Normalized circuit parameters for each design frequency ratio.
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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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New instrumentation and control technologies based in digital systems, novel sensors and measurement approaches facilitate safety, reliability and economic competitiveness of nuclear power options. Autonomous operation scenarios are becoming increasingly popular to consider for small modular systems. This book belongs to a series of books on nuclear power published by InTech. It consists of four major sections and contains twenty-one chapters on topics from key subject areas pertinent to instrumentation and control, operation reliability, system aging and human-machine interfaces. 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New emerging technologies such as bio-printing in 3D, mathematical modeling, and developments in prototyping lab-on-a-chip, visual implants, and new biopolymers have started to be used in eye enucleation, the detection of eye biomarkers at the cellular level, bio-sensors, and new diagnostic tests that are considered to improve the quality of life of patients after surgery.
This chapter provides a review of new and emerging technologies, which are already working in global research centers. The term “emerging technologies” refers to the implementation of new innovative products designed to improve the quality of life. Some acronyms used are:
New technologies, such as nanotechnology, artificial intelligence, and genetics among others, have emerged not only to create alternatives to health service, but also to provide alternatives for new ophthalmologists in their surgical practice. There are increasing reviews in literature about the relationship with developments such as new surgical techniques not only for refractive surgery but also for simulation prior to cataract. Retina implants incorporating electronic devices, stem cells, and new inserts for corneal implants are some of the many devices made from biopolymers and electronics that have the promise to be an alternative for visually impaired patients.
Otherwise, as a response to training ophthalmologists on these new techniques, sophisticated simulation devices have been developed around the world [1].
Eye surgery has always been characterized by innovation, the introduction of new surgical techniques, and also the inclusion of technology. But being so specialized, this information is not readily disclosed to the targeted patients who directly require these new developments in order to restore their vision or improve the quality of their life. Otherwise, medical students and residents in ophthalmology require an overview of these new developments to plan the training for these new techniques and apply it to patients that have these requirements according to the new protocols, inclusion criteria, and the available technology in the operating room in order to plan new investments for clinical practice and training. Knowing where you are in making this progress, communication and the creation of partnerships between experts are priorities to be able to respond to the patients’ needs.
This chapter intends to update eye surgeons in new biopolymers and innovations for ocular prostheses and visual implants for visual care. In the previous years, there are a lot of innovations such us visual implants, artificial silicon retinas, suprachoroidal transretinal stimulation (STS), and artificial corneas among others, which are changing nowadays due to the new advancements in technology and also due to the development of new biomaterials, new microelectrodes, and several types of neural devices around the world. Now, real “artificial eyes” are not only the craniofacial, maxillofacial, ocular, and orbital prostheses that replaces an absent eye after an enucleation but they are also new materials such as cryolite glass, gel from cellulose, glass, silicone and porous polyethylene, graphene, dental biopolymers among others that are being implemented as materials for the heart, eye, and other organ implants due to their characteristics to improve good biological compatibility, be more resistant, reduce allergies, and improve durability. These implants are used for the replacement of the orbital content of anophthalmic cavities [2].
The traditional concept of ocular prostheses (ocular, orbital, epithesis, and maxillofacial), visual implants (retinal, optic nerve, cortical, subretinal, epiretinal and cortical), and others of engineering and biomedical sciences have been changing and must be reviewed in the future.
Otherwise, digital cameras, electrodes, and other electronic devices are useful for the visually impaired. In France, there has been some work on retinal implants using nanodiamonds in the artificial retina. This allows converting light signals into electrical signals. In the field of ocular pharmacology, the nanocarrier molecules for the sustained release of drugs and other devices to vitrectomies are some of the significant visual health advancements in the recent years. Additionally, in the field of contact lenses and artificial corneas, biopolymers have been developed for the early detection of keratoconus or systemic diseases. Nanotechnology is emerging as a science applied to the visual industry and medicine, involving a multidisciplinary team that requires new directions in the role and performance of ocular professionals around the world in the near future. The handling of materials and processes at the nanoscale (one billionth of a meter) level, the instrumentality in the accurate detection, and the telerehabilitation intervention using robots of bioelectrical retinal implants nano lenses are just some of the promising developments in the field of eye care. Visual health professionals seek the entry of this science in our curricula, research, and training discipline for innovation and technology based on nanotechnology and robotics. The high costs should not prevent the alliance between university research centers and the private industry in bringing innovation to our population and creating transdisciplinary research lines to improve the quality of life in eye health.
In the recent years, we have reviewed scientific literature regarding publications in surgical techniques of eye surgery. The number of publications on visual implants, artificial corneas, stromal rings, and cross linking has increased in the same manner as the development of new patents did. Also in the recent years, the inclusion of digital imaging systems, visual simulators, and virtual and augmented reality, prior or during the surgeries, have taken place. Some of the ophthalmic surgical procedures mentioned above are useful for improving the life quality of patients. This may pose a challenge to ophthalmic surgeons, but, has improved the quality of life of patients and their rehabilitation. The topics are discussed under the following areas: pre-operative tests, operative surgery, prevention of complications and current and future major advances in eye surgery of importance to surgeons, researchers, physicians, and health personnel.
Global announcements regarding new developments in eye surgery across all fields require a systemic search for there are many institutions and authors contributing to this knowledge. To perform this review, keywords were used: Eye surgery and refractive surgery, eye surgery and visual implants, eye surgery and retinal implants, glaucoma eye surgery, and cataract eye surgery. The resources used were Medline and Scopus criteria for the inclusion of surgical techniques (1990-2014). In this review, it has been noted that many institutions have increased ophthalmology publications in these areas and in recent years, advancements in electronic chips to the retina and visual and retinal implants are growing considerably.
Many eye care research institutes supported by the government and universities from all continents have been working for decades on innovations for eye surgery across all fields (cataract, refractive surgery, stromal rings, and retinal implants), which has been progressing in different countries as evidenced by scientific literature.
Scientific publications related to refractive surgery around the world and the institutes that have most published reports on refractive surgery can be seen in the chart below. Scopus analysis can be useful creating partnerships between researchers in the same field. See Figure 1 [3].
Publications of refractive surgery from Ophthalmology Institutes and Universities around the World from the last decades. Copyright 2015. Elsevier B.V. All right reserved. Scopus is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V.
Literature reviews on retinal implants, which previously seemed like science fiction, has become a research field not only in ophthalmology and medicine, but also in electronic engineering and nanotechnology. Therefore, these researches should not only make journals specialize in medicine, but the revisions should also include nanotechnology and engineering to make it more accurate. In Figure 2, reports regarding retinal implants that were made by principal countries have been proven evident.
Publications in retinal implants in different countries. Copyright 2015. Elsevier B.V. All right reserved. Scopus is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V.
Institutions and universities are making major breakthroughs in the field of retinal implants for more than two decades. In fact, some already have several patents, prototypes, and experimental models in animals. There is already evidence in humans, which provides a promising future for people with retinitis pigmentosa, which a few years ago would have been considered impossible. See Figure 3 [3].
Top Publications in retinal implants for institutes and Universities around the World. Copyright 2015. Elsevier B.V. All right reserved. Scopus is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V.
Today, the classification of eye surgery can be summarized in Figure 4.
Classification of the types of eye surgery.
In the surgery of myopia, astigmatism, and presbyopia, several techniques have improved since the 80s (See figure 5). And recently, a stromal ring technique has been introduced for keratoconus. Due to the shortage of donors for corneas, the stem cell culture and the development of new biopolymers has increased until the creation of several artificial corneas.
Corneal surgery techniques.
The corneal transplant surgery is useful in the removal and replacement of damaged corneas, replacing it with a clear donor cornea (corneal grafting) in its entirety (penetrating keratoplasty) or in part (lamellar keratoplasty). Another surgical technique is the deep anterior lamellar keratoplasty (remotion of the anterior layers of the central cornea) if the replacement includes posterior cells: endothelia, stroma and Descemets cells (DSEK) or Descemets/endothelium (DMEK).
Boston keratoprosthesis is a synthetic cornea used since 2008 (Boston KPro), which was developed for the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary. The AlphaCor, a device that contains a peripheral skirt and a transparent central region, is another artificial cornea. The parts connect interpenetrating polymer network made from poly-2-hydoxyethylmethacrylate (pHEMA). Another model is the osteo-odonto-keratoprosthesis, wherein a lamina of the patient´s tooth is implanted into the eye using an artificial lens. The porous graphite/PVA hydrogel composite as the skirt of artificial cornea, in the experimental model shows the interconnective porous network. The mechanical properties and water content are similar to nature donor cornea. Water content is another crucial characteristic of hydrogel used as a material for artificial cornea because it will influence the biocompatibility of hydrogel. Experimental studies developed in rabbits in vivo shows that the hydrogel nanocomposite implants of Zn NP were well tolerated in over 3 weeks of study, with no evidence of wound leakage, infection, inflammation, or neovascularization [4].
Corneal cross-linking is a technique used for the treatment of keratoconus. It increases the corneal rigidity by photo polymerization of the stromal collagen fibers with UV light for less than 30 minutes. The standard cross-linking technique, also called Dresden protocol (CXL), requires the removal of the central 9 nm of the corneal epithelium layer followed by 30 minutes of riboflavin administration [5].
In order to make a predictive value pair wing refractive surgery and have a more accurate and useful value for refractive surgery and the stromal rings for keratoconus, sophisticated software have been developed to help surgeons take more precise models before the surgery. Some of them are provided by manufacturers and others have been developed based on sophisticated mathematical models, which are very useful in cases of keratoconus or corneal astigmatism [6].
Nomograms are incisions within the cornea without the need to break the epithelium or Bowman´s, thus avoiding the risk of wound problems and possible overcorrections during refractive surgery. Recently, specialized software products can help surgeons on the different procedures. Some of them are IBRA, Intacs®, and Nomograms (useful for ICRS in keratoconus by the use of a ring base on the type of the cone) [7, 8, 9]. In presbyopia surgery, an optical device as thin as a contact lens is inserted into the cornea to reshape the front surface of the eye in order to improve vision. Corneal inlays are used to improve near vision and reduce the need for reading glasses. This device can be combined with LASIK for nearsightedness, farsightedness, and/or astigmatism.
This procedure is less invasive than phakic IOL (intraocular lenses placed deeper in the eye). So, with the corneal inlays for vision correction, eye surgeons may sometimes be able to avoid complications associated with procedures, such as LASIK and PRK, because no corneal tissue is removed. The Kamra Corneal Inlay, previously called ACI 7000, for presbyopia is now in clinical trials. The device in inserted in a thin flap in the center of the cornea. The flap is then replaced over the inlay to hold it in place in a process of 15 minutes [10].
Its innovation holds a promise to replace reading glasses with good near vision in the near future. The characteristics of Kamra are described as follows: 3.8 millimeters in diameter, 10 microns thick, made of an opaque biocompatible polymer (Kynar), and a thermoplastic material that softens in heat and hardens in cooler conditions.
Corneal inlays and onlays are also called keratophakia. They are implants placed in the corneal stroma for the correction of presbyopia. The procedure is done under topical anesthesia and the implant is done monocularly in the non-dominant eye as a stromal pocket or under the flaps created by the microkeratome or by the femtosecond laser. See Figure 6.
Position of the corneal onlay implants.
Other innovations for these techniques have been developed for researchers in Mexico, who are working on Raindrop near Vision Inlay (ReVision Optics) with some variation on diameters, thickness, and biomaterials.
This inlay is placed in the cornea under a LASIK-style flap. When in position, the inlay changes the curvature of the cornea so the front of the eye acts much like a multifocal contact lens. The other alternative is the Flexivue Microlens (Presbia Cooperatief U.A., Amsterdam), which uses a laser and creates a tiny pocket just below the eye\'s surface. Currently, it requires developing the instrument to insert the microlens in the pocket that is sealed to hold the lens, and a hydrophilic polymer is irrigated during surgery with a highly moisturizing substance. The synthetic intraocular lens replaces the natural lens during cataract surgery. Its characteristics are as follows: 3 mm in diameter and 20 microns thick at the edges [11].
Some helpful preoperative aids recently included for prior surgery are the 3D models. These must be used to investigate the pressure drop on the localization of the main resistance to aqueous egress during iridectomy or trabeculectomy surgery. Some of these are the modeling of the eye drainage using the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and the eye drainage system devices (GDD). To provide a 3D CFD prototype of the eye, the basis is the anatomy of a real human eye. Some models are based on stacks of microphotographs from human eye slides from which digital processing of the images of the eye structure and 3D reconstruction of the model are performed. The simulations of the distribution of pressure and the flow velocity in the model of a healthy eye bring results comparable to physiology references. Mimicking glaucoma conditions, most likely the real eye, led to an increase of the IOP from normal range, which went down to lower values after a filtering procedure. With this, a computer assisted design (CAD) model of the device is inserted in the 3D eye through the DC and the trabecular meshwork of the anterior chamber angle, parallel to the plane of the iris [12].
A simulation, very similar to the real environment, has been implemented, so the training for the surgeon is more secure. It is also in real-time as a virtual simulator with a control position tracking in a stereoscopic display mounted on a head, with a video, audio, and haptic interface in virtual reality. A real environment has been simulated that is created electronically in a controlled and protected environment where the surgeon can learn, practice, and improve their skills for surgery in a safe environment [13].
SensAble Phantom Omni T.M is equipped with a device that controls virtual surgical instruments and feeds the skills of the surgeon, allowing six degrees of freedom tracking, three of which are important in human-machine interface for simulation. A haptic interface is designed to identify the types of surgical operations, such as cutting, grasping, pushing, emulsion, and calculated reaction force, and allows modeling the deformation of the mesh fabric, such as an eye model. The cyanoacrylate polymerizes as soon as it touches something like water and aqueous or saline solution. Fibrin glue is also another sealant that is also used for pterygium with conjunctival auto-grafts and secures amniotic membrane tissue in pterygium surgery. Sealants made of polyethylene glycol hydrogel are used for sealing corneal incisions and implantation in the IOL [14].
3D printing, better known as bioprinting, has been widely accepted in the health industry. This was initially developed to print 3D process designs in the gastronomy industry. Later on, it has become one alternative medicine for organ replacement. Printing with organs like heart, liver, kidney, replacement hip bones, and maxillofacial trachea has become an alternative in association with research on stem cells to regenerate tissue. Eye level attempts have been cast for 3D modeling and future impressions of the eyeball for cosmetic purposes in people requiring ocular prostheses turned what was previously artisanal towards a more precise subsequent enucleation process. This improves the aesthetic value and lowers the probability of infection that occurs in these tissues due to poor hygiene because there is no need to frequently remove it for cleaning purposes [15].
This process consists of the printing, layer by layer, on a 3D printer using stable biological materials applied in tissue engineering. Very few materials, which fulfill the requirements for bioprinting as well as provide adequate properties for cell encapsulation during and after the printing process, are available. Some of the materials that are similar to the contact lens hydrogel composite or include alginate and gelatin precursors were tuned with different concentrations of hydroxyapatite (HA) and were characterized in terms of rheology, which is the swelling behavior and mechanical properties used to assess the versatility of the system properties [16].
The LIS-CEA laboratory in France has been studying retinal implants from nanomaterials and nanodiamonds. By means of the implementation of memristors and digital technology, electronic devices that respond to Moore\'s Law (processing speed, memory capacity, and number of pixels) inspired the creation of cardiac pacemakers and created an intelligent flash. This concept was introduced by Leon O. Chua and was developed as a model of neural networks, the biomimetic model of the retina, where they expected to even send 3D signals. [17].
A project was undertaken wherein other technologies using silicon microchips as a "wafer" to create a biological and electronic device in the form of functional circuits that interact with live cells and shows a promise for the present and future cells. The construction of the small three-dimensional models of the human organs can be used to treat and replace costly and time-consuming animal studies that currently hamper the development of drugs. Furthermore, these micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) allow testing in cell cultures without using a full tissue. A lab-on-a-chip enables the replication of tissue samples [18].
FDA approved a project of more than 15 years which comprised an interdisciplinary group of researchers. The retinal prosthesis was created: Second Sight Argus II, with funding from the National Eye Institute. It consists of a camera that captures images via implanted electrodes that stimulate cells in the retina, producing a light on the patient\'s visual field. This camera mounted on a pair of eyeglasses wirelessly (with 60 electrodes and hoping to increase it to 1500), has an array of microelectrodes and is mounted on a miniature camera on a pair of glasses that act as a sensitive photodiode light. The camcorder captures a portion of the visual field and transmits the information to the VPU. The device is already being used in patients with retinitis pigmentosa [19].
Traditionally, the aesthetics of the manufacturing and fitting of ocular prostheses are acceptable and responds efficiently in improving the patient’s confidence and physical and psychological well-being, therefore, helps to improve their social acceptance and quality of life. Recently, the introduction of visual implants is a different alternative designed to transmit electronical signals from the retina to the brain. According to the surgical technique and position, they are inserted or transplanted into the body and tend to be used as a therapeutic instrument for visual rehabilitation. The artificial stimulation to the visual pathway allows the brain to recognize the electric signal as light. New electronical materials useful for the fabrication of these devices have been developed in the recent years. An ocular prosthesis helps the patient psychologically and improves confidence, but doesn’t have a visual function. Different techniques are available to fabricate a custom ocular prosthesis. In contrast, visual implants are currently being developed as an innovation to restore nerve impulses between the eyeball and the cerebral cortex, linking transdisciplinary efforts, electronic engineers, and ophthalmologists worldwide working to develop the bionic eye. The researchers are focused to allow and improve the perception of spots of light and high contrast edges by means of the devices´ stimulator as electrodes or optogenetics transducers.
Classification of Ocular implants. Durán, P. Diaz, M, Plaza, J. Journal of ocular diseases and therapeutics. 2 N. 1, 2014.
Ocular prostheses were made and are still fabricated in inhert and non-integrable materials, such as polymethylmetacrylate (PMMA) and cryolite glass. But these days, integrable materials for anophthalmic cavities, such as a gel from cellulose produced by Zoogloea sp. porous polyethylene dental biomaterial composites and graphene among others, are implemented as materials for the heart, eye and other organs implants due to their characteristics in improving biological compatibility to be more resistant, to reduce allergies, and improve durability. The future development of the ocular prostheses is focused on the impression of digital measurements, 3D modeling software, and the digital impression of the iris [21].
Many implants are being studied around the world. Some patents and other humans have been implanted to help in visual rehabilitation. Some of these examples are divided into two categories according to design or operations principles, some use an external camera and image processing drive implanted electrodes. Another example is the use of 1500 small units in microphotodiode arrays (MPA by Retina Implant AG) and Stanford retinal prosthesis. Some required external energy to drive the stimulators, while others are wireless. The Stanford array projects a high intensity infrared image on the implanted photocells and generates a sufficient current to excite the secondary neurons. In addition, the classification must be made according to the implant site e.g., in the inner retinal (epiretinal) or outer (subretinal) retinal surface; if the implant is inserted below the choroid plexus (suprachoroidal) or if the implantation take place outside the sclera (episcleral) [22, 23, 24].
Before the production of visual implants, many studies should be performed to verify the noise pattern, the extraction processing of the temporal space, monitoring to check the quality of the image, the spatial resolution, the circuit architecture, and advanced intelligent functions.
The future smart 3D image sensor architectures will most probably consist of a sensor layer at the top and various processing layers below. Each layer will be organized into locally connected cellular arrays with additional global communication/operation mechanisms. Layers will be vertically interconnected using bi-directional parallel channels implemented by through-silicon-vias (TSVs). Images at different scales and abstract information about salient points and features will be transmitted top-down across the stack, while commands will be transmitted bottom-up to support adaptation.
The OCT has revolutionized the clinical management of ophthalmic diseases and promises to be of great help in the surgical rooms. The Prospective Intraoperative and Perioperative Ophthalmic Imaging with Optical Coherence Tomography (PIONEER), a single site multi-surgeon prospective is incorporating the OCT to the surgical room because of feasibility, safety, and utility. This study is performed by the Cleveland Clinic. The variables including past ocular history, procedure type, preoperative diagnosis, techniques, and number of imaging sessions are recorded one day before surgery. The structured study follow-up is done after the surgery [25].
The protocol managing for them is next. Disease-specific or procedure-specific imaging protocols (eg. scan type, pattern, density, size, orientation) were outlined for anterior and posterior segment applications. Anterior segment imaging included a 12mm3, 12mm volumetric cube scan at 0 degree orientation. Posterior segment imaging included a 10 mm3, 10 mm volumetric cube with 100 B-scans per volume at both 0 and 90 degrees, a 5 - 3 10mm volumetric cube with 7 B-scans per frame for averaging, a total of 175 B-scans per volume at both 0 and 90 degrees, and a 10 mm radial scan with 100 B-scans per volume. The surgeons were provided with guidance for surgical milestones to consider for imaging (e.g., pre-incision, following membrane peeling, following graft placement), but the specific imaging sessions were at the surgeon’s discretion. When possible in vitreoretinal cases, scan sequences were obtained in the operating room prior to any surgical manipulation of the area of interest. Following various surgical milestones, scan sequences were performed to allow for comparative data and change analysis. A ‘‘scan’’ was defined as a single set of images. A ‘‘scan session’’ was defined as a series of scans obtained during a single pause during surgery. Typically, multiple scan sessions were often performed during the surgical procedures. A specific surgical procedure (e.g., Membrane peeling, lamellar keratoplasty) intraoperative OCT feedback form was included as part of the study protocol. This form included questions regarding the impact of the intraoperative OCT on surgical decision making and on how intraoperative OCT may have impacted the understanding of the surgical disease of interest. OCT provides rapid testing that reduces costs, time, and enhances quality care for surgeons and patients [26].
Future research of new innovations in visual implants improves existing research for best results. The early implementation of refractive surgery and cataract surgery is recalled, however, it is important that the increase of that research is conducted in global scientific communities where you can monitor patients and have access to people with visual impairment that requires the surgery. High costs should be borne by health systems, according to the laws of each country, so that they can be taken advantage by the patients who need them. Some of the challenges that are presented in eye health are the cost of the technology transfer, more high-level training in surgical procedures, and the establishment of protocols according to the clinical findings. Just as eye surgery has been the pioneer in the world among many technological advancements, it becomes a possible reality in the near future to restore vision for visual rehabilitation and to provide a better quality of life for visually impaired patients.
Likewise, due to the interaction of the new sciences, ophthalmologists around the world should have comprehensive training from his clinical practice in various branches of medicine, biomedical engineering and electronics, and nanotechnology. Team groups with different point of views must be formed to answer the needs of patients, such as applying science to the clinic, establishing protocols to prevent errors, and improve processes in eye surgery and thus, optimizing costs, human resources and effectiveness for patients. All these innovations must be reimbursed by health insurance systems around the world.
So that these advancements reach patients, there should be access to global insurance to cover the population that needs them. Germany and the United States are already doing this. However, in underdeveloped countries, this possibility does not even exist and is yet to be built.
The truth is that in the near future, these new surgeries may have results that help reduce blindness, improve the coverage and quality of life for patients with myopia, astigmatism, presbyopia, cataracts, and retinitis pigmentosa among others. The inclusion of contact lenses has always been considered as one of the most important innovations for mankind. But this technology is linked to new projects and has developed new biopolymers. The challenge for innovators and surgeons in the next decades is the immersion with electronic chips. The accuracy of current studies is required and must be taken advantage by the academic community for the scientific needs and reading of the general population.
Another important area in future work on education to transfer this technology and provide updates with experts and developers for the patients’ safety, must be worked in partnership with the different industries and academia.
Eye surgery is not only considered a pioneer in the world by technological advancements, but evidence also shows that it has been and will continue to be important to combat blindness in the world. Among the most significant advancements are visual implants, artificial corneas, new biopolymers, and the inclusion of nanotechnology in operating rooms where other major global challenges will come from.
The challenge of new visual innovation includes multiple fields that must continue to be improved for these new global developments in refractive surgery, ocular prosthesis, and visual implants. In order to make these advancements accessible to patients, it is required to improve the transfer of technology and improve the training of surgeons around the world. The following points must also be taken into consideration:
Eye surgery research: strengthening global researchers’ mobility and internships among researchers of visual health-electronical engineering groups around the world to be training in transdisciplinary teams about the new surgical technique and developments in electronic engineering and their applications to visual health. It must include developments for other healthcare artifacts.
Financial resources: search financial resources from government and public and private entities to develop new technology transfer policies.
Database creation for target population in visual implants or visual rehabilitation: the creation of a global database of possible patients that can benefit from these innovations should be a priority in each country and will make us plan for monitoring, check the progress in new implanted patients, verify the recovery rates, and design a project of the improvement thereof.
Challenge for Institutional Review Boards (IRB committees) of academic institutions: The Institutional Review
Boards of universities around the world should construct and share global protocols about new technology surgery: to take care of the visual implants, fill up the informed consent in the use of these new innovations, provide mechanisms for timely and appropriate communication to users, investors, and inventors, and report the cost - benefits of these new alternatives.
Marketing: The other challenge is the distribution channels. A highly qualified medical and rehabilitation staff is required after the implantation: a team of psychological support, visual rehabilitators, and low vision experts around the world. Most importantly, family support is key for a successful visual recovery. In the case of ocular prosthesis, the personal cleaning regime requires periodic professional care. Some authors have proposed the three phase model according to the discharge associated with prosthetic eye wear. In the initial period, the freshly polished prosthesis set the homeostasis in the first phase as surface deposits are removed is more comfortable and safer. However, you can make an increased likelihood of harm when continued wear, that´s is the reason to think in recovers such as nanofilms or new biopolymer can reduce the deposits another way is the traditional surface polish. There is not too much published literature about maintenance care of visual prosthesis, electrodes and microarrays.
The new research for eye surgery is focused on the development of artificial organs, ocular prosthesis, and the inclusion of new biomaterials as graphene or nanocoatings against biofilm and microorganisms. This creates digitalized prototypes and is customized for each patient, using new technology and working with 3D printing organs. Some advancements have been developed in the United Kingdom, in partnership with Fripp Design and Research and Manchester Metropolitan University, using the Spectrum Z-Corp 510 3D printer. The main reason for inclusion of graphene as an ocular biomaterial is because this material serves as a photovoltaic semiconductor, which is unlike the metal or silicon-based materials used until now for such biotechnological interfaces. The graphene is soft, light, flexible and highly biocompatible. Naturally, new biomaterials and neuro-implants is the challenge for visual care for sensitivity to visible light. It uses photovoltaic material and does not require an external electrical source to function.
Thanks to Veronica Barbudo Duran, Graphic designer, for her graphics and design contributions for the chapter.
In recent years, wireless communication equipment has been rapidly researched and developed such as Internet of Things (IoT), wireless local area network (LAN), and 5G, and it is expected that the demand for wireless communication equipment will become more widespread in the future. Along with this, various microwave circuit elements mounted on wireless communication devices are also required to have higher performance, such as miniaturization, low loss, high integration, and wideband/multiband. The authors are paying attention to the power divider/combiner that divides/combines microwave signals among various microwave circuit elements. The reason is that the power divider/combiner is considered to be an important circuit element that is directly linked to its performance in microwave circuits.
As a power divider/combiner for a three-port network, the Wilkinson power divider (hereinafter referred to as a conventional circuit) composed of two quarter wavelength transmission lines at a design frequency and an absorption resistor connected between two output ports is widely used at several microwave/millimeter-wave circuit system such as a balanced amplifier, a mixer, a phase shifter, an antenna feeding network, and so on [1]. However, since the circuit size depends on the wavelength due to the distributed circuit configuration, there arises a problem that the area occupied by the circuit system becomes especially large in a low-frequency band. As a method for reducing the size of a microwave circuit, a method of replacing a transmission line with a Π-type/T-type circuit equivalent to that at the design frequency is often used, but the equivalence between the two circuits is guaranteed only at the design frequency [2]. Therefore, such a circuit generally has a narrow band characteristic. In addition to that, as a method of shortening the transmission line, methods of loading parallel capacitances or parallel open-circuited stubs at both ends or the center of the transmission line have been reported [3, 4, 5, 6]. In addition, some miniaturization design methods using composite right-/left-handed transmission lines and lumped elements have also been proposed [7, 8, 9, 10]. However, their operation bands are still narrower than that of the conventional circuit. Therefore, it is considered difficult to achieve both miniaturization and wide bandwidth of the circuit at the same time. On the other hand, our research group proposes a configuration using an LC-ladder circuit as a lumped-element circuit type Wilkinson power divider. It has been analytically and experimentally clarified that a configuration using a two-stage LC-ladder circuit on the input side can realize frequency characteristics equal to or higher than those of the conventional circuit. Furthermore, ultra-wideband power dividers, unequal power dividers, and
This chapter shows how to design a power divider that can be matched at arbitrary two frequencies with a simple circuit configuration with 9 lumped elements. The circuit is designed for application in IoT (920 MHz) and 5G (sub6 band: 3.7 GHz). The influence of the self-resonant frequency of the chip element used in the circuit configuration is considered in the SHF-band, so the inductance is realized using a meander line or a bent line. Electromagnetic field simulations and prototype experiments confirm the effectiveness of the two-frequency matching circuit with a quasi-lumped-element circuit configuration. It should be noted that this circuit also has a feature that high-pass or low-pass characteristics can be selected by replacing the inductance L and the capacitance C of the components.
In the circuit configuration described above, the frequency characteristic of either the high-frequency or the low-frequency band becomes a narrow band. Therefore, the number of stages of the LC-ladder circuit was increased, and a circuit with 15 elements in which an LC-ladder circuit and an LR/CR circuit were connected in parallel between the output ports enabled three-frequency matching. It was shown that by moving the matching frequency in the middle of the three matching frequencies closer to the low-frequency side or the high-frequency side, a divider having an absolute constant bandwidth in the low-frequency and high-frequency bands becomes possible.
Furthermore, ultra-wideband characteristics are possible by increasing the number of stages in the LC-ladder circuit. As a method for widening the bandwidth of impedance transformers, quarter wavelength multistage transformers are also described in Pozer’s book and are often used. By using the concept of this multistage impedance transformer [16] and L-type matching circuit [17], a circuit with a relative bandwidth exceeding 100% in the UHF band was realized. Specifically, we have experimentally confirmed an ultra-wideband divider with a relative bandwidth of 100% or more, which covers the 80 MHz–370 MHz band used for public radio in Japan, with a lumped-element circuit configuration.
This section shows a lumped-element power divider that realizes the same frequency characteristics as the conventional Wilkinson power divider. Furthermore, a two-frequency matching divider operating in the UHF and the SHF band will be described.
Figure 1a shows the dual-band power divider with arbitrary two matching frequencies treated in this section [18, 19]. This circuit consists of an LC-ladder circuit (
Circuit configuration. (a) Schematic of two-section LC-ladder divider and (b) its equivalent circuit with onefold symmetry.
When a signal of the same phase and amplitude is applied to each output port Port2/3 of the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 1b, the plane AA’ becomes a magnetic wall. It is not necessary to consider the inflow of current to the L and RLC parallel circuits, and the signal applied to the output port propagates to the input port side while maintaining its potential. Therefore, the equivalent circuit can be simplified as shown in Figure 2a. The following equation expresses the signal non-reflection condition at the input end for conjugate matching of the terminal resistance of Port1 and the input impedance seen from Port1 according to the theorem of maximum power supply.
Equivalent circuits at (a) even- and (b) odd-mode excitations.
For each of the real and imaginary parts, by determining the parameters, so that Eq. (1) is satisfied with two matching frequencies, the circuit parameters on the input side
In the odd-mode excitation in which a signal of opposite phase and the same amplitude is applied to the output port of the circuit shown in Figure 1b, the plane AA’ becomes an electric wall, and when the potential becomes 0 on the plane AA’. Therefore, the inflow of current to the input side can be ignored. Therefore, in this case, the equivalent circuit can be simplified as shown in Figure 2b.
By satisfying Eq. (2) for the real and imaginary parts and designing it to operate as an impedance transformer at the design frequency, the circuit parameters on the output port side
The above operation can derive all parameters, and it is possible to design an equal power divider that matches at arbitrary two frequencies. Table 1 shows the normalized circuit parameters for some design frequency ratios.
Frequency ratio | 0.8/1.2 | 0.6/1.4 | 0.4/1.6 |
---|---|---|---|
1.23 | 1.52 | 2.46 | |
1.20 | 1.11 | 0.90 | |
1.20 | 1.11 | 0.90 | |
0.61 | 0.76 | 1.23 | |
0.54 | 0.96 | 1.85 | |
1.74 | 2.14 | 3.46 | |
1.93 | 1.24 | 0.83 | |
1.62 | 1.12 | 0.92 |
Normalized circuit parameters for each design frequency ratio.
The normalized circuit parameters obtained by the above procedure are
Frequency characteristics of scattering parameters for two-section LC-ladder dividers with several matching frequency ratios. (a) Input/output port reflection, (b) isolation, and (c) power division characteristics.
In order to confirm the validity of the circuit design method, we designed a broadband power divider in the 920 MHz band using a commercial electromagnetic simulator (Sonnet em). The design conditions are a dielectric substrate with a relative permittivity of 2.2, a thickness of 0.787 mm, and each port has a microstrip line configuration with a characteristic impedance of 50 Ω. Since the commercially available 1005 size chip inductor has a self-resonant frequency in the UHF/SHF bands, it is difficult to use it in circuit design above the UHF band. Therefore, as a lumped element model, the circuit pattern is designed using a spiral inductor that directly reproduces the metal pattern on the dielectric substrate and a commercially available chip capacitor. In addition, the circuit pattern was determined by trial and error to reduce the influence of the land pattern on the characteristics while securing the land pattern for soldering required for the chip element. In addition,
Experimental results for broadband divider. (a) Simulation pattern, (b) its analysis result, (c) photograph of fabricated circuit, and (d) measured S-parameters.
Considering the practical application of the proposed circuit, a prototype experiment was conducted under the same conditions using the circuit pattern shown in Figure 4a. A conductor pattern was formed on the dielectric substrate Rogers/Duroid 5880 using a substrate processing machine (ProtoMat S63) made by LPKF. The chip elements used are the same 1005 size commercially available chip capacitors (GRM series) and thick film chip resistors (MCR series) used in the simulation and soldered to the conductor pattern. In addition, the via hole part of the simulation pattern is short-circuited with the ground conductor by making a hole with a diameter of 0.3 mm at the desired position, inserting silver paste, and sintering it. Figure 4c shows a prototype circuit photograph. Figure 4d shows the frequency characteristics of the scattering matrix of the prototype circuit measured using a vector network analyzer. From the figure, the measured results are almost the same as the electromagnetic simulation results, but the relative bandwidth with reflection characteristics and isolation characteristics of −18 dB or less is about 45.9%, and some deterioration can be seen. This is thought to be due to the tolerance of each chip element and manufacturing error of the spiral inductor. However, in the actual measurement, it was confirmed that the two frequencies were matched, and the power division characteristics were flat around the matching frequency band, and the maximum output phase difference was 2.6°.
On the other hand, by separating the matching two frequencies, it is possible to realize a divider that operates in two bands. Here, the results of electromagnetic field simulations and prototype experiments for the divider shown by the green line in Figure 3 are introduced. The two matching frequencies are selected as 920 MHz and 3.68GHz used in IoT and 5G (sub6 band). Figure 5a shows the simulation pattern and its analysis results, and Figure 5b shows the prototype circuit photograph and measurement results. It can be confirmed that the matching frequency on the low-frequency side is slightly shifted to the higher side, and the matching frequency on the high-frequency side is slightly different. However, the measurement results and the simulation results are in good agreement.
Experimental results for dual-band divider. (a) Simulation pattern and its analysis result and (b)photograph of fabricated circuit and its measured S-parameters.
This section has proposed a design method for a Wilkinson-type dual-band power divider with a new configuration using an LC-ladder circuit. It is known that a power divider using lumped elements in order to reduce the circuit area in a relatively low-frequency band generally has a narrow band frequency characteristic. We conducted a trial experiment of a power divider with lumped elements design in the 920 MHz band and showed that a wide operating frequency band with a relative bandwidth of about 45.9% could be obtained. Furthermore, it was shown that a divider operating in two separate bands (920 MHz/3.68GHz) could be realized. The proposed circuit is useful in reducing the circuit area in the UHF/SHF band. Next, we will conduct a prototype experiment in the 5G (Sub6) band to confirm its usefulness further.
Since research on circuits and devices that support multiband systems is also actively conducted [20, 21], this section describes power dividers that can be matched at arbitrary three frequencies. Further, as an application thereof, it is shown that a dual-band power divider having an absolute constant bandwidth can be realized by moving the middle frequency closer to the low-frequency side among any three matching frequencies.
Figure 6a shows the circuit configuration of a power divider with three sections of LC-ladder circuits at the input port side [22]. The circuit parameters are normalized as described above. In designing a circuit using the even-/odd-mode excitation methods, consider an equivalent circuit having a onefold symmetry with respect to the plane AA’ in Figure 6b. Each input/output port is represented as a terminal resistor. When the circuit structure is vertically symmetrical,
(a) Schematic of LC-ladder divider with three matching frequencies and (b) its equivalent circuit with onefold symmetry.
Since the circuit in Figure 6b is also symmetric with respect to the plane AA’, the even-/odd-mode analysis can be applied as in 2.2.1 and 2.2.2. Figure 7 shows equivalent circuits at even-/odd-mode excitations. The conditional equations for obtaining the circuit parameters are as follows.
Equivalent circuit of
All parameters can be derived by the above operation, and an equal power divider with arbitrary three matching frequencies can be designed.
If the three normalized matching frequencies
Frequency ratio | 0.4/0.6/1.6 | 0.4/0.8/1.6 | 0.4/1.0/1.6 | 0.4/0.45/1.6 |
---|---|---|---|---|
2.07 | 1.75 | 1.42 | 1.51 | |
1.11 | 4.62 | 2.41 | 0.93 | |
0.97 | 1.40 | 1.83 | 1.24 | |
1.92 | 2.74 | 2.55 | 2.49 | |
2.12 | 7.61 | 8.13 | 1.87 | |
2.02 | 1.64 | 1.43 | 1.52 | |
1.26 | 1.02 | 0.81 | 0.64 | |
0.65 | 0.63 | 0.75 | 0.09 | |
1.49 | 1.43 | 1.38 | 1.49 | |
0.57 | 0.70 | 0.77 | 0.46 | |
1.49 | 1.15 | 0.84 | 0.21 | |
1.05 | 0.89 | 1.01 | 1.04 |
Normalized circuit parameters for LC-ladder divider with various three matching frequencies.
Scattering matrix of LC-ladder divider with three matching frequencies. (a) Reflection, (b) power division, and (c) isolation characteristics.
Scattering matrix of LC-ladder divider with constant absolute bandwidth.
Based on the circuit analysis using the even-/odd-mode excitation method mentioned above, we are studying the circuit pattern on the dielectric substrate by an electromagnetic analysis as a preliminary step to the trial production. The circuit pattern is shown in Figure 10a. The design frequency is 0.4/0.45/1.6 with a frequency ratio to the center frequency of 2.3 GHz, that is, 920 MHz/1.03 GHz/3.68 GHz, and the conditions for the electromagnetic simulation are the same as in Section 2.3. Assume the use of GRM Series and MCR series for capacitors and resistors, respectively. Assuming the influence of the self-resonant frequency of the element on the circuit characteristics, the inductor is arranged by the bending pattern of the line instead of the chip element. In Figure 10a, the circuit size is 7.0 × 9.3 mm2 excluding the input/output ports. The frequency characteristics of the scattering matrix obtained by the electromagnetic simulation of the circuit pattern in Figure 10a are shown in Figure 10b. In addition to good reflection/isolation characteristics and division characteristics at the desired design frequency, the absolute constant bandwidth based on the center frequency in the UHF/SHF band is about 8.6%/7.4%. A prototype experiment is being conducted under the same conditions for the circuit pattern examined by the electromagnetic simulation above. A circuit is realized by forming a conductor pattern on a dielectric substrate using a commercially available substrate processing machine (ProtoMat S63/LPKF) and soldering each element to a predetermined position. A conductor pin is inserted into the via hole with a diameter of 0.3 mm and sintered to connect to the ground conductor. Figure 10c shows a photograph of the prototype circuit. The frequency characteristics of this circuit were measured using a vector network analyzer. The results are shown in Figure 10d. Good characteristics are almost identical to the analysis results, and the absolute bandwidth of 5.6%/4.8% can be confirmed in both operating bands.
Experiment of LC-ladder divider with constant absolute bandwidth. (a) Simulation pattern, (b) its analysis results, (c) photograph of fabricated divider, and (d) experimental results.
As mentioned above, the usefulness of the circuit that can be designed by arbitrarily determining the three matching frequencies using the LC-ladder type configuration was examined. It was analytically and experimentally shown that a dual-band power divider with an absolute constant bandwidth in the UHF/SHF (sub6) band can be realized by closing the two matching frequencies to each other on the low-frequency side. The design method in this study is considered to be very useful in the situation where the use of the SHF band becomes more active due to social factors such as the spread of 5G. In the future, we plan to conduct an experimental study on the design of power dividers in the higher frequency range, such as the X-Band.
By increasing the number of stages of the LC-ladder circuit, the operating band can be expanded, corresponding to the number of stages. In this section, the number of stages of the LC-ladder circuit on the input side is set to 8, and the ultra-wideband (relative bandwidth 100% over), an equal power division circuit with characteristics, will be described.
As a design method that uses lumped elements and realizes wideband characteristics while avoiding an increase in circuit size, there is a method that uses an LC-ladder impedance transformer. Here, we show the design method of the multiband LC-ladder divider proposed by Okada et al. and focus on the viewpoint of wideband and multiband. Figure 11a shows a multiband power divider consisting of multiple LC-ladder circuits and an RL series circuit on the output side. The figure shows an
(a) Schematic of N-section LC-ladder divider and (b) its equivalent circuit with onefold symmetry.
Frequency characteristics of scattering parameters for N-section LC-ladder dividers: (a) four-section, (b) six-section, and (c) eight-section LC-ladder dividers.
Figure 13 is a photograph of the prototype circuit of the circuit shown in Figure 12 and the measurement result of its
Photographs of fabricated circuits and their measurement results for N-section LC-ladder dividers: (a) four-section, (b) six-section, and (c) eight-section LC-ladder dividers.
As mentioned above, it has been shown that the operating band of the power divider is expanded by increasing the number of stages of the LC-ladder circuit. Setting eight stages, an ultra-wideband circuit with a relative bandwidth exceeding 100% becomes possible. The effectiveness was also shown experimentally in a prototype experiment in the VHF band. With a wideband characteristic of over 100%, it is available for public radio in Japan.
By using a multistage impedance transformer and an L-type matching circuit design method to downsize the microwave power divider, the characteristics are equal to or higher than those of the conventional Wilkinson power divider designed based on the distributed circuit theory. First, it was shown that in a circuit capable of dual-band operation, a wideband circuit or two-frequency operation is possible by moving the operating two frequencies closer to or further away from each other. Next, a circuit configuration that enables three-frequency matching is shown, and by utilizing the feature that the frequency at the center of the three matching frequencies can be arbitrarily selected, a divider having an absolute constant bandwidth in the UHF/SHF band was made possible. Finally, it was shown that the operating band can be expanded by increasing the number of stages of the LC-ladder circuit and that an ultra-wideband circuit exceeding 100% can be realized if the number of stages is 8. These results have been clarified analytically and experimentally.
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VR provides a 3D and dynamic view of structures and the ability of the user to interact with them. The recent technological advances in haptics, display systems, and motion detection allow the user to have a realistic and interactive experience, enabling VR to be ideal for training in hands-on procedures. Consequently, surgical and other interventional procedures are the main fields of application of VR. AR provides the ability of projecting virtual information and structures over physical objects, thus enhancing or altering the real environment. The integration of AR applications in the understanding of anatomical structures and physiological mechanisms seems to be beneficial. Studies have tried to demonstrate the validity and educational effect of many VR and AR applications, in many different areas, employed via various hardware platforms. Some of them even propose a curriculum that integrates these methods. This chapter provides a brief history of VR and AR in medicine, as well as the principles and standards of their function. Finally, the studies that show the effect of the implementation of these methods in different fields of medical training are summarized and presented.",book:{id:"6211",slug:"medical-and-surgical-education-past-present-and-future",title:"Medical and Surgical Education",fullTitle:"Medical and Surgical Education - Past, Present and Future"},signatures:"Panteleimon Pantelidis, Angeliki Chorti, Ioanna Papagiouvanni,\nGeorgios Paparoidamis, Christos Drosos, Thrasyvoulos\nPanagiotakopoulos, Georgios Lales and Michail Sideris",authors:[{id:"211650",title:"M.D.",name:"Panteleimon",middleName:null,surname:"Pantelidis",slug:"panteleimon-pantelidis",fullName:"Panteleimon Pantelidis"},{id:"211654",title:"Ms.",name:"Angeliki",middleName:null,surname:"Chorti",slug:"angeliki-chorti",fullName:"Angeliki Chorti"},{id:"220557",title:"Ms.",name:"Ioanna",middleName:null,surname:"Papagiouvanni",slug:"ioanna-papagiouvanni",fullName:"Ioanna Papagiouvanni"},{id:"220558",title:"Mr.",name:"Georgios",middleName:null,surname:"Paparoidamis",slug:"georgios-paparoidamis",fullName:"Georgios Paparoidamis"},{id:"220559",title:"Mr.",name:"Georgios",middleName:null,surname:"Lales",slug:"georgios-lales",fullName:"Georgios Lales"},{id:"220560",title:"Mr.",name:"Thrasyvoulos",middleName:null,surname:"Panagiotakopoulos",slug:"thrasyvoulos-panagiotakopoulos",fullName:"Thrasyvoulos Panagiotakopoulos"},{id:"220561",title:"Mr.",name:"Christos",middleName:null,surname:"Drosos",slug:"christos-drosos",fullName:"Christos Drosos"},{id:"220562",title:"Dr.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Sideris",slug:"michail-sideris",fullName:"Michail Sideris"}]},{id:"50915",doi:"10.5772/63266",title:"Doped Bioactive Glass Materials in Bone Regeneration",slug:"doped-bioactive-glass-materials-in-bone-regeneration",totalDownloads:3480,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"In the arena of orthopaedic surgery, autograft is considered to be the gold standard for correction of fracture repair or other bone pathologies. But, it has some limitations such as donor site morbidity and shortage of supply, which evolved the use of allograft that also has some disadvantages such as immunogenic response to the host, low osteogenicity as well as possibilities of disease transmission. Despite the benefits of autografts and allografts, the limitations of each have necessitated the pursuit of alternatives biomaterials that has the ability to initiate osteogenesis, and the graft should closely mimic the natural bone along with regeneration of fibroblasts. A variety of artificial materials such as demineralised bone matrix, coralline hydroxyapatite and calcium phosphate-based ceramics such as hydroxyapatite (HA), β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) and bioactive glass have been used over the decades to fill bone defects almost without associated soft tissue development. Most of them were having only the properties of osteointegration and osteoconduction. Only bioactive glass possesses osteogenic property that stimulates proliferation and differentiation of osteoprogenitor cells and in some cases influencing the fibroblastic properties. But, this material has also some disadvantages such as short-term and low mechanical strength along with decreased fracture resistance; but, this was further minimised by ion doping that positively enhanced new bone formation. There are many metal ions such as magnesium (Mg), strontium (Sr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), silver (Ag) and some rare earths that have been doped successfully into bioactive glass to enhance their mechanical and biological properties. In some of the cases, mesoporous bioactive glass materials with or without such doping have also been employed (with homogeneous distribution of pores in the size ranging between 2 and 50 nm). These biomaterials can be served as scaffold for bone regeneration with adequate mechanical properties to restore bone defects and facilitate healing process by regeneration of soft tissues as well. This chapter encompasses the use of bioactive glass in bulk and mesoporous form with doped therapeutic ions, their role in bone tissue regeneration, use as delivery of growth factors as well as coating material for orthopaedic implants.",book:{id:"5164",slug:"advanced-techniques-in-bone-regeneration",title:"Advanced Techniques in Bone Regeneration",fullTitle:"Advanced Techniques in Bone Regeneration"},signatures:"Samit Kumar Nandi, Arnab Mahato, Biswanath Kundu and Prasenjit\nMukherjee",authors:[{id:"60514",title:"Dr.",name:"Samit",middleName:null,surname:"Nandi",slug:"samit-nandi",fullName:"Samit Nandi"}]},{id:"37120",doi:"10.5772/29607",title:"Trigeminocardiac Reflex in Neurosurgery - Current Knowledge and Prospects",slug:"the-trigeminocardiac-reflex-in-neurosurgery-current-knowledge-and-prospects",totalDownloads:3423,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:null,book:{id:"749",slug:"explicative-cases-of-controversial-issues-in-neurosurgery",title:"Explicative Cases of Controversial Issues in Neurosurgery",fullTitle:"Explicative Cases of Controversial Issues in Neurosurgery"},signatures:"Amr Abdulazim, Martin N. 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Liposuction is a procedure to improve the body contour and not a surgery to reduce weight, although recently people who have failed in their plans to lose weight look at liposuction as a means to contour their body figure. Tumescent liposuction of large volumes requires a meticulous selection of each patient; their preoperative evaluation and perioperative management are essential to obtain the expected results. The various techniques of general anesthesia are the most recommended and should be monitored in the usual way, as well as monitoring the total doses of infiltrated local anesthetics to avoid systemic toxicity. The management of intravenous fluids is controversial, but the current trend is the restricted use of hydrosaline solutions. The most feared complications are deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary thromboembolism, fat embolism, lung edema, hypothermia, infections and even death. The adherence to the management guidelines and prophylaxis of venous thrombosis/thromboembolism is mandatory.",book:{id:"6221",slug:"anesthesia-topics-for-plastic-and-reconstructive-surgery",title:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery",fullTitle:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery"},signatures:"Sergio Granados-Tinajero, Carlos Buenrostro-Vásquez, Cecilia\nCárdenas-Maytorena and Marcela Contreras-López",authors:[{id:"273532",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio Octavio",middleName:null,surname:"Granados Tinajero",slug:"sergio-octavio-granados-tinajero",fullName:"Sergio Octavio Granados Tinajero"}]},{id:"42855",title:"Critical Care Issues After Major Hepatic Surgery",slug:"critical-care-issues-after-major-hepatic-surgery",totalDownloads:8909,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"3164",slug:"hepatic-surgery",title:"Hepatic Surgery",fullTitle:"Hepatic Surgery"},signatures:"Ashok Thorat and Wei-Chen Lee",authors:[{id:"52360",title:"Prof.",name:"Wei-Chen",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"wei-chen-lee",fullName:"Wei-Chen Lee"},{id:"157213",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashok",middleName:null,surname:"Thorat",slug:"ashok-thorat",fullName:"Ashok Thorat"}]},{id:"72175",title:"Fontan Operation: A Comprehensive Review",slug:"fontan-operation-a-comprehensive-review",totalDownloads:1252,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Since the first description of the Fontan operation in the early 1970s, a number of modifications have been introduced and currently staged, total cavopulmonary connection with fenestration has become the most commonly used multistage surgery in diverting the vena caval blood flow into the lungs. The existing ventricle, whether it is left or right, is utilized to supply systemic circuit. During Stage I, palliative surgery is performed, usually at presentation in the neonatal period/early infancy, on the basis of pathophysiology of the cardiac defect. During Stage II, a bidirectional Glenn procedure is undertaken in which the superior vena caval flow is diverted into the lungs at an approximate age of 6 months. During Stage IIIA, the blood flow from the inferior vena cava (IVC) is rerouted into the pulmonary arteries, typically by an extra-cardiac conduit along with a fenestration, generally around 2 years of age. During Stage IIIB, the fenestration is closed by transcatheter methodology 6–12 months after Stage IIIA. The evolution of Fontan concepts, the indications for Fontan surgery, and the results of old and current types of Fontan operation form the focus of this review.",book:{id:"9585",slug:"advances-in-complex-valvular-disease",title:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease",fullTitle:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease"},signatures:"P. Syamasundar Rao",authors:[{id:"68531",title:"Dr.",name:"P. Syamasundar",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"p.-syamasundar-rao",fullName:"P. 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Interventions meant to correct these conditions are commonly based on symmetrical models of appearance and do not take into account asymmetric organ weight distribution, asymmetries of respiratory mechanics, and dominant movement patterns that are reinforced in daily functional activities. A model of innate, human asymmetry derived from the theoretical framework of the Postural Restoration Institute® (PRI) explicitly describes the physiological, biomechanical, and respiratory components of human asymmetry. This model is important because it gives an accurate baseline for understanding predisposing factors for the development of postural disorders, which, without intervention, will likely progress to structural dysfunction. Clinical tests to evaluate tri-planar musculoskeletal relationships and function, developed by PRI, are based on this asymmetric model. These tests are valuable for assessing patient’s status in the context of human asymmetry and in guiding appropriate exercise prescription and progression. Balancing musculoskeletal asymmetry is the aim of PRI treatment. Restoration of relative balance decreases pain, restores improved alignment, and strengthens appropriate muscle function. It can also halt the progression of dysfunction and improve respiration, quality of life, and appearance. PRI’s extensive body of targeted exercise progressions are highly effective due to their basis in the tri-planar asymmetric human model.",book:{id:"5816",slug:"innovations-in-spinal-deformities-and-postural-disorders",title:"Innovations in Spinal Deformities and Postural Disorders",fullTitle:"Innovations in Spinal Deformities and Postural Disorders"},signatures:"Susan Henning, Lisa C. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"94",type:"subseries",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",keywords:"Environmental protection, Socio-economic development, Resource exploitation, Environmental degradation, Climate change, Degraded ecosystems, Biodiversity loss",scope:"
\r\n\tSustainable development focuses on linking economic development with environmental protection and social development to ensure future prosperity for people and the planet. To tackle global challenges of development and environment, the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals. SDGs emphasize that environmental sustainability should be strongly linked to socio-economic development, which should be decoupled from escalating resource use and environmental degradation for the purpose of reducing environmental stress, enhancing human welfare, and improving regional equity. Moreover, sustainable development seeks a balance between human development and decrease in ecological/environmental marginal benefits. Under the increasing stress of climate change, many environmental problems have emerged causing severe impacts at both global and local scales, driving ecosystem service reduction and biodiversity loss. Humanity’s relationship with resource exploitation and environment protection is a major global concern, as new threats to human and environmental security emerge in the Anthropocene. Currently, the world is facing significant challenges in environmental sustainability to protect global environments and to restore degraded ecosystems, while maintaining human development with regional equality. Thus, environmental sustainability with healthy natural ecosystems is critical to maintaining human prosperity in our warming planet.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11978,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. Current research interests include trophic flows across ecosystems; watershed impacts of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning; ecological civilization and water resource management; urban ecology and urban/rural sustainable development.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Soochow University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null},editorialBoard:null},onlineFirstChapters:{},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition",subtitle:"Production, Health and Environment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",slug:"animal-feed-science-and-nutrition-production-health-and-environment",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Amlan Kumar Patra",hash:"79944fc8fbbaa329aed6fde388154832",volumeInSeries:10,fullTitle:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition - Production, Health and Environment",editors:[{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10496",title:"Advanced Studies in the 21st Century Animal Nutrition",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10496.jpg",slug:"advanced-studies-in-the-21st-century-animal-nutrition",publishedDate:"December 8th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"László Babinszky, Juliana Oliveira and Edson Mauro Santos",hash:"8ffe43a82ac48b309abc3632bbf3efd0",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Advanced Studies in the 21st Century Animal Nutrition",editors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}},{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],subseriesList:[],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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