List of the most common methods used in risk analysis.
\r\n\tAlthough the microorganism was later described by several other researchers with multiple synonyms, Escherich was recognized as the first, establishing the definitive name of the microbe as Escherichia coli in 1954.
\r\n\tIn 1933, Alfred Adam showed that certain serotypes of "dyspepsia Koli" (as he called the diarrheagenic E. coli strains) were implicated in epidemics of pediatric diarrhoea. In 1944, Kauffman proposed a classification scheme that is still in use today for the purpose of differentiating commensal types from pathogens and subclassifying them.
\r\n\tEscherichia coli, in its natural habitat, lives in the intestines of most healthy mammals. It is the main facultative anaerobic organism of the digestive system. In healthy individuals, that is, if the bacterium does not acquire genetic elements that encode virulent factors, the bacterium acts as a commensal forming part of the intestinal microbiota and thus helping the absorption of nutrients.
\r\n\tIn humans, E. coli colonizes the gastrointestinal tract of a neonate by adhering to the mucus of the large intestine within a few hours of birth. Since then, it remains in a relationship of mutual benefit. However, these commensal strains can cause infections in immunosuppressed patients.
\r\n\r\n\tPathogenic strains of E. coli, on the other hand, as soon as they colonize a healthy host, can cause infections of varying severity in the intestine, urinary tract, meningitis, and sepsis, among other infections.
\r\n\tDiarrhea caused by pathogenic strains of E. coli is an important cause of death in children under 5 years of age, especially in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, where it is one of the four most important causes of moderate and severe diarrhea, potentially lethal An increase in mortality is associated with enteropathogenic strains.
\r\n\tUrinary tract infections are more common in women because of the short length of the urethra (25 to 50 mm) compared to men (about 15 cm). Among the elderly, urinary infections tend to be of the same proportion between men and women.
\r\n\tBecause the bacteria invariably enter the urinary tract through the urethra (an ascending infection), poor hygiene habits can predispose to infection; however, other factors become important, such as pregnancy, benign or malignant hypertrophy of the prostate, and in In many cases, the initiating event of the infection is unknown. Although ascending infections are the cause of lower urinary tract infections and cystitis, this is not necessarily the cause of upper infections such as pyelonephritis, which may have a hematogenous origin.
Safety is one of the main characteristics of all human activities. In particular, safety issues are principally acute in activities and industries that are considered dangerous. Air transport may be regarded as falling within this category, as failures of aviation-related equipment, flight support services and human factors-specific errors increase the likelihood and the potential of a disaster, which in turn yields financial losses. At the same time, losses from catastrophes in civil aviation are significantly less than in many other hazardous industries [1]. It may be stated that this level is attained due to continuous investment in methods and techniques as well as maintaining high reliability levels, which cover the entire organization. Today, the available risks influencing activity of the developed economic conditions, it is necessary to have the effective tools for risk and economic analysis. This equally includes aviation industry as well as enterprises operating aircraft equipment. One of such tools is risk analysis and economic analysis [2, 3, 4, 5].
\nAs stated by Cruse et al. [6], the way in which organizations such as Pratt and Whitney and Rolls-Royce find that the safe life of an aircraft engine depends on the design. The safety factor is applied in order to improve various configurations so as to empower safety. In order for equipment manufacturers to increase the associated safety level of their products, the number of flight cycles is determined. Different problems have prompted investigating the manageability of an aircraft’s engine life. Indeed, since 1984, resistance to damage has been a vital part of the ENgine Structural Integrity Program (ENSIP) contained in MIL-STD-1783. Currently, there is a program in the U.S. that uses probabilistic methods for gas turbine engines in ENSIP.
\nTo reproduce the probability estimates important for hazard or failure assessment, various computing strategies are used, including Monte Carlo simulation. Monte Carlo simulation reproductions have been included in the probabilistic study, as they tend to be used in failure analysis and can give high accuracy. This strategy has been used in numerous aviation-specific electronics and hazard assessment schemes. The disadvantages of this methodology are the enormous estimated time and the dependence of the measured estimate on the size of the sample.
\nEconomic analysis of aircraft and its components is one of the most important functions of airline management, the implementation of which is necessary to ensure its effective operation. As a matter of fact, economic analysis is known to represent numerous methods of economic theory. As such, economic analysis of aircraft and its components can be defined as an application of the theoretical foundations of the economy of the airline company and analytical sections of accounting to justify management-specific decisions.
\nThis chapter will consider methods of risk analysis and economic analysis of one of the most important components of a commercial aircraft - the power plant or engine.
\nTo improve the efficiency and objectivity of risk analysis and to ensure comparability with other risk analysis outcomes, the following general rules should be observed. The risk analysis process should follow the following steps:
Defining the scope of application
Hazard identification and preliminary impact assessment
Evaluation of the risk value
Verification of the analysis results
Documentary substantiation;
Adjustment of the results of the analysis taking into account the latest data.
This process is shown in Figure 1. Risk assessment includes frequency analysis and consequence analysis. While Figure 1 shows the documentation as a separate unit, it is developed at each stage of the process. Depending on the application, only certain elements of the process presented are considered. For example, in some cases it may not be necessary to go beyond the original hazard and impact analysis.
\nRisk analysis process.
A necessary requirement is a thorough knowledge of the system and the analysis methods used. If the results of a risk analysis for a similar system are available, they can be used as a reference. It is necessary to prove that the processes are similar and that the changes do not make significant differences in the results. Conclusions should be based on a systematic assessment of the changes and how they may affect the existing hazards.
\nA list of the most common methods is presented in Table 1. The list given in Table 1 is not exhaustive. The list of additional methods is presented in Table 2. Sometimes it may be necessary to use more than one analysis method.
\n\n | Method | \nDescription and application | \n
---|---|---|
1 | \nEvent tree analysis | \nA set of techniques for hazard identification and frequency analysis that uses an inductive approach to translate various initiating events into possible outcomes | \n
2 | \nFailure mode and effect analysis, as well as failure mode effects and criticality analysis | \nA set of methods for identifying the main sources of danger and frequency analysis, with the help of which all the emergency conditions of a given piece of equipment are analyzed for their influence on other components and on the system as a whole | \n
3 | \nFault tree analysis | \nA set of techniques for hazard identification and analysis of frequencies of an undesirable event, with the help of which all ways of its implementation are determined. A graphical image is used | \n
4 | \nStudy of hazards and related problems | \nA set of fundamental hazard identification techniques by which each part of the system is assessed to determine whether there may be deviations from the design intent and what consequences this may have | \n
5 | \nHuman factor analysis | \nThe set of methods consider influence of errors of the person on reliability | \n
6 | \nPreliminary hazard analysis | \nA set of techniques for hazard identification and frequency analysis used at an early stage of design to identify hazards and assess their criticality | \n
7 | \nStructural reliability scheme | \nA set of methods of frequency analysis, on the basis of which the system model and its reserves are created to assess the system reliability | \n
List of the most common methods used in risk analysis.
\n | Method | \nDescription and application | \n
---|---|---|
1 | \nClassification of risk groups by category | \nClassification of risk types by categories in order of priority of risk groups | \n
2 | \nInspection reports | \nInventory of generic hazardous substances and/or sources of potential accidents that need to be addressed. These can be used to assess compliance with laws and standards | \n
3 | \nGeneral failure analysis | \nA method designed to determine whether an accidental failure (accident) of a number of different parts or components within a system is possible and to evaluate its likely cumulative effect | \n
4 | \nImpact description models | \nAssessment of the impact of an event on people, property or the environment. Both simplified analytical approaches and complex computer models are used | \n
5 | \nDelphi’s method | \nThe method presents expert assessments that can provide frequency analysis, impact modeling and/or risk assessment | \n
6 | \nHazard indices | \nA set of hazard identification/assessment techniques that can be used to rank different system options and identify less hazardous options | \n
7 | \nMonte Carlo method and other modeling methods | \nA set of methods for frequency analysis that uses the system model to estimate variations in baseline conditions and assumptions | \n
8 | \nPaired comparisons | \nA way to assess and rank the universal risk by means of paired comparison | \n
9 | \nOperation data review | \nA set of techniques that can be used to identify potentially problematic areas and for frequency analysis based on accident data, reliability data, etc. | \n
10 | \nCovert process analysis | \nA method for identifying hidden processes and paths that could lead to unexpected events | \n
List of additional methods used in risk analysis.
Word pointer | \nRejection | \nPossible reasons | \nConsequences | \nAction required | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
No, not | \nNo expense | \nAbsence of submitted material | \nThe output of the molded polymer will be reduced | \nEnsure good communication with the operator Provide a low level signal on the installation tank | \n
The pump is faulty (many reasons) | \nThe output of the molded polymer will be reduced | \nProvide for a low level signal on the installation tank | \n||
A line is blocked or a control valve is erroneously closed or not closed | \nThe pump will overheat. | \nInstall a recirculation line on each pump | \n
HAZOP II indicator words.
The Event Tree Analysis, ETA is a set of quantitative or qualitative techniques that are used to identify possible outcomes of an initiating event and, if required, their probabilities. ETA is widely used for project-specific facilities that contribute to the reduction of accidents and identify sequences of events that, in turn, lead to certain consequences of the initiating event. Each event in the sequence is assumed to be either a failure or a fault.
\nNote that the probabilities in the event tree are conditional probabilities. For example, the probability of the sprinkler functioning is not a probability derived from tests under normal conditions but is a probability of functioning under fire conditions caused by an explosion.
\nThe ETA provides a relationship between the functioning (or failure) of a variety of systems and the hazardous event following the single initiating event. The ETA is very useful for identifying events that require further analysis using the FTA (i.e. the tip of the fault tree events). In order to be able to make a comprehensive risk assessment, all potential initiating events need to be identified. With this method, however, it is always possible to overlook some important initiating events. Moreover, in the case of event trees, we are only dealing with success and failure states. It is difficult to include delayed success or return events.
\nETA can be used both for hazard identification and for probabilistic evaluation of the sequence of events leading to hazardous situations.
\nFMEA is a predominantly qualitative method, although it can be presented in a quantitative form that systematically identifies the consequences of each individual component of an emergency condition. An indispensable feature in any FMEA is to consider each major component/particle of the system as to how it achieves the emergency state and how this affects the emergency state of the system. The analysis is usually descriptive and is organized in the form of a table or worksheet intended for information. The FMEA certainly refers to the emergency conditions of a system component, the causal factors and the effects of this condition on the system as a whole and presents them in a “user-friendly” form.
\nFMEA is a bottom-up approach and addresses the consequences of component failures in a “one-at-a-time” manner. This method is capable of processing sufficient data. In addition, the results can be easily double-checked by another person familiar with the system.
\nThe main disadvantages of the method are redundancy, the exclusion of recovery and repair activities and the focus on single component accidents.
\nFMEA can extend to performing what is called Failure Type, Function and Criticality Analysis (FMEA). In FMEA, each identified failure is ranked according to the likelihood of its occurrence and the severity of its consequences.
\nFMEA and FMESA provide input to analyses such as Fault Tree Analysis (a diagram analysis of all possible consequences of a failure or system crash). In addition to their application to system components, FMEA and FMECA can also be used in relation to human error; they can be used both for hazard identification and probability assessment (unless there is a limited level of redundancy in the system).
\nFault Tree Analysis, FTA is a set of qualitative or quantitative methods which are built into a logical chain and graphically presented those conditions and factors that may contribute to a certain undesirable event (called the top of events). Malfunctions or accidents identified in the “tree” can be events associated with damage to a component’s mechanical structure, personnel errors, or any other event that may cause an undesirable incident. Starting at the top of the events, possible causes or alarm states of the next, lower functional level of the system are identified. Subsequent step-by-step identification of undesired system operation in the direction of successively decreasing system levels leads to the desired system level, which is the alarm condition of the component. An example of a “fault tree” for an emergency generator is shown in Figure 2.
\nExample of a “fault tree.”
The FTA provides an approach that is highly systematic, but at the same time flexible enough to allow for the analysis of multiple factors, including human interactions and physical phenomena. The top-down approach, implicit in its methodology, focuses on those effects of a failure or accident that are directly related to the top of events. The FTA is particularly useful for analyzing systems with multiple areas of contact and interaction. Graphical representation makes it easy to understand the behavior of a system and the behavior of the factors included in it, but since the size of trees is often large, the processing of fault trees may require the use of computer systems. This feature also makes it difficult to check the trouble tree.
\nFTA can be used to identify hazards, although it is primarily used in risk assessment as a tool to assess the probability or frequency of faults and accidents.
\nHAZOP is a form of Failure Types and Consequences Analysis. HAZOP research was originally developed for the chemical industry. It is a procedure for detecting possible hazards across the entire facility. It is particularly useful for identifying unforeseen hazards in a facility due to lack of development information, or hazards that manifest themselves in existing facilities due to irregularities in their operation.
\nThe main tasks of the method are:
To compile a complete description of the object or process, including estimated design conditions;
To systematically check each part of the facility or process in order to identify ways in which deviations from the design intent may occur;
To decide whether hazards or problems associated with these deviations may occur.
The HAZOP research principles may be applied to technical facilities during their operation or at various design stages. HAZOP research performed during the initial design stage can be performed by the project manager.
\nThe most common form of HAZOP research is during the working design stage and is called HAZOP II research.
\nThe HAZOP II study has the following stages:
\nStage 1 – identification of the goals, objectives and scope of the study, for example, the identification of hazards characterized only by non-local effects or only local effects, areas of the industrial facility to be considered, etc.;
\nStage 2 – completing the HAZOP research team. This group should consist of designers and operators who have sufficient competence to assess the consequences of deviations from the conditions of the system operation;
\nStage 3 – gathering the necessary documentation, drawings and descriptions of the technological process. This includes graphs of the sequence of technological operations; drawings of pipelines and measuring equipment; technical specifications for equipment, pipelines and measuring equipment; logical diagrams of process control related technology; design diagrams; operation and maintenance methods; emergency response methods, etc.;
\nStage 4 – analysis of each main unit of equipment and all auxiliary equipment, pipelines and measuring equipment using documents collected at step 3. First of all, the purpose of the process design is determined; then, in relation to each line and unit of equipment with respect to such process variables as temperature, pressure, flow, level and chemical composition, the words-indicators are used (according to Table 3). (It is the author’s view that these indicator words stimulate individual thinking and encourage collective discussion);
\nStage 5 – document any deviation from the norm and the corresponding states. In addition, ways to detect and/or prevent deviations are identified. This documentation is usually indicated on HAZOP worksheets.
\nThe assessment is related to the impact of human factor, namely operators and maintenance personnel, on system operation and can be used to assess the effect of personnel errors on safety and productivity.
\nMany processes contain potential for personnel errors, especially when the time available for the operator to make decisions is limited. The likelihood that problems will develop in a negative way is often low. Sometimes actions from outside personnel’s jurisdiction are limited in their ability to prevent an initial fault progressing in the direction of an accident.
\nThe HRA identifies the various types of error actions that may occur, including the following:
Error by mistake, an oversight resulting in the failure to perform the required action;
An error of non-conformity, which may include:
A situation in which the action required is performed in a non-conforming manner;
An action performed with too much or too little force or without the required accuracy;
An action performed at a time not appropriate for it;
An action (or actions) performed in an incorrect order;
An extra action, an unnecessary action performed instead of or in addition to the required action.
The result of HRA identifies actions that can re-create previous errors.
\nThe HRA methodology is a mixed discipline involving researchers and practitioners who are typically specialists in either the theory and practice of reliability or psychology and human factors.
\nThe importance of HRA has been illustrated by various accidents in which critical human errors have contributed to a catastrophic sequence of events. Such accidents are a warning against risk assessments that focus exclusively on the mechanical design and software in the system. They illustrate the risk of ignoring human error. Moreover, HRAs are useful in considering errors that reduce productivity and in identifying the ways in which these errors and other faults (mechanical design and software) can be “replicated” by people, operators and maintenance personnel.
\nThe HRA can include the following steps: (1) task analysis; (2) identification of personnel error; (3) quantitative determination of the impact of the human factor on reliability.
\nThe task analysis and personnel error detection should be started at the concept stage and the early stages of design and development. They should be updated at later stages of the system development.
\nThe purpose of the task analysis in the HRA process is to describe and characterize the task to be analyzed in detail in order to identify human error and/or quantify the impact on human reliability. The task analysis can also be performed for other purposes, such as evaluating the person’s interaction with the machine or planning a procedure.
\nAt this stage, possible errors in the task are identified and described. The identification of personnel error may include:
The detection of the possible consequences and causes of the erroneous actions
The proposal of measures to reduce the probability of the error,
The improvement regarding the prospects for correction and/or the reduction of the consequences of erroneous actions. Thus, HRA results provide a valuable contribution to risk management, even if no quantitative assessment is made.
The purpose of HRA is to assess the probability of correct execution of the task or the probability of erroneous actions. Some techniques may also include steps to assess the probability or frequency of certain sequences of unwanted events or undesirable outcomes.
\nPreliminary Hazard Analysis, PHA is an inductive method of analysis whose purpose is to identify hazards, hazardous situations and events that may harm a given activity, facility or system. It is most often used at an early stage of project development when there is little information on design details and working procedures, and it can often be a precursor to subsequent research. In addition, it may be useful where existing systems or prioritize hazards where circumstances prevent the use of a wider range of techniques.
\nWhen conducting PHA, a list of hazards and general hazards is developed by considering such characteristics as:
The materials used or produced and their ability to react;
The equipment used;
Environmental conditions;
Location scheme;
Areas of contact and interaction between system components, etc.
The implementation of this method concludes with the determination of the potential for an accident, a qualitative assessment of the magnitude of the possible harm or health damage that may have been caused, and the identification of possible corrective measures. The PHA must be adjusted at the design, manufacturing, and testing stages to detect, correct, and improve new hazards. The results obtained can be presented in various ways, such as tables and “trees.”
\nThe detection of hazard assumes a systematic check of the investigated system with the purpose of identification of type of present unrecoverable dangers and ways of their display. Statistical records of accidents and experience of previous risk analyses can provide a useful contribution to hazard identification processes. It should be recognized that there is an element of subjectivism in hazard thinking and that identified hazards may not always be exhaustive hazards that could pose a threat to the system. It is necessary that identified hazards are reviewed when new data are available. Hazard identification methods are broadly divided into three categories:
Comparative methods, examples of which are inspection sheets, hazard indices and operational data review;
Fundamental methods, which are constructed in such a way as to encourage a group of researchers to use a prediction in combination with their knowledge of the hazard identification task by asking a series of questions such as “what if …?”. Examples of this type of methodology are Hazard and Related Problem Research (HAZOP) and Failure Analysis (FMEA);
Methods of inductive approach, such as logic diagrams of possible consequences of a given event (“event tree” logic diagrams).
Other techniques can be used to improve hazard identification (and risk assessment capabilities) for certain problems. For example: hidden fault analysis, the Delphi method and human factor analysis.
\nRegardless of the techniques used, it is important that the overall hazard identification process pays due attention to the fact that human and organizational errors are significant factors in many accidents. It follows that accident scenarios involving human and organizational error should also be included in the hazard identification process, which should not focus exclusively on technical aspects.
\nEconomic analysis as a science is a system of specialized knowledge linked:
with the study of economic processes in their interrelation, formed under the influence of objective economic laws and factors of subjective order;
With scientific justification of business plans, and with objective assessment of their implementation;
With identification of positive and negative factors and quantitative measurement of their action;
With disclosure of trends and proportions of economic development, with recognition of unused intra-economic reserves;
Generalization of the best practices,
With the adoption of optimal management decisions.
Economic analysis of aircraft and its components is one of the most important functions of airline management, the implementation of which is necessary to ensure its effective operation. As a matter of fact, economic analysis is known to represent numerous methods of economic theory.
\nModern management theories determine the necessity of substantiation of all-important management decisions by means of analytical process called “rational problem solving”. This process, the analytical part of which is identical to economic analysis, includes the following seven stages:
\nThe method of analysis should mean the methods of investigation of the object of analysis, and the method of analysis acceptance - one or more mathematical or logical operations aimed at obtaining a specific result of analysis.
\nMathematical methods are objective, as they yield the same results when applied by different analysts. In complex analysis, these methods are usually combined. Thus, the type of a mathematical model is often chosen intuitively, and the model parameters are determined by methods of mathematical statistics.
\nMathematical models: mathematical economy models - theoretical and applied models - are widely used in the analysis. Theoretical models allow studying general properties of economy and its separate elements by deduction of conclusions from formal preconditions. They are important for understanding possible properties of the object of analysis. They are macroeconomic and microeconomic models, including models of firm theory and market theory. Applied models provide an opportunity to estimate parameters of functioning of a concrete economic object and to formulate specific recommendations for decision making. Applied models include, first of all, econometric models, which operate with numerical values of economic variables and allow statistically significant evaluation on the basis of available observations.
\nMathematical models, besides, are subdivided into equilibrium models, which describe steady-state conditions and are therefore called descriptive, and optimization models, which allow establishing optimal, i.e. the best parameters of the system according to a certain criterion. Static models that describe the object state at a particular moment or period of time and dynamic models that include interrelationships of variables in time are distinguished.
\nMethods of applied mathematical statistics - econometrics, should be used as much as possible first of all in the analysis, since almost all data used in economic analysis contain a random component. Note that the results obtained by statistical processing of data may differ in the degree of accuracy and probabilistic validity. Estimates can be considered reasonable if their probability and accuracy are determined, otherwise they may not be credible.
\nMultidimensional methods: These methods provide objective quantitative tools to investigate data similarity, proximity, grouping or classification. Data can be presented as a set of indicators, variables that characterize objects or a single object at different points in time, e.g., an enterprise in different years. Most methods are designed to reduce the number of variables and highlight the most important characteristics. The following methods underline the most important ones:
\nThe method of cluster analysis, which allows building a classification of several objects by combining them into groups or clusters, based on the criterion of minimum distance in space of certain indicators describing the objects, as well as the classification of objects by a given number of groups – clusters. Probabilistic justification of the clustering results can be obtained by discriminant analysis.
\nFactor analysis: variables, whose values provide statistical or accounting data, are often quite conditional for the object or phenomenon under study. They can only indirectly reflect its internal structure, driving forces or factors. The analyst is limited to the set of indicators traditionally used in accounting and statistics. If an unknown factor manifests itself in changes of several variables, there is a correlation between these variables. The number of independent, initially hidden factors that can be detected by factor analysis is often significantly less than the number of traditional indicators.
\nIn addition, there are two levels of use of expert judgments: quantitative, in which experts make estimates in the form of quantitative indicators, and qualitative, in which experts make comparative estimates, for example, “better and worse.”
\nComparison is a scientific method of knowledge, in the process of its unknown phenomenon; subjects are compared with already known, studied earlier cases, in order to determine common features or differences between them. By means of comparison the general and specific in the economic phenomena, changes of the objects under study, tendencies and lawfulness of their development are studied. Hence, the following evaluations in the area of economic analysis and comparisons are used for identifying observed problems and suggest a course of action(s):
Comparison of planned and actual indicators to assess the extent to which the plan has been implemented. This comparison allows the user to determine the extent to which the plan has been completed in a specific timeframe, such as a month, quarter, or year.
Comparing the actual indicators with the normative ones allows cost monitoring and promotes the implementation of resource saving technologies. The practice of analytical work also uses comparisons with approved norms (for example, consumption of materials, raw materials, energy, etc.). Such a comparison is necessary to identify savings or over-expenditure of resources for production, to assess the efficiency of their use during operation.
Comparison of actual indicators with those of previous years to determine trends in economic processes.
Comparison with the best results, i.e. with the best samples, best practices. New achievements of science and technology can be carried-out both within the framework of the enterprise under study and outside. Inside the enterprise the average level of indicators achieved in general is compared with indicators of advanced sites. This allows identifying best practices and new opportunities for production and operation.
Comparison of the indicators of the analyzed form with the average indicators of the zone/area to assess the results achieved and identified unused reserves.
Comparison of parallel and dynamic series to study the relationship of the studied indicators. This is used to identify and justify the form and direction of the relationship between different indicators. For this purpose the numbers, which characterize one of the indicators, should be placed in ascending or descending order and consider how in this connection other investigated indicators change: ascending or descending and to what extent.
Comparison of different variants of managerial decisions in order to choose the most optimal of them.
Comparison of the results of activity before and after the change of any factor is applied in the calculation of the influence of factors and calculation of reserves.
The following types of comparative analysis are also distinguished in the economic analysis: horizontal, vertical, trend, as well as one-dimensional and multi-dimensional.
Horizontal comparative analysis is used to determine the absolute and relative deviations of the actual level of the studied indicators from the basic (planned, past period, average level, scientific achievements and best practices).
With the help of vertical comparative analysis the structure of economic phenomena and processes is studied by calculating the specific weight of parts in general, the ratio of parts of the whole among themselves, as well as the impact of factors on the level of performance indicators by comparing their values before and after changing the relevant factor.
Trend analysis is used to study relative growth rates and growth of indicators over a number of years to the level of a base year, i.e. to study the dynamics series.
In one-dimensional comparative analysis comparisons are made on one or several indicators of one object or several objects on one indicator.
By means of the multi-dimensional comparative analysis the results of activity of several operating enterprises (divisions) are compared on a wide spectrum of indicators.
The sequence of performing factor analysis includes the following stages:
Selection of factors that determine the performance indicators under study and their systematization in order to ensure the capabilities of the system approach;
The establishment of modeling and transformation of the factor systems
Calculation of the influence of factors and assessment of the role of each of them in changing the value of the resultant indicator;
An important methodological issue in factor analysis is the determination of the relationship between factors and performance indicators: functional or stochastic, forward or backward, straight or curved. Here, theoretical and practical experience as well as methods of comparison of parallel and dynamic series is used in conjunction with analytical groups of initial information, graphic and others.
\nThe modeling of economic indicators (deterministic and stochastic) is also a complex methodological problem in factor analysis, the solution of which requires special knowledge and practical skills in this branch.
\nThe most important methodological aspect in economic analysis EA, is the calculation of the influence of factors on the value of effective indicators, for which the analysis uses a set of methods, the essence, name, scope of which and the procedure of calculation are considered in the following chapters.
\nFinally, the last stage of the factor analysis is the practical use of the factor model for calculation of reserves for the growth of the resultant index, for planning and forecasting its value in case of changes in the production situation.
\nAn increase in resource (durability), which is an integral part of reliability, accordingly, leads to an increase in the latter. Increasing reliability, as well as increasing resources (reliability component), requires a significant amount of work, significant cost and time. The past decades of aviation Gas Turbine Engines (GTEs) development have been marked by a continuous growth of resources: from several hundreds of hours to tens of thousands of hours.
\nWhen the engine resources did not exceed 1000 hours, there were no doubts about the economic expediency of their increase due to at least two circumstances: high expenses of the operating organizations and relatively small expenses for the works connected with the increase of resources (Figures 3 and 4).
\nGrowth of resources of engines AI-20 (1), AI-24 (2), AI-25 (3) on years of operation.
Growth of resources of engines with a large degree of dual circuit D-36 (1), D-18T (2), D436T1 (3).
A different situation occurs when justifying large resource values (>20,000 hours). On the one hand, the operating costs are already significantly reduced (operating costs per hour of motor operation), and with small operating costs, further reduction of the operating costs brings ever less economic benefit. In addition, in accordance with the law of the dwindling limit value, the operating costs may increase starting from a certain service life.
\nOn the other hand, an ever-increasing amount of effort is required to increase resources.
\nThere is an economically optimal resource value, at which the total cost of increasing the resource is the lowest (TOP 1).
\nThe introduction of electronic engine designers, the use of numerical methods and high-level models, application software packages (e.g. ANSYS), combined with the accumulated experience in the creation of aircraft GTEs and the high qualifications of engineering staff have allowed the development and successful application of calculation methods for resource determination.
\nIt has given the chance to lower expenses essentially and to reduce calendar terms of an establishment of resources. At the same time, the importance of an economically optimal resource to the right has shifted significantly [7] (Figure 5).
\nDependence of change in costs on the value of the engine resource.
For different engines, and even for the same engine installed on different aircraft, there will be different values of optimal service life, as operating costs may vary depending on the engine type, aircraft type, operating company, etc.
\nThe engine resource can be very large; however, it will be far from economic optimum. The indicator of optimum resource can serve as total value of expenses for 1 hour of established resource.
\nDeviation of a resource of the engine from economic optimum can be connected with special requirements to the engine, overlapping at designing. In this case, the efficiency of the design solutions used may “prove to be as efficient as possible under imposed constraints.”
\nThe desire to establish an economically optimal resource was one of the reasons why the notion of resource design appeared.
\nUnder resource designing of aviation GTEs, it is necessary to understand the durability details at a design stage of the engine. The full account of operating conditions is provided and optimization of a level of working parameters, indicators of effect and value of resource is made.
\nThe development of technical (indiscriminate) diagnostics, modularity of design, content usability of engines and accumulated experience of operation allowed to carry-out the operation of aviation GTEs on technical condition. The economic effect from the exploitation according to the technical condition is very high:
The number of spare parts is reduced by 20%;
The number of spare engines is reduced by half;
The cost of maintenance and repairs is reduced by approx. 25%.
The almost universal transition to maintenance-free operation, with the replacement of individual modules without removing the engines from the wing, has led to a review of the engine life as a whole.
\nFor a complex, multi-component system, the concept of engine life becomes conditional. The economic purpose of engine reconditioning during repairs and the cost per hour of a life cycle are of paramount importance. The economic viability of engine reconditioning depends on the cost of repair and the cost of replacing parts that limit the life cycle (Table 4).
\nRental no | \nWorking hours before renting, hour | \nTotal earnings, hour | \nThe cost of repair, $ | \nCost of parts to be replaced, $ | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \n8500 | \n8500 | \n800.000 | \n— | \n
2 | \n6500 | \n15.000 | \n900.000 | \n650.000 | \n
3 | \n6500 | \n21.500 | \n950.000 | \n410.000 | \n
4 | \n6500 | \n28.000 | \n950.000 | \n265.000 | \n
Costs of scheduled maintenance of the CFM56-3 engine with 23,500 lb thrust.
Using the data in Table 4, it is possible to determine repair costs per hour for a CFM56-3 engine with a thrust of 23,500 pounds (10,657 kG) using Eq. (1):
\nwhere \n
Adding all the costs in columns 4 and 5 of Table 4, dividing by the number of flight cycles (28,000 cycles) and duration of flight (1.4 hours), yields $125.64. Adding to cost of a new engine, attributed to 1 hour of operation, and the cost of fuel consumption for 1 hour of engine operation, results in the cost of 1 hour of the life cycle of the CFM56-3 engine (Eq. (2)).
\nwhere \n
For each engine, there is an optimum operating time on the wing (before repair). For example, for the PW4000 engine, the optimum wing life is 3500–4500 flight cycles.
\nThis is due to the ability to repair and rebuild the structure and properties of the fuel blades. Longer engine stay on the wing leads to a high degree of utilization of the blades. Therefore, it is very important to keep exact account of engine details operating time in hours and flight cycles. An error in the operating time can lead to a substantial increase in the cost of repairs.
\nPowder metallurgy, laser and micro-plasma welding methods are used in blade repairs. The limitations of the repair are related to cracks and thinning of the blade walls.
\nModifying the structure and properties of the blade, allows the same blades to be used for a longer period of time in the engine. This results in significant cost savings. Based on performed research and the associated data, the recovery and repair of 30,000 work blades can bring savings of up to $80,000.
\nResource of details is expedient to provide at designing so that replacement of basic details in operation was possible less. It is necessary to plan replacement of details (not concerning the basic), limiting a resource, by a combination of replacement with repair of engines (visit of workshop).
\nIn order to avoid forced removal of the engine from the wing due to the end of the service life of the main parts, most airlines operating GTE maintain a “service life balance” policy (minimum life of parts). The essence of the case is that the majority of parts that limit the life produce their life span in the range of 1500–3000 flight cycles from their limit life.
\nFor example, the front rotor shaft of a CF6-50 engine has a limit of 11,500 flight cycles but is likely to be disposed of after (9500–10,000) flight cycles (Table 5).
\n\n | Engine | \nCost of main parts, million $ | \nUnused resource remnants, cycle | \n
---|---|---|---|
1 | \nJT9D | \n2.1 | \n2000 | \n
2 | \nPW4000 | \n2.44 | \n2000–3300 | \n
3 | \nCF6-50 | \n2.1 | \n1400–2500 | \n
4 | \nCF6-80C2 | \n2,.7 | \n2000–2500 | \n
Costs and unused balances of resources of the main details of aero engines.
In this case, the cost of 1 hour of the engine’s life cycle is reduced, which increases the competitiveness of the engine.
\nIn addition to the planned reasons for removal (exhaustion of the reserve in terms of the temperature of exhaust gases, increase in the reserves of stability of the ATC, exhaustion of the service life of parts that limit the resource, etc.), a significant share is occupied by unplanned ones.
\nUnscheduled engine removals can make big corrections to the repair and replacement schemes of the parts that limit the service life. The number of unscheduled engine removals can be 50% of the total number of removals. For example, for the PW4000 family engines, unscheduled removals account for 35–45% of all removals. For CF6-50 engines the reason for 25% of removals is exhaust gas temperature exhaustion, other 25% of removals are caused by the necessity to replace the main parts, which have reached their end-of-life, and another 50% of removals are unplanned removals [8]. In order to increase the economic efficiency of aviation GTEs operation it is necessary:
To install the engine parts with minimum expenses;
To ensure optimal stay of the engine on the wing of the aircraft in a single operation;
Ensure the timely replacement of parts that limit the engine’s life (avoid early removal of the engine due to lack of service life of the main parts or exhaustion of gas reserves);
Accurately determine the current damageability of parts in hours and cycles depending on the operating conditions (automated hours and cycles);
Quickly determine the scope of work and necessary parts replacement during unscheduled engine stripping;
Taking into account unplanned surveys to correct the scope of work for subsequent engine reconditioning, and remain the engine on the wing, etc.
It is most convenient to perform the above-mentioned works using ground automated systems of engine operation monitoring. One of the essential elements of such systems is the algorithms of calculating the developed resource.
\nThe conducted analysis of aviation GTE resources allows drawing the following conclusions:
There is an economically optimal engine resource for the given operation conditions.
Economically optimal engine life can change significantly with changes in the cost of life.
To improve the economics of engine operation, ground-based automated engine performance monitoring systems should be used.
This chapter is the result of the study of a number of special disciplines, such as risk analysis and economic analysis of commercial aero engines during aircraft operation. Risk analysis includes risk assessment and methods to reduce risks or reduce adverse effects associated with it. The methods for risk analysis have been provided, including ETA, FMEA, FTA, HAZOP and PHA.
\nFurthermore, Economical analysis is a scientific way of understanding the essence of economic phenomena and processes, based on dividing them into its constituent parts and studying the variety of relationships and dependencies aimed at improving its work through the development and implementation of optimal solutions. The purpose of the economic analysis is to give management a picture of the actual state, and for persons who are not directly working with it, but are interested in its financial condition, the information necessary for an impartial judgment.
\nAviation engineering as a commodity has its specificity. If one considers an aircraft as a whole, the aircraft operation efficiency is defined by perfection of the power plant. The engine may appear on the market as an independent product with a market price. But it must be taken into account that the aircraft engine is a subsystem of the aircraft, so its economic assessment should be carried out, if possible, taking into account the characteristics of the aircraft and its specifics of operation, which is a difficult task. Still, this is a necessary procedure, especially in the case of economic evaluation.
\nFireflies have long been attracted the attention of people because of their fascinating flashing communication behavior [1]. In the past, firefly flashes on mangrove trees along the river were used as landmarks for boat navigation in the nighttime; while nowadays firefly habitats become “firefly tour sites” for nighttime activity and for supporting economic benefit to local communities [2]. Unfortunately, firefly populations decrease or disappear from many areas worldwide due to habitat loss from growing of city developments, light pollution, water pollution and pesticide uses, which cause habitat destruction or fragmentation [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. This same situation is faced by other insects [8]. In addition, firefly tourism without proper management could result in decreased firefly populations [2, 9, 10]. The problem has, thus, led to increased public awareness of firefly conservation.
Firefly conservation by reintroduced captive populations into the wild has received much attention. The successful captive breeding of some firefly species has intrigued numerous naturalists and conservationists including tourism stakeholders to plan to introduce captive breeding firefly populations into many areas to create firefly conservation sites, environmental learning centers and firefly tourism spots. The firefly mass rearing has been successful in some aquatic species, including
Conservation translocation (population restoration) or called “ex situ conservation.” Under the definition of the IUCN this is the intentional movement of released organisms from one to another site for conservation benefits [27]. That consists of two terms: (i) “reinforcement” which is augmenting a species where it already exists and (ii) “reintroduction” which is returning a species back to where it has disappeared [28]. With the increasing of habitat loss and fragmentation resulting in high species extinction rates and reduction of overall biodiversity, translocation of species may become an important management tool for recovery of the diminished or lost populations.
Many translocation programs have been carried out in many rare, threatened and keystone species to conserve species and genetic diversity. For example, European bison [29], Lake Sturgeon [30], Persian wild ass [31], green and golden bell frog [32], red wolves [33], and a few insects, (i.e., damselfly [34], field cricket [35] and fireflies [25]). Most of them have involved vertebrates, especially mammals and birds [36]. Consequently, translocation became an important conservation technique for birds in New Zealand [37]. However, as mentioned above, little work has been done in insect taxa.
The success of translocations was defined as resulting in self-sustaining populations in the release area. The success rate is affected by many factors. For example, species, habitat quality of the release areas, location of the release point, origin of animals (captivity or wild), food habit (carnivore, herbivore and omnivore), clutch size, population density and competitors [36]. The research analyzed from translocation studies of 134 bird and 64 mammal projects concluded that the keys for high translocation success rate were releasing wild-caught animals, having herbivore food habits, releasing a large density, releasing in excellent quality habitats and releasing at the center of the area. In addition, the reproduction rate and generation length might affect the population sizes, chances of survival and genetic diversity of the target [38].
Many problems of population establishment from translocation were investigated. The small released populations might result in demographic and genetic consequences, for example, inbreeding depression [38]. Moreover, in the cases of releasing of a captive breeding population, the captive-born individuals provided from benign and stable breeding environments frequently have reduced fitness and high extinction rates after release into the wild. The physiological, behavioral and ecological problems from inbreeding depression, mutation accumulation, loss of genetic diversity and genetic adaptation to captivity were considered [39, 40, 41, 42, 43]. These could affect success of translocation programs through low adaptive potential to environmental changes [44]. Thus, many recommendations for dealing with the genetic issues are as follow: (i) minimizing numbers of generations in captivity, (ii) maintaining isolated captive populations with different genetic strains to reduce genetic load, (iii) allowing half-sib mating in captivity to reduce genetic adaptation to captivity and preserve genetic variation, (iv) minimizing kinship by equalizing family sizes and crossing, (v) observing the behaviors that might be lost in captivity, (vi) creating a rearing environment similar to the natural habitat to minimize the artificial selection, (vii) evaluating other risks (i.e., diseases), (viii) and collecting and analyzing long-term monitoring data routinely [39, 41, 42, 45, 46, 47]. Although returning a lost species might not be same as the outcome of ecosystem restoration, the species perform ecosystem functions and generally relate to the other species. Polak and Saltz [48] suggested that the study on the effects of reintroductions on ecosystem functions should be integrated into the programs. Further, an overlooked issue of genetic impact is genetic contamination by maladaptive genotypes from reproductive crossing between genetically differentiated populations. That could push the recipient population toward extinction [49]. Therefore, the introgression with the population having local genetic makeup could result in a well-adapted population with similar morphological and ecological characters to local types.
The translocation of insects and other invertebrates has received considerably less attention than vertebrates; thus, not many examples of insects were translocated. However, ex situ conservation has become recognized as a more important technique for conservation for insects. With small body size, high reproductive rates, and short generation times, the insects have high potential to breed in mass captivity involving lower maintenance costs. Pearce-Kelly et al. suggested that the easy-breeding species with large captive populations have high potential for successful reintroduction programs [50]. The summary of 134 terrestrial insect translocations demonstrated that the proportion of success (52%) was higher than other animals while failed translocation programs were lower, 31% [51]. Thus, insects are the group most frequently considered in future translocations [52].
The objectives of insect translocation were classified into two groups, for conservation of the rare species and for socio-economic benefits of the flagship species. Examples of the rare insect translocation are two vulnerable crickets,
Insects | Threats | Sources of translocated population | Success? | Problems of the translocation |
---|---|---|---|---|
Field cricket | Rare and fragmented habitats | Captivity | Success (5 years) | - disease infection - cannibalism |
Wart-biter bush cricket | Rare and fragmented habitats | Captivity | Failure | - high mortality rate in captivity result in small translocated population - high rearing cost |
Tiger beetle | Sandy beach habitats of larvae were destructed from increasing of recreational activity. | Field collection (larvae) | Success (8 years) | - failure in adult translocation because of high dispersal behavior - larval predation by gulls |
Damselfly | Habitat structure changes and water area destruction from urbanization | Field collection (mating pairs) | Success (1 year in beginning phases) | - habitat changes from over vegetation in 2nd year. - unsuitable handling and marking techniques |
Quino checkerspot butterfly | Habitat loss, fragmentation and extinction of native host plants | Captivity | Success | N/A |
Genji firefly | Habitat loss, water pollution and tourism activities | Field collection and captivity | Success (70 years) | - harvested high amount of fireflies and released the non-native populations |
Comparison of factors in some examples of rare insect translocation programs.
As a dominant invertebrate flagship, the translocation of butterflies could be effectively used to build public awareness using live exhibits of butterfly farms. Many exotic butterflies were large-scale bred and imported across countries and regions for exhibition. If the butterflies come from similar environmental conditions and habitats, they might have high potential to establish in the new habitats. Consequently, the unintentional translocation might happen and cause ecological impact [60]. The opposite effect also may result, that captive bred populations lose the ability to live in natural habitats. After breeding in captivity for 100–150 generations, the large white butterfly have developed adaptive characters to captive conditions, i.e., heavier, higher ovary mass, higher numbers of laid eggs, and smaller wings that could decrease the butterflies’ ability to re-establish in the wild [61].
The firefly is also a potential flagship to stimulate conservation awareness and action to support habitats for fireflies and other sympatric invertebrates. Apparently, firefly populations have declined or become extinct in many areas due to the impact of anthropogenic activities (i.e., habitat destruction, fragmentation, pollution and urbanization). Fireflies can be used to help promote public awareness and concern for biological diversity conservation.
The history of firefly translocation probably began in Japan [58]. The famous case happened in Tatsuno, Nagano prefecture where several thousand of the non-native Genji fireflies from Shiga prefecture were released as a tourist attraction. Subsequently the variation in flashing behavior and population genetics were investigated. Although the population of Genji fireflies in Tatsuno could self-establish over 70 years in the translocated area and bring more than 100,000 tourists a year, the native populations might be destroyed or lose genetic diversity. That is the risk under environmental change in the upcoming global crisis. Later, the scientists raised awareness of the firefly conservation issue and recommended the approach of using habitat preservation instead of artificial habitat creation for tourism. The fireflies were commonly labeled as an indicator species for environmental conservation. The translocation of captive fireflies in recovering polluted environments received more attention and resulted in appearance of 540 firefly events throughout Japan.
Genetic issues become more important in sustainable biodiversity conservation especially in animal translocation. Avoiding or reducing genetic problems is a key to reducing the risk of extinction. Thus, not only focusing on maximizing species survival from established population measures, but also focusing on the genetic diversity, genetic drift and genetic adaptation to captivity are necessary to evaluate viability of populations in the long term.
The evidences of genetic and behavioral variation among firefly populations in Japan were discussed above. Firefly translocation requires an appropriate evaluation prior to their introduction into the wild. Likewise, the long term post-monitoring of both genetic and phenotypic measures is needed to measure the success of translocation and to identify future threats.
Genetic differentiation of fireflies is caused by various factors, including limitation of dispersal activity, habitat specificity or mating systems. The species with limited dispersal species have a higher probability of reproductive isolation. As in the desert firefly
Life cycle of
The species has high potential for reintroduction programs because of the successful rearing technique developed [15, 16] and their several adaptive characteristics that support recovery of the new populations in old/new habitats. Since
There are many reasons suggesting genetic differentiation among
During the process of urbanization, habitat loss and fragmentation have subsequently expanded particularly in Bangkok (BKK) area, where is the focus area for firefly reintroduction in this study. Historically,
Map of Thailand the
Habitat characteristics of the firefly collection sites, a) SPK, b) PTE, c) PTE2, d) NPT, e) NPT2 and f) SPB.
The collection of
Genomic DNA from the hind legs of the adult specimens was extracted following the manufacturer’s protocol using the DNeasy Blood & Tissue Kit (Qiagen). A region encoding mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit II (COII) was amplified by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using the primers 5′-ATGGCAGATTAGTGCAATGG-3′ (TL2-J-3037) and 5′-GTTTAAGAGACCAGTACTTG-3′ (TK-N-3785) [69]. The PCR amplifications were performed as follows: an initial denaturing step at 94°C for 1 min, followed by 35 cycles beginning with a denaturation step at 94°C for 30 sec, an annealing step at 50°C for 30 sec, an extension step at 72°C for 1 minute, and a final step at 72°C for 10 min. The PCR product was verified by running through a 1% TAE agarose gel, stained with ethidium bromide and observed under UV light. The PCR product was treated with ExoSAP-IT PCR clean up reagent (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Massachusetts, USA) and sequenced by the 3130xl Genetic Analyzer (Thermo Fisher Scientific) with the BigDye Terminator v3.1 Cycle Sequencing kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific). The nucleotide sequences were assembled and edited individually using DNASIS Pro (Hitachi Software Engineering, Tokyo, Japan).
The numbers of base differences per site among sequences (p-distance) were calculated and constructed Unweighted Pair Group Method using arithmetic Average (UPGMA) tree using the p-distance by Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis software (MEGA X) [73].
Median-joining networks among firefly haplotypes were constructed and post-processed under maximum parsimony in Network Version 4.6.1.1 (available at http://fluxus-engineering.com/sharenet.htm) to describe phylogeographic and genetic relationships between haplotypes.
The live adult fireflies from each population were brought to the laboratory (26°C) for recording flash patterns within 1–2 days after collection to decrease the error from weakness and death. They were paired 1: 1 for mating in a mating arena that was prepared from a 7.1 × 11.0 × 6.5 cm of transparent plastic box with small moist cotton. They were allowed to have an adaptation period for 15–30 min before starting the experiment. The experiment was carried out under dark conditions (0 lux) for 30 min to 2 hr. after sunset.
The flashing communication was recorded using a Sony Handycam™ digital camera recorder (HDR-SR11E) at nightshot mode. All experimental mating boxes were separated from one another by placing black partitions between each arena to prevent flash interference from other mating pairs. Ten to 15 mating pairs from each population were randomly selected for video recording. Two flash types, courtship and warning flash types (Figure 4), which appeared at different periods of mating sequences, were recorded. The “courtship flashes” produced during courtship in responding to females, perhaps displayed during dorsal mounting. On the other hand, the brighter flashes displayed mostly during copulation called were defines as “warning flashes.” At least 15 sec intervals or 30–50 flashes were recorded from each male. In case of small populations that had low numbers of females, the males were allowed to mate with virgin captive females to stimulate courtship behavior.
Flashing behavior of male fireflies, courtship flash type (upper) and warning flash type (lower).
The video files were converted to audio video interleave or. AVI format files to analyze the flash parameters using time-lapse image analysis (TiLIA), a free software package for signal and flight pattern analyses of fireflies (available at Google Drive: https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B2o7FRVs2VohMmx2QzBVX3ZDeDA) [74] following the technique used by Thancharoen and Masoh [75]. The flash analysis was classified into three parameters, pulse duration, interpulse duration and flash interval, following previous study [76].
At least 30 flashes of courtship and warning flashes from each male were statistically analyzed. The pulse duration, interpulse duration, and flash interval among study sites were compared using One-way ANOVA and Tukey’s multiple comparison tests. A value of p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. The relationship between pulse and interpulse durations was tested using Pearson’s correlation. All statistical analysis was performed using SPSS program version 24.
During mating behavior of
Flash parameter | Duration in frame unit (mean ± SE) | |
---|---|---|
Courtship flash (n = 60) | Warning flash (n = 28) | |
Pulse duration | 5.54 ± 0.11 | 6.03 ± 0.17 |
Interpulse duration | 6.78 ± 0.10 | 18.91 ± 0.34 |
Flash interval | 12.32 ± 0.15 | 24.95 ± 0.38 |
Flash frequency | 8.18 ± 0.09 | 4.03 ± 0.58 |
Flash parameters of courtship and warning flash types of
The comparison of courtship flash parameters of all seven populations from five provinces showed that the fireflies from Suphan Buri province displayed different courtship flashes from the other sites located in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region (Samut Prakarn, Pathum Thani, Nakhon Pathom and Bangkok) (One-way ANOVA, P < 0.05; Figure 5). Results indicated that the Suphan Buri population had significantly longer pulse duration and flash interval resulting in slow flashing.
The comparison of courtship flash parameters among seven populations of
The flash parameters of the warning flash type could not be analyzed in all populations because not all experimental mating pairs displayed warning flashes. Therefore, only three populations from Pathum Thani, Nakhon Pathom and Suphan Buri province were analyzed. Perhaps because the mating happened under controlled environments without interference from mate competition and predation. Again, the Suphan Buri population flashed significantly differed when compared with other populations (Figure 6). It had a significantly long interpulse duration that resulted in having a long flash interval and a low flash frequency.
The comparison of warning flash parameters among three populations of
The genetic diversity of COII gene in
Median-joining haplotype network generated from COII data from
The study revealed flash signal variation among populations of
Our finding was that there is intraspecific variation in flash communication of
The fireflies inhabiting the area of the Bangkok Metropolitan Region might face a habitat flooded with artificial light that causes reduced ability to communicate with their mates. Selection pressure favors adaptations of their flash pattern to minimize light competition or to increase the clarity of flash signals to improve their mating success. It might be possible that the environmental selection pressure happened in the fireflies. The plasticity of the flashing behavior depending on situation and environmental conditions were examined in many firefly species [75, 77, 78]. The fireflies in light polluted areas will modify their flash patterns to be faster to mitigate steady light from artificial night lighting. Similar adaptations occur in acoustically communicating animals, where ambient noise, especially anthropogenic low-frequency noise, affected acoustic communication in blackbirds [79], tree frogs [80], tree swallows [81], fish [82] and tree crickets [83]. The birds sing louder with higher frequencies to mitigate low frequency traffic noise, while the males of the tree crickets shortened their calls (echemes) and paused singing with a higher probability with increasing noise level without modification of song frequency or interecheme interval. Unfortunately, no work has been done on their genetic differences between the normal and noise polluted populations.
Generally, genetic differentiation among populations would happen in a heterogenous or mosaic environment by reduction of population size, genetic drift, gene flow and natural selection and accumulated by geographic isolation. Although there is no geographical isolation in the central region of Thailand, in case of
The recommendation for
In the case study, although the
I would like to thank Dr. Praneet Damrongphol, Mahidol University for providing advice on the experimental designs and constructive comments on this manuscript, Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki, Olympus Corporation for technical assistance, Dr.Yuvarin Boontop, Department of Agriculture, Bangkok for molecular data analysis and Dr. Parichart Laksanawimol, Chandrakasem Rajabhat University for field assistant. I especially thank Dr. Steven Wing for manuscript correction.
This study was financially supported by the Thailand Research Fund (TRF) (MRG5580177) and Kasetsart University Research and Development Institute (KURDI).
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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Huang"},{id:"137785",title:"Prof.",name:"Zizheng",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"zizheng-liu",fullName:"Zizheng Liu"}]},{id:"23051",doi:"10.5772/21341",title:"Dyeing of Textiles with Natural Dyes",slug:"dyeing-of-textiles-with-natural-dyes",totalDownloads:48165,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:92,abstract:null,book:{id:"1351",slug:"natural-dyes",title:"Natural Dyes",fullTitle:"Natural Dyes"},signatures:"Ashis Kumar Samanta and Adwaita Konar",authors:[{id:"42763",title:"Prof.",name:"Ashis Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Samanta",slug:"ashis-kumar-samanta",fullName:"Ashis Kumar Samanta"},{id:"50085",title:"Mr.",name:"Adwaita",middleName:null,surname:"Konar",slug:"adwaita-konar",fullName:"Adwaita Konar"}]},{id:"12253",doi:"10.5772/10465",title:"Composites Based on Natural Fibre Fabrics",slug:"composites-based-on-natural-fibre-fabrics",totalDownloads:27519,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:80,abstract:null,book:{id:"3682",slug:"woven-fabric-engineering",title:"Woven Fabric Engineering",fullTitle:"Woven Fabric Engineering"},signatures:"Gianluca Cicala, Giuseppe Cristaldi, Giuseppe Recca and Alberta Latteri",authors:null},{id:"22392",doi:"10.5772/19872",title:"Azo Dyes and Their Metabolites: Does the Discharge of the Azo Dye into Water Bodies Represent Human and Ecological Risks?",slug:"azo-dyes-and-their-metabolites-does-the-discharge-of-the-azo-dye-into-water-bodies-represent-human-a",totalDownloads:11723,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:70,abstract:null,book:{id:"528",slug:"advances-in-treating-textile-effluent",title:"Advances in Treating Textile Effluent",fullTitle:"Advances in Treating Textile Effluent"},signatures:"Farah Maria Drumond Chequer, Daniel Junqueira Dorta and Danielle Palma de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"49040",title:"Prof.",name:"Danielle",middleName:null,surname:"Palma De Oliveira",slug:"danielle-palma-de-oliveira",fullName:"Danielle Palma De Oliveira"},{id:"36612",title:"Dr.",name:"Farah",middleName:"Drumond",surname:"Chequer",slug:"farah-chequer",fullName:"Farah Chequer"},{id:"88318",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Junqueira Dorta",slug:"daniel-junqueira-dorta",fullName:"Daniel Junqueira Dorta"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"68157",title:"Introductory Chapter: Textile Manufacturing Processes",slug:"introductory-chapter-textile-manufacturing-processes",totalDownloads:4484,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:null,book:{id:"8892",slug:"textile-manufacturing-processes",title:"Textile Manufacturing Processes",fullTitle:"Textile Manufacturing Processes"},signatures:"Faheem Uddin",authors:[{id:"228107",title:"Prof.",name:"Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"faheem-uddin",fullName:"Faheem Uddin"}]},{id:"41411",title:"Textile Dyes: Dyeing Process and Environmental Impact",slug:"textile-dyes-dyeing-process-and-environmental-impact",totalDownloads:20676,totalCrossrefCites:101,totalDimensionsCites:320,abstract:null,book:{id:"3137",slug:"eco-friendly-textile-dyeing-and-finishing",title:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing",fullTitle:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing"},signatures:"Farah Maria Drumond Chequer, Gisele Augusto Rodrigues de Oliveira, Elisa Raquel Anastácio Ferraz, Juliano Carvalho Cardoso, Maria Valnice Boldrin Zanoni and Danielle Palma de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"49040",title:"Prof.",name:"Danielle",middleName:null,surname:"Palma De Oliveira",slug:"danielle-palma-de-oliveira",fullName:"Danielle Palma De Oliveira"},{id:"149074",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Valnice",middleName:null,surname:"Zanoni",slug:"maria-valnice-zanoni",fullName:"Maria Valnice Zanoni"},{id:"153502",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Farah",middleName:null,surname:"Chequer",slug:"farah-chequer",fullName:"Farah Chequer"},{id:"153504",title:"MSc.",name:"Gisele",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"gisele-oliveira",fullName:"Gisele Oliveira"},{id:"163377",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliano",middleName:null,surname:"Cardoso",slug:"juliano-cardoso",fullName:"Juliano Cardoso"},{id:"163393",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"Ferraz",slug:"elisa-ferraz",fullName:"Elisa Ferraz"}]},{id:"70564",title:"Fundamentals of Natural Dyes and Its Application on Textile Substrates",slug:"fundamentals-of-natural-dyes-and-its-application-on-textile-substrates",totalDownloads:2991,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:22,abstract:"The meticulous environmental standards in textiles and garments imposed by countries cautious about nature and health protection are reviving interest in the application of natural dyes in dyeing of textile materials. The toxic and allergic reactions of synthetic dyes are compelling the people to think about natural dyes. Natural dyes are renewable source of colouring materials. Besides textiles it has application in colouration of foods, medicine and in handicraft items. Though natural dyes are ecofriendly, protective to skin and pleasing colour to eyes, they are having very poor bonding with textile fibre materials, which necessitate mordanting with metallic mordants, some of which are not eco friendly, for fixation of natural dyes on textile fibres. So the supremacy of natural dyes is somewhat subdued. This necessitates newer research on application of natural dyes on different natural fibres for completely eco friendly textiles. The fundamentals of natural dyes chemistry and some of the important research work are therefore discussed in this review article.",book:{id:"9203",slug:"chemistry-and-technology-of-natural-and-synthetic-dyes-and-pigments",title:"Chemistry and Technology of Natural and Synthetic Dyes and Pigments",fullTitle:"Chemistry and Technology of Natural and Synthetic Dyes and Pigments"},signatures:"Virendra Kumar Gupta",authors:[{id:"305259",title:"Dr.",name:"Virendra",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar Gupta",slug:"virendra-kumar-gupta",fullName:"Virendra Kumar Gupta"}]},{id:"49647",title:"Fiber Selection for the Production of Nonwovens",slug:"fiber-selection-for-the-production-of-nonwovens",totalDownloads:10568,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"The most significant feature of nonwoven fabric is made directly from fibers in a continuous production line. While manufacturing nonwovens, some conventional textile operations, such as carding, drawing, roving, spinning, weaving or knitting, are partially or completely eliminated. For this reason the choice of fiber is very important for nonwoven manufacturers. The commonly used fibers include natural fibers (cotton, jute, flax, wool), synthetic fibers (polyester (PES), polypropylene (PP), polyamide, rayon), special fibers (glass, carbon, nanofiber, bi-component, superabsorbent fibers). Raw materials have not only delivered significant product improvements but also benefited people using these products by providing hygiene and comfort.",book:{id:"5062",slug:"non-woven-fabrics",title:"Non-woven Fabrics",fullTitle:"Non-woven Fabrics"},signatures:"Nazan Avcioglu Kalebek and Osman Babaarslan",authors:[{id:"119775",title:"Prof.",name:"Osman",middleName:null,surname:"Babaarslan",slug:"osman-babaarslan",fullName:"Osman Babaarslan"},{id:"175829",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazan",middleName:null,surname:"Kalebek",slug:"nazan-kalebek",fullName:"Nazan Kalebek"}]},{id:"41409",title:"Surface Modification Methods for Improving the Dyeability of Textile Fabrics",slug:"surface-modification-methods-for-improving-the-dyeability-of-textile-fabrics",totalDownloads:7063,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:null,book:{id:"3137",slug:"eco-friendly-textile-dyeing-and-finishing",title:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing",fullTitle:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing"},signatures:"Sheila Shahidi, Jakub Wiener and Mahmood Ghoranneviss",authors:[{id:"58854",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Shahidi",slug:"shahidi",fullName:"Shahidi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"296",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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