Characteristics of World Health Organization Priority List viruses.
\r\n\tThis book will intend to look at different migrant patterns, voluntary and involuntary migration, over the last three centuries. What influenced people to leave their home countries, family, and friends and settle somewhere else? The book may include histories of the 19th century, consider tragedies and movements activated by political events in the 20th century, and/or look at recent events of the 21st century. Push and pull factors are important points. While most of us may be influenced in a negative way by the current happenings in Eastern Europe, the Russian invasion and resulting tragedies also demonstrate some very positive human traits – the preparedness of Ukraine’s surrounding countries to help those in need and to provide a safe place for the present.
\r\n\tWhether one looks at voluntary or involuntary migration into any country, after a period of adjustment, migrants do play a positive role. The research found that migrants contribute to the economy (food, shelter, employment, tax) and enrich a country’s cultural norms. Prerequisites for successful settlements are that the host society adopts a tolerant approach and that the migrants recognize the law and the language of the host country. Nothing is ever easy or without controversy, but I am a migrant (German Australian), and life in Australia has been relatively harmonious. Issues that could be considered in the book are multicultural societies (do monocultural societies still exist?) and theories of acculturation versus integration (settlement processes).
\r\n\tTwo further issues are very important in relation to human migration. There is climate change, global warming, and the environment, which clearly affect people’s movement. Small island populations are very concerned about rising sea levels. 2021 has also seen floods costing human lives: Turkey (August 2021), Brazil (December 2021), Chile (January 2021), and South India (November 2021), to name but a few. In Australia (March 2022), farms and whole townships in New South Wales and Queensland have been flooded for the second time in five years, and plans to resettle these towns are considered. Official and social media provide ample coverage of the events, which leads me to the next issue. There is today’s very important role of the media, of the official and social media. We are constantly bombarded with images of human war tragedies and flood victims. People in industrialized, western countries must be the best-informed populace. How far do the images and up-to-date TV news influence us, make us change our behavior, and perhaps even consider us more generous than we have been?
\r\n\tClimate change and the media are relatively new to the human migration debate, but both issues play important parts, and some interesting discussions are appreciated.
\r\n\t
The World Health Organization (WHO) compiles, each year, a list of priority diseases. As stated in the associated WHO web page [1], the list is intended to encourage “research and development in emergency contexts.” In other words, recognizing that the number of pathogens is very large, the WHO attempts through the Priority List to focus research attention on those diseases posing the greatest risk to public health. In addition, the Priority List serves to promote the development of infection prevention and control (IPAC) “countermeasures” for diseases where such countermeasures are limited or non-existent [1].
In this chapter, we thought it would be of interest to examine the 2021 WHO Priority List (Box 1) to see where the public health community stands with respect to IPAC countermeasures for the listed viruses (see section below). The approach that we have taken involved searching the literature for articles pertaining to virucidal efficacies for microbicides evaluated specifically against the listed viruses. In some cases literature for a specific listed virus was not able to be identified, but literature on listed viruses of the same family were available. The mechanisms of action of microbicides for viruses should apply similarly to different members of a given virus family, although intrafamily exceptions do exist [2, 3].
WHO priority disease list.
The WHO priority diseases [1] are updated periodically in “a list of disease and pathogens [that is] prioritized for R&D in public health emergency contexts.” This tool specifies “which diseases pose the greatest public health risk due to their epidemic potential and/or whether there is no or insufficient countermeasures.”
At present, the priority diseases are:
COVID-19 [SARS-CoV-2, including its variants]
Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever
Ebola virus disease and Marburg virus disease
Lassa fever
Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)
Nipah and henipaviral diseases
Rift Valley fever
Zika
“Disease X”*
*Disease X represents the knowledge that a serious international epidemic could be caused by a pathogen currently unknown to cause human disease [1].
It should be noted, as a starting point, that even in the absence of empirical data supporting the virucidal efficacy of microbicides for a given emerging or re-emerging virus or mutational variant of a known virus such as emerging variants of SARS-CoV-2, disinfection options still are available for IPAC. For instance, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) has invoked an Emerging Viral Pathogen Guidance for Antimicrobial Pesticides [4, 5] specifically to deal with just such a possibility. As stated in the associated U.S. EPA web page, the guidance provides a “process that can be used to identify effective disinfectant products for use against emerging viral pathogens and to permit registrants to make limited claims of their product’s efficacy against such pathogens.” The actual guidance (Guidance to Registrants: Process for Making Claims against Emerging Viral Pathogens not on EPA-registered Disinfectant Labels) [5] outlines “a voluntary two stage process, involving product label amendments and modified terms of registration and applies only to emerging viruses” [4].
The underlying principle driving the U.S. EPA Guidance for Antimicrobial Pesticides is that of the hierarchy of susceptibility of pathogens to microbicides (the so-called Spaulding Classification [6]). In the U.S. EPA guidance [5], viruses are classified into three categories, ranked from lesser to greater susceptibility to microbicides: small, non-enveloped viruses; large, non-enveloped viruses; and enveloped viruses. A revised hierarchy of susceptibility of pathogens to microbicides [7, 8, 9, 10] spans the range of susceptibilities from most susceptible (enveloped viruses) to least susceptible (prions). This known hierarchy of susceptibility of pathogens to microbicides gives the public health community a starting point for IPAC countermeasures to be used for emerging pathogens, per the U.S. EPA [4].
The current WHO Priority disease list (Box 1) consists of viral diseases and Disease X, the latter being a placeholder that is always included in these lists. Disease X is used for the next unknown pathogen with the potential to cause a serious international epidemic. The viral families represented include
Some of the characteristics of these viruses and their differences and commonalities are displayed in Table 1. Interestingly, these are each relatively large, lipid-enveloped viruses having single-stranded RNA genomes. Primary host infection of hemorrhagic viruses can be through insect vectors (arboviruses and flaviviruses), eating contaminated meat (filoviruses), consuming products in contact with bodily fluids of bats or pigs, such as blood, urine, nasal, respiratory droplets, and saliva (Nipah or henipaviruses), or exposure to contaminated rodent urine (Lassa virus). Once a human host is infected, the virus may be transmitted through contaminated bodily fluids and/or respiratory droplets. Non-hemorrhagic viruses such as SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, and MERS-CoV are believed to be spread primarily by respiratory aerosols/droplets, although fomite transmission is also believed to play a role [10]. Case mortality rates vary, with SARS-CoV-2 having perhaps the lowest (2.1%), and Ebola Zaire virus among the highest (∼90%). These viruses retain infectivity for hours to days after being deposited experimentally on non-porous surfaces [10].
Virus | Family | Particle size | Lipid envelope | Genomea (segments) | Reservoir species | Reference(s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lassa virus | 50–300 nm | Yes | ±ssRNA(2) | Rodent | [11] | |
RVFV | 90–100 nm | Yes | −ssRNA(3) | Mosquito | [11] | |
CCHFV | 90–100 nm | Yes | −ssRNA(3) | Tick | [11] | |
MERS-CoV | 90–130 nm | Yes | +ssRNA(1) | Bat | [12] | |
SARS-CoV | 90–130 nm | Yes | +ssRNA(1) | Bat | [12] | |
SARS-CoV-2 | 90–130 nm | Yes | +ssRNA(1) | Batb | [12] | |
Ebola virus | 80 × 14,000 nm | Yes | −ssRNA(1) | Bat | [11] | |
Marburg virus | 80 × 14,000 nm | Yes | −ssRNA(1) | Bat | [11] | |
Zika virus | 50 nm | Yes | +ssRNA | Mosquito | [11] | |
Nipah virus | 40–1900 nm | Yes | −ssRNA(1) | Bat | [13] |
Characteristics of World Health Organization Priority List viruses.
CCHFV, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus; MERS-CoV, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus; RVFV, Rift Valley fever virus; SARS-CoV, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus; SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2; ±, ambisense; −, negative sense; +, positive sense; ss, single-stranded; segments (1) equates to a non-segmented genome.
Suspected primary host [14].
The relatively high lethality of these viral diseases and the ability of the viruses to survive on surfaces [10] inform the need for effective hygiene interventions for interrupting the cycle of infection. Since these viruses have been placed on the WHO Priority List, one might assume that not much is known about virucidal efficacy of microbicides intended for surface hygiene, hand hygiene, and for rendering contaminated test samples safe for use in diagnostic testing for these viruses. In the remainder of this chapter, we review the information that is available on this topic, in order to address this assumption for the reader. The literature on SARS-CoV-2 virucidal efficacy is being updated continually, so the information presented in this chapter on SARS-CoV-2, specifically, should be considered a snapshot taken at the present point in time (i.e., September 2021).
The hierarchy of pathogen susceptibility to microbicides [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10] (Figure 1) suggests that certain classes of microbicidal agents should display virucidal efficacy against lipid-enveloped viruses in general. For example, lipid-disrupting agents, such as alcohols, quaternary ammonium compounds (e.g., benzalkonium chloride), phenolics (e.g., para-chloro-meta-xylenol or PCMX), detergents (e.g., soap and Triton X-100), and organic acids (e.g., citric, lactic, and salicylic acids) would be expected to display similar virucidal efficacy for the WHO Priority List viruses, which are exclusively lipid-enveloped viruses. The same is true for protein-denaturing agents (alcohols, phenolics, oxidizers, and organic acids), and genome-degrading agents, such as alcohols and oxidizing agents. Of course, microbicides with virucidal efficacy against less susceptible pathogens, including mycobacteria, large and small non-enveloped viruses, and bacterial spores/protozoan oocysts, and prions, would certainly be expected to display virucidal efficacy against each of these WHO Priority List viruses. Having made these predictions, what do the empirical testing data tell us?
Hierarchy of susceptibility of pathogens to microbicidal active ingredients. Certain formulated microbicides may include combinations of active ingredients, resulting in synergistic virucidal efficacy greater than that displayed by the individual active ingredients ([
In this section, we review the literature with regard to inactivation of WHO Priority List viruses by microbicides intended for decontamination of surfaces, for hand hygiene, for decontamination of liquids, and for test sample disinfection. Our discussion is limited to chemical microbicides, and specifically to the efficacy of these microbicides against the viruses mentioned in the WHO Priority List. The stated purpose of this review was to identify knowledge gaps for virucidal efficacy against the WHO Priority List viruses. As such, information pertaining to surrogate viruses from other families, or even unlisted viruses from the same families, is considered out of scope for this chapter. In addition, physical inactivation approaches (e.g., heating, ultraviolet radiation, and gamma irradiation), are not in scope for this chapter. A review of physical inactivation approaches for SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses can be found in this book [16].
Inactivation studies evaluate pathogens dried onto a surface or within a suspension, but also may investigate efficacy for inactivating pathogens suspended in the air. Studies evaluating decontamination of surfaces involve the application of viruses, in the absence or presence of a soil load, onto carriers representing different prototypic environmental surfaces of interest (e.g., glass, stainless steel, plastic, etc.). Following drying of the applied virus onto the carrier for a set time period, a small quantity of the microbicide is added and left on for the specified contact (dwell) time. Residual virus is collected using an appropriate medium, and the titer post-treatment is compared to the initial untreated virus titer, with log10 reduction results accounting for any cytotoxicity of the test microbicide or neutralizing reagents used on the host cells used in the respective viral assays.
For suspension inactivation studies, depending on the test methodology chosen, virus is added to a liquid matrix, again in the absence or presence of a soil load. The microbicide is added at the evaluated test concentration and the solution is incubated at the appropriate temperature for the planned contact times. Again, the virus titers post-treatment are compared to the titer applied, with log10 reduction results accounting for any cytotoxicity of the test microbicide or neutralizing reagents used on the host cells used in the respective viral assays. Hand hygiene agents may be tested using suspension methodologies, or using specialized methods designed to recover virus directly from the skin. The hand hygiene agents are tested
Because of the differences in testing methodologies used for evaluation of surface disinfection vs. decontamination of liquids or test samples, extrapolations of efficacy from one application to another should be made with caution. Differences in virucidal efficacy testing of microbicides (hand and surface hygiene agents) in liquid vs. on surfaces (inanimate or animate) have been identified, but these differences are typically relative, and may depend on the challenge virus and the microbicide being tested [17].
The virucidal efficacy literature for microbicides against Lassa virus is summarized in Table 2, and that for the bunyaviruses (Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus and Rift Valley fever virus) is summarized in Table 3. Information on virucidal efficacy for the coronaviruses (SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV) is presented in Table 4, and virucidal efficacy for filoviruses (Ebola virus and Marburg virus) is shown in Table 5. Table 6 presents virucidal efficacy data for the flavivirus (Zika virus), and the limited information on virucidal efficacy of microbicides against paramyxoviruses (Nipah virus and other henipaviruses) is summarized in Table 7.
Virus/strain | Active ingredient | Product type | Contact time (min)a | Concentration in test | Efficacy (log10)b | Reference(s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Surface hygiene | ||||||
No literature found | ||||||
Hand hygiene | ||||||
No literature found | ||||||
Suspension inactivation | ||||||
No literature found | ||||||
Sample disinfection procedures | ||||||
Lassa Josiah | Acetic acid | Sample inactivant | 15 | 3% (pH 2.5) | ≥3 | [18] |
Lassa | Phenol/guanidine thiocyanate | Nucleic acid extractant | 10 | 80% of neat | ≥4.8 | [19] |
Lassa | β-Propiolactone | Sample inactivant | 30 @ 37°C | 0.2% | ≥7 | [20] |
Lassa Josiah | Formalin | Cell fixative | 20 days | Neat | Complete (cells) | [21] |
Efficacy of microbicides for inactivating the arenavirus Lassa virus.
Contact times at room temperature unless otherwise indicated.
Inactivation matrix was virus stock (virus in culture medium), unless otherwise indicated.
Virus/straina | Active ingredient | Product type | Contact time (min) | Concentration in test | Efficacy (log10)b | Reference(s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Surface hygiene | ||||||
No literature found | ||||||
Hand hygiene | ||||||
No literature found | ||||||
Suspension inactivation | ||||||
RVFV Menya/Sheep/258 | β-Propiolactone | Vaccine inactivant | 240 | 3.5 mM | ≥7 | [22] |
Formalin | Vaccine inactivant | 360 | 0.2% | >6 | [22] | |
Formalin | Vaccine inactivant | [23] | ||||
Binary ethyleneamine | Vaccine inactivant | [23] | ||||
Sample disinfection procedures | ||||||
RVFV | Phenol/guanidine thiocyanate | Nucleic acid extractant | 10 | 80% of neat | ≥6.8 | [19] |
RVFV | Formaldehyde | Cell fixative | 1080 | 0.4% | ≥7.0 (cells) | [24] |
RVFV MP12 | Formalin | Cell fixative | 210 @ 4°C | Neat | Complete (cells) | [21] |
CCHFV | FA Lysis Buffer | Sample inactivant | 4 | Undiluted | >4 | [25] |
Efficacy of microbicides for inactivating the bunyaviruses Rift Valley fever virus and Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus.
CCHFV, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus; RVFV, Rift Valley fever virus.
Inactivation matrix was virus stock (virus in culture medium), unless otherwise indicated.
Virusa | Active ingredient | Product type | Contact time (min) | Concentration in test | Efficacy (log10) | Reference(s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Surface hygiene (glass or steel carriers) | ||||||
SARS-CoV-2 | ||||||
Ethanol | Alcohol | 1 | 70% | ≥4.7 | [26] | |
Ethanol | Alcohol | 1 | 70% | ∼5 | [27] | |
2-Propanol | Alcohol | 1 | 70% | ≥4.7 | [26] | |
2-Propanol | Alcohol | 1 | 70% | ∼5 | [27] | |
Ethanol, 2-propanol | Alcohol | 1 | 35%, 35% | ∼6 | [27] | |
Sodium lauryl sulfate | Detergent | 1 | 0.1% | ≥4.6 | [26] | |
SARS-CoV | ||||||
MERS-CoV | ||||||
Suspension inactivation | ||||||
SARS-CoV-2 | ||||||
Ethanol | Alcohol | 5 | 63% | ≥4.8 | [28] | |
Ethanol | Alcohol | 0.5 | 30% | ≥5.9 | [31] | |
Ethanol | Alcohol | 0.5 | 40% | ≥4.8 | [29] | |
Ethanol | Alcohol | 5 | 68% | ≥2.00 | [30] | |
2-Propanol | Alcohol | 0.5 | 30% | ≥5.9 | [31] | |
Formaldehyde | Microbicide | 1 | 10% | ≥1.3 | [30] | |
Formaldehyde | Microbicide | 15 | 2% | ≥4.8 | [34] | |
SARS-CoV | 2-Propanol | Alcohol | 0.5 | 80% | ≥3.3 | [35] |
2-Propanol | Alcohol | 0.5 | 56% | ≥3.3 | [35] | |
Magnesium monoperphthalate | Microbicide | 30 | 0.5% | ≥4.5 | [36] | |
Povidone-iodine | Antiseptic | 1 | 1% | 4.1 | [37] | |
Hand hygiene agents | ||||||
SARS-CoV-2 | ||||||
Ethanol | Alcohol | 0.08 | 40% | ≥4.2 | [38] | |
2-Propanol | Alcohol | 0.08 | 70% | ≥4.2 | [38] | |
SARS-CoV | ||||||
MERS-CoV | ||||||
Sample disinfection procedures | ||||||
SARS-CoV-2 | Sodium dodecyl sulfate | Detergent | 30 | 0.5% | ≥4 | [42] |
Sodium dodecyl sulfate | Detergent | 30 | 10% | 5.7 | [34] | |
Triton X-100 | Detergent | 30 | 0.5% | ≥4 | [42] | |
Triton X-100 | Detergent | 30 | 10% | ≥4.9 | [34] | |
NP-40 | Detergent | 30 | 0.5% | ≥4 | [42] | |
NP-40 | Detergent | 30 | 10% | ≥6.5 | [34] | |
Methanol | Tissue fixative | 30 | 100% | ≥6.0 | [42] | |
Methanol | Cell fixative | 15 | 100% | ≥6.7 | [34] | |
p-Formaldehyde | Tissue fixative | 30 | 4% | ≥6.0 | [42] | |
Formaldehyde | Cell fixative | 60 | 10% | 6 | [43] | |
Formaldehyde | Cell fixative | 60 | 4% | ≥7.5 | [33] | |
Phenol/guanidine thiocyanate | Nucleic acid extractant | 5 | 80% | ≥4 | [42] | |
Phenol/guanidine thiocyanate | Nucleic acid extractant | 5 | 80% | ≥4 | [42] | |
Phenol/guanidine thiocyanate | Nucleic acid extractant | 10 | 0.5% | 6 | [43] | |
Beta-propiolactone | Inactivant for vaccines | 960 | 0.05% | 6 | [43] | |
Polyhexamethylene biguanide | Cell lysis buffer | 30 | 2% | 1.6 | [34] | |
SARS-CoV | Methanol | Tissue fixative | 30 | 100% | ≥6.0 | [37] |
Methanol | Cell fixative | 30 | 100% | ≥6.0 | [37] | |
Acetone | Cell fixative | 30 | 100% | ≥6.0 | [37] | |
p-Formaldehyde | Tissue fixative | 5 | 3.5% | ≥3.7 | [37] | |
Formaldehyde | Tissue fixative | 2 | 0.7% | ≥3.0 | [35] | |
Glutaraldehyde | Tissue fixative | 15 | 2.5% | ≥4.4 | [37] | |
MERS-CoV | Phenol/guanidine thiocyanate | Nucleic acid extractant | 10 | 80% | ≥6.1 | [18] |
Efficacy of microbicides for inactivating the coronaviruses SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV.
BKC, benzalkonium chloride; DBAC, dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride; DBAS, dimethyl benzyl ammonium saccharinate; DNB, di-N-decyl dimethyl ammonium bromide; DNC, di-N-decyl dimethyl ammonium chloride; H2O2, hydrogen peroxide; MERS-CoV, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus; ND, not determined; PBS, phosphate buffered saline; SARS-CoV, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus; SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2; WHO, World Health Organization. Entries in blue font indicate formulations with microbicidal active ingredients.
Virus/varianta | Active ingredients | Product type | Contact time (min) | Concentration in test | Efficacy (log10)b | Reference(s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Surface hygiene (steel or aluminum carriers) | ||||||
Ebola Makona | Sodium hypochlorite | Microbicide | 5 | 0.5% | ≥6.6 | [44] |
Sodium hypochlorite | Microbicide | 5 | 0.5% | ≥6.8 | [45] | |
Sodium hypochlorite | Microbicide | 15 | 0.5% | ≥2.0 | [46] | |
Sodium hypochlorite | Microbicide | 15 | 0.5% | <1 (blood) | [46] | |
Sodium hypochlorite | Microbicide | 5 | 0.5% | ≥5.1 | [47] | |
Ethanol | Alcohol | 5 | 67% | ≥7.3 | [44] | |
Ethanol | Alcohol | 2.5 | 70% | ≥6.8 | [45] | |
Ethanol | Alcohol | 5 | 70% | ≥6.9 | [47] | |
Ethanol | Alcohol | 2 | 70% | 1.7 | [46] | |
Ethanol | Alcohol | 2 | 70% | <1 (blood) | [46] | |
Peracetic acid | Microbicide | 5 | 5% | ≥1.0 | [46] | |
Peracetic acid | Microbicide | 5 | 5% | ≥2.0 (blood) | [46] | |
Ebola Mayinga | Sodium hypochlorite | Microbicide | 5 | 0.5% | ≥6.6 | [45] |
Ethanol | Alcohol | 1 | 70% | ≥6.6 | [45] | |
Ebola Kikwit | Sodium hypochlorite | Microbicide | 5 | 0.5% | ≥6.5 | [45] |
Ethanol | Alcohol | 1 | 70% | ≥6.5 | [45] | |
Ebola Yambuku-Ecran | Sodium hypochlorite | Microbicide | 10 | 0.75% | ≥6.5 | [49] |
Suspension inactivation | ||||||
Ebola Makona | ||||||
Ebola Zaire | Povidone-iodine | Microbicide | 0.25 | 1:10+ | ≥5.5 | [51] |
Hand hygiene agents | ||||||
Ebola Makona | ||||||
Ebola Zaire | ||||||
Ebola Mayinga | ||||||
Sample disinfection procedures | ||||||
Ebola | Triton X-100 | Detergent | 60 | 0.1% | 4 | [53] |
Ebola Makona | Triton X-100 | Detergent | 60 | 0.1% | ≥3 (FBS) | [54] |
Phenol/guanidine thiocyanate | Nucleic acid extractant | 10 | 80% of neat | ≥5.5 | [19] | |
Sodium dodecyl sulfate | Detergent | 60 | 0.1% | ≥3 (FBS) | [54] | |
Sodium dodecyl sulfate | Detergent | 60 | 0.1% | ∼1 (blood) | [54] | |
Ebola Sudan | Phenol/guanidine thiocyanate | Nucleic acid extractant | 10 | 80% of neat | ≥4.5 | [19] |
Ebola Mayinga | Acetic acid | Sample inactivant | 15 | 3% (pH 2.5) | ≥3 (blood) | [18] |
Marburg Ci67 | Phenol/guanidine thiocyanate | Nucleic acid extractant | 10 | 80% of neat | ≥6.1 | [19] |
Marburg Musokee | Acetic acid | Sample inactivant | 15 | 3% (pH 2.5) | ≥3 | [18] |
Efficacy of microbicides for inactivating the filoviruses Ebola and Marburg viruses.
FBS, fetal bovine serum; H2O2, hydrogen peroxide; QAC, quaternary ammonium compound; WHO, World Health Organization. Entries in blue font indicate formulations with microbicidal active ingredients.
Inactivation matrix was virus stock (virus in culture medium), unless otherwise indicated.
Virus/strain | Active ingredient | Product type | Contact time (min) | Concentration in test | Efficacy (log10) | Reference(s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Surface hygiene (glass or plastic carriers) | ||||||
Zika virus PRVABC59 | 2-Propanol | Alcohol | 0.25 | 70% | ≥5.1 | [55] |
≥5.6 (blood) | [55] | |||||
≥3.4 (blood) | [55] | |||||
Peracetic acid | Microbicide | 5 | 1000 ppm | ≥4.9 | [55] | |
1.4 (blood) | [55] | |||||
Chlorine | Microbicide | 5 | 500 ppm | ≥4.1 | [55] | |
0.1 (blood) | [55] | |||||
Zika virus MR 766 | Sodium hypochlorite | Microbicide | 1 | 1% | >3 | [56] |
Ethanol | Commercial alcohol | 1 | 70% | >3 | [56] | |
2-Propanol | Commercial alcohol | 1 | 70% | >3 | [56] | |
Paraformaldehyde | Microbicide | 1 | 2% | >3 | [56] | |
Glutaraldehyde | Tissue fixative | 1 | 2% | >3 | [56] | |
Suspension inactivation | ||||||
Zika virus MR 766 | Sodium hypochlorite | Microbicide | 1 | 0.70% | >6 | [56] |
Ethanol | Microbicide | 1 | 49% | >6 | [56] | |
2-Propanol | Microbicide | 1 | 49% | >6 | [56] | |
Paraformaldehyde | Microbicide | 1 | 1.4% | >6 | [56] | |
Glutaraldehyde | Tissue fixative | 1 | 1.4% | >6 | [56] | |
Hand hygiene agents | ||||||
Zika virus MP 1751 | ||||||
Sample disinfection procedures | ||||||
Zika virus PRVABC59 | β-Propiolactone | Microbicide | 180 | 3% | >7 | [57] |
Ethanol | Alcohol | 5 | 35% | >7 | [57] | |
Ethanol | Alcohol | 2 | 58% | >7 | [57] | |
Efficacy of microbicides for inactivating the flavivirus Zika virus.
QAC, quaternary ammonium compound: n-alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride, n-alkyl ethyl benzyl ammonium chloride; H2O2, hydrogen peroxide; WHO, World Health Organization. Entries in blue font indicate formulations with microbicidal active ingredients.
Virus/straina | Active ingredient | Product type | Contact time (min) | Concentration in test | Efficacy (log10) | Reference(s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Surface hygiene | ||||||
No literature found | ||||||
Suspension inactivation | ||||||
No literature found | ||||||
Hand hygiene agents | ||||||
No literature found | ||||||
Sample disinfection procedures | ||||||
Nipah | Phenol/guanidine thiocyanate | Sample inactivant | 10 | 80% of neat | ≥6.0 | [19] |
Efficacy of microbicides for inactivating the paramyxoviruses Nipah virus and other henipaviruses.
Not all of the virucidal efficacy information from the reviewed articles is shown in Tables 2–7. Wherever possible, the virucidal efficacy data shown are from conditions leading to the highest log10 reduction level, or complete-inactivation of the challenge virus to the limit of detection of the infectivity assays used. No data from studies using exclusively nucleic acid assays have been included, as the nucleic acid endpoints are not useful for measuring infectious virus unless integrated cell culture-qPCR based assays [58] are used. The individual reports in papers referenced in this chapter should be consulted for complete information, including concentration/response information, time/inactivation kinetics information, and microbicidal product names (which have not been included here).
There have appeared in the literature only few reports of the empirical testing of microbicides for efficacy as virucides for the arenavirus (Lassa virus). The literature that has been identified has been summarized in Table 2. In addition, some descriptions of the utility of microbicides can be found in the secondary literature. For example [59], “LASV [Lassa virus] is susceptible to inactivation by most detergents and disinfectants. Sodium hypochlorite (0.5–1%), phenolic compounds, 3% acetic acid, lipid solvents and detergents (e.g., SDS), formaldehyde/paraformaldehyde, glutaraldehyde (2%), and beta-propiolactone disrupt virion integrity.” The source provided for these claims was another secondary source [60]. No primary literature source was provided for these claims, and it should be noted that important information such as contact times, temperatures, inactivation matrices, or methodologies was not provided in these secondary sources [59, 60].
No primary literature (peer-reviewed) for virucidal efficacy of Lassa virus by microbicides on surfaces or in suspensions, or for efficacy of hand hygiene agents was identified during this literatures search. Characterization of the efficacy of microbicides for these purposes is required to resolve this knowledge gap. The few reports found related to agents intended for rendering laboratory samples safe for use in diagnostic assays [18, 19, 20, 21].
There are few reports of the empirical testing of microbicides for efficacy as virucides for the bunyaviruses [Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) and Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV)]. The literature that has been identified has been summarized in Table 3. In addition, some descriptions of disinfectant utility can be found in the secondary literature. For example, “CCHFV can be inactivated by many disinfectants including 1% hypochlorite, 70% alcohol, hydrogen peroxide, peracetic acid, iodophors, glutaraldehyde, and formalin” [61]. No primary literature source was provided for these claims, and it should be noted that important information such as contact times, temperatures, inactivation matrices, or methodologies was not provided in this brief description [61]. Similar information is provided in the review by Bartoli et al. [62]. In that review, which has an emphasis on laboratory safety, attribution to the primary literature for CCHFV is provided for one of the eight references supporting the disinfectant efficacy section. The remaining references are either secondary literature or are related to the filovirus Ebola virus, not to CCHFV. Thus, the same disinfectant efficacy data, for which primary supporting data do not appear to be available, have appeared in numerous secondary sources and review articles on RVFV or CCHFV.
No primary reports describing efficacy of microbicides as surface or hand hygiene agents, or for inactivating these viruses in suspensions were identified during the literature search (Table 3). This represents a significant knowledge gap with respect to IPAC for these viruses. The available inactivation efficacy data relate to vaccine virus inactivation [22, 23] and sample disinfection reagents/cell fixatives [19, 21, 24, 25] for RVFV or CCHFV. The few microbicides that have been evaluated are solvents or detergents with expected efficacy for inactivating an enveloped virus, such as a bunyavirus.
In the case of SARS-CoV-2, an extensive literature for virucidal efficacy of microbicides has been developed over the past year and a half. To a lesser extent, literature for original SARS-CoV and for MERS-CoV was identified. Data on the inactivation of these beta-coronaviruses by microbicides are summarized in Table 4. The information displayed in Table 4 considers microbicides intended for disinfection of HITES [15, 26, 27], inactivation in liquid suspension [15, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37], and microbicides intended for hand hygiene [15, 27, 30, 31, 33, 35, 38, 39, 40, 41, 63] and for laboratory sample decontamination [19, 34, 35, 37, 42, 43]. Additional reports on disinfection of laboratory samples which did not report results in terms of log10 reduction in titer include the following [64, 65]. The inactivation literature for SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses has been reviewed extensively [66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75]. Readers interested in the virucidal efficacy of these microbicides for coronaviruses under different testing conditions, carrier types, contact times, temperatures, and the presence or absence of a challenge soil load are advised to examine these review papers, as well as the primary literature sources indicated in Table 4. It was not possible to display all useful information from these sources within one summary table, so Table 4 should be used as a guide for pursuing additional detail for the listed microbicides and applications.
The types of microbicides that display virucidal efficacy for SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV-2 are those expected to be lipid-disrupting agents (e.g., solvents, alcohols, detergents, phenolics, and quaternary ammonium compounds) and broad-spectrum microbicides (oxidizing agents, and organic and inorganic acids and bases). Inactivation conditions leading to complete inactivation to the limit of detection of the infectivity assays have been described in Table 4, enabling researchers and healthcare workers to implement cleaning regimens with the greatest chances of limiting onward transmission of the virus through contaminated fomites, solutions, hands, and diagnostic samples. The primary knowledge gap identified during this literature review is around the efficacy of plain soap and water inactivation of the beta-coronaviruses. This gap has been discussed previously [76].
Ebola virus and Marburg virus are members of the
Knowledge gaps for Ebola virus inactivation include evaluation of the efficacy of plain soap and water hand washing. In the case of Marburg virus, little virucidal-efficacy data of microbicides (surface and hand hygiene agents) have been generated. This knowledge gap is, therefore, relatively profound. The secondary literature [77] suggests that “Ebola viruses and Marburg viruses are both reported to be susceptible to sodium hypochlorite, glutaraldehyde, β-propiolactone, 3% acetic acid (pH 2.5), formaldehyde, and paraformaldehyde. Recommended dilutions of sodium hypochlorite may vary with the use. Calcium hypochlorite, peracetic acid, methyl alcohol, ether, sodium deoxycholate, and some other agents have also been tested against Ebola viruses, and found to be effective.” The only source provided in support of the above was Mitchell and McCormick [18]. As is apparent, much of the current knowledge in such secondary sources [77, 78] pertains to inactivating agents for rendering laboratory samples safe for use. It should be noted that for most of the listed microbicides, important information such as microbicide concentration, contact time, temperature, inactivation matrix, or study methodology was not provided in these secondary sources.
Zika virus is a member of the
Very little information on the virucidal efficacy of microbicides for Nipah virus or other henipaviruses was identified during this literature search. Claims as to utility of certain microbicides for these paramyxoviruses include the following: “Paramyxoviruses are susceptible to common soaps and disinfectants; lipid solvents (alcohol and ether) and sodium hypochlorite solutions were used effectively in outbreaks for cleaning and disinfection” [79]. This sort of information, without supporting primary literature, is only marginally useful. Important information, including microbicide concentration, contact time, matrix and methodology used to determine virucidal efficacy, are missing from this brief statement. It is clear from Table 7 that considerable knowledge gaps exist for virucidal efficacy of microbicides for these Priority List paramyxoviruses.
In the case of IPAC, it is common for microbicidal actives to be formulated into products intended for surface or hand hygiene. These products are used to interrupt the cycle of infection involving the indirect transfer of virus from contaminated fomites to the hand and then to mucous membranes of a susceptible individual. There is also the possibility of re-aerosolization of virus from a contaminated fomite [80, 81, 82, 83, 84], potentially leading to direct airborne transmission to mucous membranes of a susceptible person. As mentioned in the preceding sections, these routes of infection may be less important for those viruses that are primarily transmitted through insect vectors (e.g., Zika virus). Microbicides are typically used for all of the WHO Priority List viruses
The stated purpose of this review was to identify gaps in the current state of the science regarding the virucidal efficacy of microbicides (including surface and hand hygiene agents) for viruses causing the current WHO Priority List diseases. The viruses that cause Priority List diseases are also mentioned in lists of pathogens of concern issued by other health agencies globally. For instance, Lassa virus, Rift Valley fever virus, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, Ebola virus, and Marburg virus are also mentioned in the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) Emerging Infectious Diseases/Pathogens priority A list [85]. The NIAID list was issued in 2018 and, therefore, did not include SARS-CoV-2. SARS-CoV-2 is certainly now a priority virus for NIAID [86]. A discussion of emerging and re-emerging viruses can be found in Morens and Fauci [87]. Listed among other emerging viruses in that review are SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, Zika virus, Rift Valley fever virus; Nipah virus, Hendra virus, Ebola virus, and Marburg virus. Additional viruses not mentioned in the WHO Priority List include additional bunyaviruses, influenza virus strains, enteroviruses and poxviruses [87]. A recent review of emerging and re-emerging viral infections by Schwartz [88] also mentions, among other viruses, Lassa virus, Ebola virus, Marburg virus, Zika virus, SARS-CoV-2, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV, and Rift Valley fever virus. Knowledge gaps outlined in that review did not include gaps in information on disinfection/surface hygiene and hand hygiene. The WHO also maintains what is referred to as an “R&D Blueprint” and an “R&D Roadmap” to provide guidance on appropriate responses to Priority List disease outbreaks and to develop ways to improve global responses to future epidemics [89]. This was last updated in 2017 and, therefore, is not as current as the WHO Priority List. The R&D Blueprint also is more a description of the types of knowledge gaps for epidemic preparedness (vaccine testing, diagnostic technologies, therapeutic interventions, vector control) than a list of viruses of concern [89].
It was assumed at the time of undertaking this literature review that, by definition, information would be minimal for at least some of the Priority List viruses (Table 1), and this indeed turned out to be the case. Although it is clear that knowledge for one member of a given virus family should be informative for other members of the same virus family, the purpose of this review was to identify knowledge gaps for the specific viruses of concern, not to review inactivation information for surrogate viruses from the same or other viruses from the families (Table 1). Such an exercise, while of value for IPAC of these specific viruses, was considered to be well beyond the scope of this chapter. Readers interested in identifying microbicides with efficacy for inactivating any of the Priority List viruses are encouraged to review the literature cited in this chapter, to consider the predictions of virucidal efficacy discussed in Section 3 of this chapter, and to search and review the literature for inactivation of other members of the virus family of interest.
It can be safely said that, following these steps, one may arrive at a list of microbicides and conditions (temperature, microbicide concentration, contact time, testing matrix, etc.) that should adequately inactivate each of the Priority List viruses. As an example, there are extremely limited data for the paramyxoviruses Nipah virus and other henipaviruses. There are, however, a variety of other paramyxoviruses for which inactivation data are available, and the lipid-disrupting agents and broad-spectrum microbicides effective against the less lethal paramyxoviruses (e.g., respiratory syncytial virus, parainfluenza virus type 3) should be equally effective against the Priority List paramyxoviruses.
It is clear that during the ongoing SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, the majority of the resources of the public health community were applied to research into one or more of the many different aspects of SARS-CoV-2 for IPAC. In fact, many laboratories have been conducting research exclusively on SARS-CoV-2 during the ongoing pandemic. Because of this, literature on all aspects of the virus and the disease, COVID-19, has appeared on a relatively continuous basis. The relatively great amount of empirical data collected to date on the virucidal efficacy of microbicides for SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV (Table 4) reflects this emphasis. Of course, during a pandemic impacting ∼435 million confirmed cases globally and ∼5.9 million global deaths as of February 28, 2022 [90], this universal focus on the virus and the disease was, and remains, appropriate, particularly with the emergence of Delta, Omicron, and other variants [91, 92].
It is also clear from this review of the literature on the virucidal efficacy of microbicides for the WHO Priority List viruses that relatively limited information is available on some viruses, especially the paramyxoviruses Nipah virus and related henipaviruses and the bunyaviruses CCHFV and RVFV. Rift Valley fever virus and CCHFV are infectious agents considered as bioterrorism threats, due in part to the paucity of knowledge on measures for mitigating the transmission of the viruses and severity of the associated diseases [93, 94]. Reviews of focus areas and knowledge gaps for CCHFV [93, 94, 95] mention tick (vector) surveillance and vector control agents, but does not discuss knowledge gaps around surface disinfection or hand hygiene. For the arboviruses (Rift Valley fever virus, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, Zika virus), the possibility of contamination of high-touch environmental surfaces with patient blood spills and other patient excretions/secretions needs to be considered and transmission risk mitigated through application of effective microbicides. Further research into this topic is, therefore, required. For surface virucidal studies, the impact of the matrix in which the challenge virus is suspended at time of drying on the carrier should always be evaluated. As shown in the Zika surface inactivation studies (Table 6), virus deposited in a blood matrix does not appear to be effectively inactivated by the microbicides peracetic acid and chlorine, compared to inactivation of virus dried in the absence of the blood load [55].
It is to be expected that, as the current pandemic wanes, research into the more lethal, albeit less common, viral diseases mentioned in this chapter will be encouraged and undertaken at the BSL-3 and BSL-4 laboratories capable of safely handling these viruses. For instance, further studies need to be carried out on the virucidal efficacy of commonly used microbicides (surface and hand hygiene agents) for Lassa virus and Nipah virus in surface and suspension inactivation studies. This information will provide additional confirmation of the expectation that microbicides capable of inactivating enveloped viruses, in general, should be effective for these Priority List viruses. Until such data are generated, the IPAC community will continue to be able to leverage virucidal efficacy data for other enveloped and non-enveloped viruses per the Emerging Viral Pathogen Guidance for Antimicrobial Pesticides from the U.S. EPA [4, 5] and the European tiered approach for virucidal efficacy testing [96].
In this chapter, we have reviewed the current state of the science regarding the virucidal efficacy of microbicides for viruses causing the current WHO Priority List diseases. By definition, information might be expected to be minimal for at least some of these viruses, hence the need for encouraging additional research. Not surprisingly, the efficacy of microbicides for inactivation of certain of the lethal (BSL-4) viruses, especially the paramyxoviruses Nipah virus and related henipaviruses and the bunyaviruses CCHFV and RVFV, was found to be poorly characterized. The need for further research into the virucidal efficacy of microbicides for the arenavirus (Lassa virus) and the filovirus (Marburg virus) is also indicated by the relative paucity of empirical data identified during the review. For the beta-coronaviruses (SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, and MERS-CoV), the filovirus (Ebola virus), and the flavivirus (Zika virus), the available knowledge base for virucidal efficacy of microbicides appears to be adequate for verifying the predicted efficacy based on the hierarchy of virus susceptibility to microbicides.
It is hoped that this discussion will provide assurance to the IPAC community of the empirically determined virucidal efficacy of targeted hygiene agents against SARS-CoV-2 for use during the current SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 pandemic. SARS-CoV-2 is evolving continuously, and the emerging mutational variants are being monitored for impact on previously vaccinated and non-vaccinated individuals. The microbicides displaying virucidal efficacy against SARS-CoV-2, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV should display equivalent efficacy against emerging mutational variants [97], including the Delta, Omicron, and other variants. Current Variants of Interest (VOI) may become Variants of Concern (VOC) in the future, and the appropriate CDC/WHO websites [91, 92] should be consulted to keep up-to-date regarding the mutational variants of SARS-CoV-2. The information presented in this chapter also should be useful for the IPAC community as it considers non-pharmaceutical interventions for the other Priority List diseases in addition to SARS-CoV-2.
The authors thank Drs. Chris Jones and Mark Ripley, Reckitt Benckiser R&D, for their critical review of the manuscript.
Drs. Julie McKinney and M. Khalid Ijaz are engaged in R&D at Reckitt Benckiser LLC. Dr. Raymond W. Nims is employed by RMC Pharmaceutical Solutions, Inc. and received a fee from Reckitt Benckiser LLC for his role in authoring and editing the manuscript. Reckitt Benckiser LLC participated in the decision to publish.
Wheat (
As the world population increases day by day it is estimated that agricultural commodities should be increased by 50% by 2050 to meet the demand and supply chain [5]. But major constrain in this race are abiotic and biotic factors, which affect the production every year. Abiotic factors are generated by the facilities of mankind that are climate change. While biotic factors include major disease pathogens, insects, pests, and weeds. These factors cause a reduction in the yield and quality of grain every year [6]. Serious biotic stress includes major fungal diseases, such as rusts, smuts, bunt, tan spot, fusarium head blight, foot rot, false eyespot, and many more. Three types of rusts and powdery mildews caused major disease epidemics in past and kept on threatening problems to wheat production besides, the development of various fungicidal chemicals and resistant cultivars. Cultivars become vulnerable to pathogens due to variation in pathogen virulence [7].
These effects can be managed by working on resistant cultivars, not against the diseases but also abiotic factors. Cultivars should be best fitted in the environment. Then proper nutrients should be provided to make the crop strong and protect the flag leaf of the plant. Agronomic practices should be done on time and a proper dose of fertilizer should be given to the soil. Explain new and environment-friendly approaches to the farmers to keep the wheat crop healthy and protected from major risks.
This chapter includes major and minor fungal diseases which attack the wheat crop, their mode of action, epidemiology, visual identification, and eradication methods.
Loose smut of wheat is a seed-born disease caused by
Wheat is threatened with several diseases but rust is very dangerous for wheat. It causes huge economic losses all over the world. Wheat leaf rust is caused by
Brown rust of wheat (A), black rust of wheat (B), and stripe rust of wheat (C).
Optimum temperature ranges between 10 and 25°C and free moisture for long period on the leaf surface help in disease infection. If favorable conditions prevail then the uredinial cycle repeats after every 8–14 days. Urediniospores, teliospores, and basidiospores are produced on wheat while pycniospores and aeciospores are produced on the alternate host. Teliospores are produced at the end of the season; so, it helps in overwintering and becomes a source of inoculum for the next growing season. Due to the monocyclic nature of the fungus they produce spores end of season and act as primary inoculum, these spores germinate on wheat individually and cause infection. P.
Stem rust of wheat is historically a major disease of wheat caused by
After 1–2 weeks of disease, infection urediniospores are produced in uredinia. It is the repeating stage in the whole life cycle. Urediniospores are dikaryotic produced on the separate stalk in the fruiting body. These spores can infect the host plant and produce external symptoms (Figure 1B). It produces red rusty spores which become dark, this is the reason it is also known as black rust [23]. When the growing season of crop ends it produces teliospores in telia. Teliospores are also dikaryotic and overwinter in the absence of the host. When teliospores get favorable conditions, they undergo meiosis and produce haploid basidiospores, these are colorless spores capable to infect alternate hosts but not cereal hosts. After germination, it produces pycnidiospore, which produces sticky honeydew which attracts insects and becomes a mode of perpetuation. Pycnidiospores mat and produce dikaryotic aeciospores in aecia. These aeciospores germinate and produce urediniospores but on cereal host not on the alternate host. Urediniospores may pass from winter wheat to spring wheat without infecting the alternate host. The optimum temperature is 30°C and 2 hours of leaf wetness can cause infection [18].
All rust species are very destructive but stripe rust is most of all. It is caused by
Disease infection occurs anytime throughout the growing season. It causes symptoms on the green part of the plant which includes leaf, leaf sheath, glumes, and awn (Figure 1C). The disease infection cycle is similar to other rust pathogens. Infection caused by urediniospores and optimum temperature for disease infection is 3–20°C and free leaf moisture for 3 hours. The optimum temperature for infection on barberry is 10°C with 32 hours of leaf wetness [30]. When the temperature goes higher urediniospores change into teliospores. If the temperature goes down from −9°C, it completely stops the spores from germination. These two spore phases take place on wheat host remaining carried out on alternate host.
After rust and smuts mildew is a more contagious disease for plants. In wheat, powdery mildew is caused by
External symptoms include a grayish powdery colony on the leaf and stem of the wheat plant. It is most prevalent on the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf (Figure 2). The powder appears in the form of white patches early in the season, but disease duration can be prolonged if favorable conditions prevail. These white cottony pustules produce asexual spores known as conidia which are later on spread by wind. Sexual spores are ascospores that developed in cleistothecia. Both sexual and asexual spores are born in humid weather with a lower temperature range.
Visual symptoms of powdery mildew on the wheat leaf (A) and spikes (B).
On disease progress, it covers the entire plant and turns into yellow color due to chlorosis, black color fruiting bodies appear on a leaf along with the gray powdery mass. Fungus mass can cover the head-on severe attack. The temperature range between 10 and 21°C favors the disease. Infection is reduced at the flowering stage as the temperature rises, so, fungal grow inside the tissues during winter times. When the temperature becomes suitable, it starts germination and spreads from plant to plant and field to field by wind. High humidity and temperature range between 15 and 20°C are most suitable for disease spread, repetition of the life cycle in 7–10 days, and development of new strains [38].
Karnal bunt of wheat is a very common disease everywhere, it is caused by
Karnal bunt in wheat spike (A, B) and dark brown teliospores from bunt sori (C).
Clear symptoms can be seen after threshing as grain in the spike are swollen and fell off with the wind. Spike length and number of spikes per plant also reduce with the disease (Figure 3B). It is also found that all ears in the spike are not bunted, however, infected grains are converted into bunt sori (Figure 3A). Sori is oval-shaped contains black to brown powdery spores enclosed in the pericarp (Figure 3C). In a severely attacked spike, the lining of the seed coat and epidermis is destroyed and spores are enclosed in the lining of the pericarp [40]. This smut fungus has a different pathogenesis method, the fungus infects wheat after diazotization and starts germination and colonization in the epidermis of the plant and infection spreads from cell to cell [44]. Teliospores germinate diploid nuclei which undergo meiosis and several mitoses and produce haploid basidium. Haploid nuclei develop and produce basidiospores. One daughter cell back to basidium and produce 110–185 sporidia on the tip and are sickle-shaped. With rain splashes and wind, teliospores drop on soil and become a source of primary inoculum, it can survive in the soil for many years [45]. Secondary sporidia (allantoid and filiform) are more durable and germinate when getting favorable conditions and play important role in the disease cycle. Allantoid plays role in infection and filiform increases the number of inoculum in the soil. Sporidia are binucleated and on germination produce a germ tube that penetrates newly developing seed in the ovary. Bunt fungus causes infection at the time of anthesis [46]. The disease produces a characteristic fishy smell as teliospores that release trimethylamine [40]. If the conditions are not favorable or the wheat plant does not reach the vulnerable stage when teliospores germinate, it leads to “suicidal germination.” [47].
Spores of Karnal bunt can survive in the soil for 3 years, it can spread from one farm to another through farm machinery. It can tolerate very cold temperatures and maintain its viability. Air can spread spores up to 3000 meters [48]. Teliospores are resistant to chloropicrin, hydrogen peroxide, methyl bromide, ozone, and propionic acid [47]. Single pathogen isolates can vary from one another by physical and morphological characteristics, the number of chromosomes, degree of infection production, and resistance to host barriers.
Like loose smut, flag smut is also a very important disease; it is caused by
Flag smut of wheat.
Common bunt of wheat is caused by
Fusarium head blight [FHB] also known as ear blight and the head scab is caused by different fungal pathogens, including
Wheat plant is susceptible to FHB from the anthesis stage till kernel production. Main external symptoms appear on the head, peduncle, spikes, and grains. Yellowing to slight discoloration of infected spikelet starts while healthy spikes are green (Figure 5). Infected spikes contain pinkish and orange shade colonies of spores. Spores are produced in cold and humid weather. Infected seed is cultivated in the next season results in red to brown shade colony with poor tiller came out. Reduced size and less vigor and well as affect germination rate of seed. Other morphological characters include the late heading and tiller stage [54]. Its symptoms are mostly confused with root rot and crown rot disease, and incomplete symptoms are confused with glume blotch and black chaff.
Optimum conditions for disease infection are moderate rainfall, and temperature range between 24 and 29°C for 2–3 days is enough for infection. Fungal spores survive in crop residues. High humidity and rainfall not only increase inoculum but also help in dispersal.
The tan spot of wheat also known as yellow spot or blotch is caused by
It has a wild range of host plants, including grass species. Most of them are perennial crops that help in overwintering pathogens and increasing the number of inoculum for disease epidemics. It causes 5–10% yield loss and when environmental conditions are favorable losses reached 50% [49]. Symptoms include small dark brown fleck which turns black spot on basil leaves. Then spots merge and get enlarged into tan and irregular lesions with browning inside and yellow rings surround the lesion. Under humid conditions, lesions produce dark spores, and lesions combine and produce dead tissues. Infected seeds contain pink to red color spores, black points, and low germination.
Fungal survive in the form of dormant mycelium on crop residues. Pseudothecium is the fruiting body and ascospores are produced inside. Ascospores spread with the wind too far-off places, infected seed is also a source of disease spread. Under warm and wet conditions, asexual conidia germinate and spread with rain, it infects the ear, glume, and developing grain. Optimum temperature ranges between 20 and 28°C and disease symptoms appear in 7–14 days [49].
Septoria is a disease complex caused by three different pathogens called
Septoria leaf blotch symptoms on the wheat leaf (A) and sclerotia on the stem and leaf (B).
The infection starts when airborne ascospores germinate on the plant which is overwintered in plant residues. Infection occurs just after the emergence of seeding. Sexual spores attach with stomatal opening with the help of germ tube and enter into the stomata and produce appressorium. After 7 days, it produces hyphae and mycelium inside the whole plant. The pathogen has both biotrophic and necrotrophic mode or growth when it changes its mode then external lesions appear on leaf and cell collapse. On disease, advancement lesions change from light to dark color. Conidia are produced on the necrotic site which spread with rainwater from infected to healthy plants as well as over winter in residues and become a source of inoculum for the next crop. Pycnidia produce conidia within 15–40 days after infection, it depends upon environmental conditions. Under unfavorable conditions, spores undergo a dormant state and germinate when the temperature and moisture are available [56].
The number of diseases caused by
Root rot is one of the serious diseases for wheat, especially in Egypt. It can cause significant yield losses because it attacks the seedlings just after germination from the seed. The disease is caused by
Rhizoctonia root rot (A) and fusarium head blight (B).
Wheat is also affected by some minor diseases which are sometimes causing huge crop yields. It includes different types of viruses, bacteria, and nematodes. Wheat is affected by the number of soilborne viruses named as
Wheat is important and staple food all over the world. The main source of carbohydrates and used in a different form. But its production is affected by the number of diseases. Wheat is affected by several fungal diseases. The major threat to wheat is due to rusts, smuts, and mildews. Crop rotation, soil solarization, and zero tillage are important tools for disease management. The use of a resistance cultivar against different pathogens is an effective strategy. Resistant cultivars, certified pure seeds, and seed treatment with strong fungicide are effective to control for these rust and smut diseases [66]. Breeding for resistant varieties to manage loose smut, inheritance of resistance in hexaploid wheat cultivars is examined [67]. Back cross of seven resistant and two susceptible varieties against loose smut disease artificially inoculated in mid of anthesis stage. The segregation ratio showed that resistance against loose smut is controlled by a single dominant gene in wheat [68]. Another study reviled that resistant genes against loose smut are partial and complete resistance which are both dormant and recessive, these resistance genes can stop or hinder the growth of smut inside the plant at different points [68].
One of the powerful and effective tools against disease resistance is host-induced gene silencing in the transgenic plant. It is also helpful in functioning and gene characterization. New and advanced techniques help in contrition of efficient transgenic system and enhance RNAi-driven strategy against the resistant plant. These new and advanced techniques are proven best against biotic and abiotic stresses and another best part of these techniques, they are environmentally friendly and farmer friendly. Genome editing by Cas-9 is very important and helpful in the insertion of resistant genes against pathogens to produce resistant cultivars [69, 70].
The use of biological control agents against pathogens is effective and widely used technique because of the chemical resistance problem. The use of
Chemical fungicides are used for seed treatment and foliar application. Use of Carbendazim, carboxin, triticonazole, thiram, metalaxyl, as a seed treatment for seedborne diseases in wheat [72]. Tubeconazole in combination with imidacloprid and cyproconazole along with difenoconazole are effective chemical fungicides against rust and smut diseases of wheat [74]. Seed treatment with difenoconazole, fludioxonil, homai, and vitavax is proven best against seedborne pathogens.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
\n\nHowever, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\n\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
\n\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\n\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\n\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\n\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
\n\nDownload Waiver Request Form
\n\nFeel free to contact us at funders@intechopen.com if you have any questions about Funding options or our Waiver program. If you have already begun the process and require further assistance, please contact your Author Service Manager, who is there to assist you!
\n\nNote: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
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Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular economy, Contingency planning and response to disasters, Ecosystem services, Integrated urban water management, Nature-based solutions, Sustainable urban development, Urban green spaces",scope:"