10]. A recent study testing the performance of reanalysis and regional atmospheric climate model products, against over 3265 multiyear in situ observations, concluded that ERA-interim was the most reliable record of interannual precipitation compared with observations across the whole ice sheet [40]. While in terms of absolute snow accumulation observations the Regional Atmospheric Climate Model RACMO2.3 performed best.
RACMO2.3 is forced at its lateral atmospheric boundaries by ERA-interim reanalysis and at its lower ocean boundaries by sea ice fraction and sea surface temperature and been used to reconstruct AP SMB at ~5.5 km resolution for the period 1979–2014 [41]. The model reveals a large accumulation gradient across the AP, with precipitation on the western AP in excess of 3000 mm we year−1, while the eastern AP receives less than 500 mm we year−1. The average ice sheet integrated SMB, including ice shelves is estimated at 351 Gt year−1 [41].
During the observational period (1979–2014), there is no significant trend in either the reanalysis P-E data [40] or the modeled SMB from RACMO2.3 [41]. However, a recent compilation of Antarctic ice core snow accumulation records, regressed onto the SMB fields from RACMO2.3, concluded that SMB in this region has been increasing during the twentieth century [42, 43].
Antarctic SMB studies had largely dismissed the influence of the AP due to the lack of observational data. However, recent drilling efforts have greatly improved the spatial coverage in this region and demonstrated its importance in terms of total Antarctic SMB. A compilation of all available ice core snow accumulation records revealed that SMB in the AP has increased at a rate of 12 Gt year−1 since 1900 [42]. This equates to a 138 ± 58 Gt year−1 (∼20%) increase between the decadal average at the start of the twentieth century (1901–1910) and the decadal average at the start of the twenty-first century (2001–2010).
The dominant moisture source for the AP is the Amundsen Sea [10, 44], a region of high synoptic activity and the largest contributor to the total Antarctic meridional moisture flux [45]. High snow accumulation on the western AP is associated with reduced sea level pressure in the Amundsen Sea, leading to strengthened circumpolar westerlies and enhanced onshore flow of moist air masses originating from the mid-latitudes. Snow accumulation in the AP is related to the frequency of cyclones originating from low-latitudes over the South Pacific Ocean [46].
All AP ice cores reveal an increasing trend in snow accumulation during the twentieth century (Figure 3). The largest of which was reported at Gomez, where snow accumulation rates have doubled in the period 1850–2007 [11]. This positive trend is also evident as far south as the Ellsworth Land coast (Ferrigno and Bryan coast), but is not observed in other parts of west Antarctica which reveal little or no trend during this period [12]. The three southern ice core records are highly correlated with each other, and with reanalysis data and modeled SMB [42], suggesting they are representative of regional precipitation and SMB. Using a composite of the three records revealed that after 1919 the running decadal mean exceeds the baseline average and remains there for the entire twentieth century. The trend accelerates after 1984, when annual average snow accumulation values more than double that observed for the previous ~270 years [12]. The Bruce plateau ice core confirmed that the northern AP has also experienced an increase in snow accumulation during the late twentieth century, increasing at a rate of 0.19 mm we year−1 since the 1950s [7], but the onset of the increase appears considerably later than that observed at the southern sites.
11-year running mean of annual snow accumulation in ice cores from the AP region between 1750 and 2010.
Prior to 1900 AD, the southern records (Bryan Coast, Ferrigno, Siple Station) suggest a period of relatively stable SMB, with a slight but not statistically significant negative trend (1750–1900). However, contrasting positive and negative trends (1750–1900) are observed at the two northern sites of Dyer Plateau and Bruce Plateau respectively [8].
Atmospheric circulation describes the large-scale movement of air masses around the globe. It creates the winds and, together with oceanic circulation, is responsible for the transfer of the earth’s thermal energy. Atmospheric circulation has a number of preferred modes of variability, such as El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the Southern Annular Mode (SAM) and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), all of which influence the climate of the AP.
Major large-scale modes of atmospheric circulation have associated indices, calculated from meteorological data obtained from stations, climate re-analysis and from proxy records obtained from ice cores.
The primary mode of atmospheric circulation in the Southern Hemisphere high latitudes is the SAM. This is a circumpolar pattern of atmospheric mass displacement which describes how the strength and location of the mid-to-high meridional pressure gradient change through time. These changes occur in a non-periodic way, varying within a range of days up to years [22]. Quantitatively, the SAM index is the difference of the zonal mean sea level pressure between records from six meteorological stations located in the mid-latitudes (around 40°S) and six stations in the Antarctic coast (around 65°S) [47]. A positive phase of SAM occurs when pressures around Antarctica are lower than pressures in the mid-latitudes. Conversely, a negative phase occurs when pressures over Antarctica are higher than pressures in the mid-latitudes.
Since the late 1970s, the SAM has trended into a positive phase, especially in the austral summer and autumn [47, 48, 49]. This has led to stronger circumpolar westerly winds over the Southern Ocean. In particular, during this period, the strength of the westerly winds has increased by 15–20% [50, 51] and it has been coupled with a poleward migration of the westerlies by 1–2° of latitude [22]. These two variations have impacted the cyclonic events south of 40°S, decreasing their frequency and increasing their intensity [52]. Furthermore, these new conditions have led to a deepening trend of the Amundsen Sea Low (ASL), a migrating climatological low-pressure center located over the Amundsen-Bellingshausen Seas, which strongly influences the climate in the Southern AP and the coast of West Antarctica [24]. The recent deepening trend of the ASL has produced the increase of meridional (onshore) winds that transport warm and moist air to the coast of Southern AP and West Antarctica, keeping this region mild compared to others at similar latitudes [53]. Overall, these changes caused by SAM, constitute one of the strongest climatic trends in the Southern Hemisphere over the last decades [54, 55, 56].
Another source of atmospheric circulation variability in the AP is ENSO, an inter-annual climatic variation over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean which has impacts atmospheric conditions across the Pacific Basin and beyond [4]. The strength and phase of ENSO are commonly measured using the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI), calculated as the difference in sea level pressure between Tahiti Station and Darwin Station (Australia). Generally, ENSO events peak during September through February [57]. The way in which ENSO impacts the climate from the AP is through a teleconnection that causes a high latitude response, in the South Pacific-Drake Passage region, to tropical changes [57], intensifying climate variations depending on the SOI phase. In the last decades, ENSO teleconnection has shown marked decadal variability, presenting a weak teleconnection during the 1980s, while a strong teleconnection during 1990s [58, 59].
The recent strengthening in the circumpolar westerlies, associated with a positive phase of the SAM [48], has enhanced the meridional winds, drawing warm moist air to the western AP and influencing inter-annual temperature variability in ice core sites [19]. Indeed, at Gomez, approximately a third of the variability in annual mean surface temperatures (1957–2005) may be attributed to changes in the SAM [31] while it is responsible for a quarter of the snow accumulation increase (1957–2005). However, at all sites the relationship between SAM and both stable water isotopes and snow accumulation is not temporally stable.
Tropical sea surface temperatures (SST) influence atmospheric circulation in the Amundsen Sea region through the generation of a large-scale atmospheric wave train [60, 61]. This relationship is observed during the observational period (post 1979) as strong positive correlations between SMB in the AP and SSTs in the western tropical pacific associated with ENSO [12]. The snow accumulation records from the southern AP (Gomez, Ferrigno, Bryan Coast) reveal a strong negative ENSO-like pattern since 1980, which is not stable when extending the record to the past. Likewise, running decadal correlations of snow accumulation and SOI exhibit a positive correlation since 1980, but periods of insignificant and even negative correlations when extending over the full SOI record (1882–2010).
However, at the southern sites (Gomez, Ferrigno, Bryan Coast) snow accumulation does exhibit a positive correlation between tropical SSTs and surface pressure in the sub-tropical pacific that is not related to ENSO [19, 60]. This pattern appears stable back until at least ~1850s with the trend in snow accumulation, at least for the southern AP cores, consistent with reconstructed SSTs [12].
At Ferrigno, the stable water isotope record is positively correlated with proxy SSTs from coral growing at Rarotonga, in the sub-tropical pacific. The positive correlation remains throughout the past 240 years, with synchronous warm and cold periods observed [19]. This, together with the relationships observed between snow accumulation, suggests that changes in the tropical Pacific, not directly related to ENSO, are also driving high-latitude circulation.
In the northern AP, the Bruce Plateau snow accumulation record is modulated by climate variability in the tropical and subtropical regions, impacting this location through changes in the strength and position of the circumpolar westerlies [7]. The interplay between the phases of SAM, SOI and PDO proposed to explain the multi-decadal behavior between snow accumulation and large-scale atmospheric oscillations during the twentieth century.
An example of this is the relationship between the snow accumulation record and SAM indices. The relationship is positive and statistically significant (R > 0.5, p < 0.001) from 1971 to 2009, but not temporally stable over the last century, showing a sharp transition from positive to negative between 1950 and 1973 [7]. They explain this longer-term instability by changes in the strength of the tropical Pacific influence over the region. In particular, their results show that there is a stronger tropical Pacific (SOI) influence, over the snow accumulation record, when SAM and PDO are negative, while SOI remains on a positive phase (La Niña-event). Their results support the idea of an ENSO teleconnection modulated by SAM, but also by the phase of the PDO.
It appears that the coupling between modes of variability modulates snow accumulation in the AP [58] and may explain the acceleration in snow accumulation since the 1990s when both ENSO and SAM modes are in-phase.
The direct impact of changes in atmospheric circulation on parameters such as surface temperature and snow accumulation allow ice cores to record these changes over longer time scales. Providing their air-mass source region, or the transport pathway that they follow, is located within the region affected by the circulation changes. Backward trajectories studies have helped to determine the source region and transport pathways of all air masses reaching ice core locations [10, 38]. Even though the trajectories present a seasonal migration, their spatial coverage suggests that ice core records from this region are sensitive to changes in the ASL region [10] and the larger hemispheric scale atmospheric circulation (such as SAM and ENSO), which govern it [53]. Some ice cores from this region are better recording these changes and providing time series to study the atmospheric variability through time [7].
Sea ice plays a major role in modulating global and regional climate. It alters the albedo of the Earth’s surface and forms a barrier to the relatively warm surface ocean and the atmosphere above it. Changes in sea ice conditions can impact the availability of surface level moisture and the isotopic composition of air masses passing over it.
Sea ice conditions are measured remotely, generated from brightness temperature data and passive microwave data collected by satellites. Sea ice conditions are commonly presented as (1) sea ice area, the portion of a grid cell covered by ice, (2) sea ice concentration (SIC), calculated as the percentage of ice cover within a 25 km2 data cell or (3) sea ice extent (SIE), calculated as the northernmost latitude where sea ice concentration is 15% or greater.
During the observational period (1970 onwards), the total Antarctic sea ice area, calculated as the total area covered by ice, has increased [24, 62]. At a regional scale, however, there are marked differences. In the Weddell Sea and the Ross Sea sectors sea ice has increased, while the Bellingshausen Sea, and adjacent to the AP, there has been a significant decrease in sea ice.
The reduction in sea ice in the Bellingshausen and Amundsen Sea has been linked to the increased surface warming and increased snow accumulation on the western AP [7, 12, 63]. It has also been suggested that variations in sea ice can directly alter the isotopic composition of continental snow, based on the interaction between sea ice and surface exchange [64, 65]. The isotopic signal associated with water evaporated from the sea ice zone is believed to be deposited locally and thus the influence on stable water isotopes is expected to be greatest at coastal locations [65]. Indeed, at the Ferrigno site the relationship between stable water isotopes and sea ice in the Amundsen Ross sea is comparable with the relationship between stable water isotopes and site temperature [19].
Reduced sea ice results in enhanced availability of surface level moisture and increased poleward atmospheric moisture transport [45]. This results in greater snow accumulation, particularly at coastal sites, and this mechanism has been used to explain the longitudinal differences in AP snow accumulation trends during the twentieth century [12], with the greatest changes observed at sites where the adjacent sea ice decline is largest [62].
At Bruce Plateau, strong negative correlations exist between the observed sea ice extent in the Bellingshausen Sea and both stable water isotopes (r = −0.55) and snow accumulation (r = −0.67) [63]. Over the satellite era, Bellingshausen sea ice extent and snow accumulation exhibit significant decreasing and increasing trends, respectively, with sea ice extent explaining ~25% of the variance in snow accumulation at this site. The combined SMB composite produced from the AP ice cores, reveals a pattern of negative correlations with sea ice in the Bellingshausen Sea and positive correlations in the Amundsen-Ross Sea [42].
The Bruce Plateau snow accumulation record has been suggested as a proxy for past sea ice extent in the Bellingshausen Sea [63]. Porter et al., conclude that the increasing trend in accumulation since the 1970s suggests that the current rate of sea ice loss is unrivaled in the twentieth century. This is supported by other ice core proxy records such as methane sulfonic acid (MSA) record, a commonly used proxy for sea ice extent across Antarctica. The MSA record from the AP ice cores revealed a significant decline in sea ice in the Bellingshausen Sea during the twentieth century [66]. Conversely the MSA record from Ferrigno reflects changes in the Amundsen-Ross Sea, an area that is positively correlated with AP SMB [42, 67] and one that has exhibited a significant positive trend during the twentieth century.
Both the Bruce Plateau sea ice proxy based on snow accumulation and the Ferrigno sea ice proxy based on MSA, confirm the dominant role of ASL [63, 67], and hence large-scale modes of atmospheric variability, in driving changes in sea ice and ultimately AP SMB.
The Antarctic Peninsula has experienced considerable climate change during the twentieth century. The short observational period has provided compelling evidence of warming surface temperatures, increased glacial melt and mass loss [68] and reduced sea ice in the neighboring Bellingshausen Sea [62]. However, the observational period is short. A small number of meteorological observations span the past 50 years but the records are sparse and often dominated by local conditions. Here we have demonstrated the important role that ice cores have played in placing these recently observed changes in context.
Ice core stable water isotope records have demonstrated that the reported warming from stations in the northern AP since the 1950s is not just a local phenomenon, but part of a statistically significant 100-year regional warming trend [7, 31]. However, the ice core records also provide evidence that larger, more abrupt warming and cooling trends have occurred in recent centuries [19].
Ice core snow accumulation records represent mass gains to the ice sheet, a vital component of the total Antarctic mass balance. The observed ice melt in the AP since the 1990s [63] represents a mass loss, while the ice core records provide evidence of significant mass gain during the twentieth century [7, 11, 19]. Ice cores have provided evidence that SMB for the whole of Antarctica has increased since 1800, with the largest contribution (~75%) from the AP, where SMB has increased by 123 ± 44 Gt year−1 [42].
The increase in surface temperature and SMB has been linked to changes in sea ice and atmospheric circulation. The observational records demonstrate a shift to the positive phase of the SAM since the 1957s that has increased the strength of the Southern Hemisphere westerly winds, deepened sea level pressures in the Amundsen Sea (ASL) and reduced sea ice in the Bellingshausen Sea. These later changes have also been attributed to the increased strength of ENSO, particularly since the 1990, with evidence interplay between these two modes is responsible for the acceleration in surface temperature and SMB in the late twentieth century.
The ice core records capture the influence of large-scale modes of climate variability over centennial time scales. They reveal that changes in SMB are sensitive to changes in the strength and phase of SAM, but that the relationship with ENSO is not temporally stable. However, the observed tropical teleconnection between climate on the AP and surface pressure and sea surface temperatures in the tropical pacific that are not related to ENSO [60], is consistent on centennial time scales [12, 19].
The observational records suggest that the interplay between modes of variability can have a considerable impact on climate of the AP [58]. Indeed, since the 1990s both SAM and ENSO have been in their positive phase, allowing for an amplification of the tropical teleconnection. In the ice core records the late twentieth century is characterized by a period of increased inter-annual variability and exceptionally high values in SMB [42] and sea ice [63, 64, 65], both of which are modulated by the variability in ASL (driven by SAM and ENSO). The combination of climate parameters and atmospheric circulation captured by the ice cores from the AP suggest that this recent coupling of SAM and ENSO is unprecedented in the past 300 years [12].
This work was funded by the British Antarctic Survey, part of the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) and UK Research and Innovation (UKRI). D. Tetzner is funded on a CONICYT-Chile Cambridge scholarship.
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