Several smart polymeric drug delivery technologies are available [7].
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10706",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Fighting the COVID-19 Pandemic",title:"Fighting the COVID-19 Pandemic",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"During the past two years, the world has been fighting the COVID-19 pandemic, which has had many negative effects on people’s quality of life, physical health, and mental health. Nobody is oblivious to the general information related to the virus or the deleterious health effects it has been linked to, yet there is a lot more to it than the general knowledge. In this book, we shed light on the virus itself and its properties, epidemiology, immune response, various clinical scenarios and consequences, and diagnostic and management dilemmas. Finally, we discuss COVID vaccines and the related myths and misinformation that have led to vaccine hesitancy and mistrust.",isbn:"978-1-83968-217-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-216-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-246-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94676",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"fighting-the-covid-19-pandemic",numberOfPages:458,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"1a5246f0b6ba4f0e9ad1fbfa4134c598",bookSignature:"Manal Mohammad Baddour",publishedDate:"December 8th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10706.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3469,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:5,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 29th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 26th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 27th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 16th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 14th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"174598",title:"Dr.",name:"Manal Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Baddour",slug:"manal-mohammad-baddour",fullName:"Manal Mohammad Baddour",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/174598/images/system/174598.jpeg",biography:"Manal Mohammad Baddour is a Professor of Medical Microbiology and Immunology in the Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. She obtained a Ph.D. in Microbiology and Immunology from the same university in 1995. \n\nDr. Baddour was ranked first among high school examinees in Saudi Arabia in 1979. She has also been listed in the Marquis Who’s Who in the World 2009 and in the Academic Keys Who’s Who list for Medicine Higher Education. \n\nShe has held several positions including secretary general of the Permanent Scientific Committee for Promotion of Professors and Associate Professors in Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Egypt. She is also an editor and reviewer for numerous scientific journals. She has edited or authored several books and has thirty-six journal publications to her credit. She is an assessor for promotion files of faculty members from Egyptian, Jordanian, and Saudi Arabian universities. \n\nDr. Baddour is a member of several organizations including the Gerson Lehrman Group for Healthcare & Biomedical Council; Society for General Microbiology, England; Egyptian Society for Medical Microbiology; Egyptian Association of Immunologists; Egyptian Society for Infection Control; Egyptian Medical Syndicate; Alexandria Medical Syndicate Council; African Association of Physiological Sciences, South Africa; and African Regional Training Network for Medical and Allied Health Sciences, South Africa.",institutionString:"Alexandria University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Alexandria University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1129",title:"Epidemiology",slug:"epidemiology"}],chapters:[{id:"77392",title:"Knowing Our Rival–Coronaviridae: The Virus Family",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98806",slug:"knowing-our-rival-coronaviridae-the-virus-family",totalDownloads:133,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter will describe the biological nature of viruses belonging to the Coronaviridae family. Coronavirus disease or COVID-19 which, with its ever-expanding attack around the globe has become the topic of discussion of the current era. The disease is caused by a SARS-CoV-2 virus which belongs to the Coronaviridae family. This family of the virus has a history of pandemic significance through its attacks of SARS and MERS since the year 2000. They are known to have affinity towards respiratory tract and any disease that erupts out of their group have caused mild and severe respiratory infections globally. Thus, understanding the virus by learning the characteristics of its familial strain will help us to combat their attack even after mutation in the future. This chapter also discusses the pathogenesis of each virus organism in this family, as well as their clinical characteristics and diagnostics, in order to understand their disease-causing pattern and the efficacy of vaccination in mitigating the worst outcomes of the disease.",signatures:"Maanasa Rajagopalan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77392",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77392",authors:[{id:"347193",title:"Dr.",name:"Maanasa",surname:"Rajagopalan",slug:"maanasa-rajagopalan",fullName:"Maanasa Rajagopalan"}],corrections:null},{id:"77651",title:"COVID-19: An Updated Insight of the Pandemic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99097",slug:"covid-19-an-updated-insight-of-the-pandemic",totalDownloads:233,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) out-broke in the city of Wuhan in China and widely spread across the globe in a pandemic manner, causing societal and economic disruptions. Though the origin of the novel virus is still a debating topic, it is certain that SARS-CoV-2 acquired human to human transmission capacity. Regardless of aggressive containment and quarantine approaches, the number of confirmed cases continues to rise and being reported due to its highly infectious nature. As of the time, there is a little scope for the antiviral drugs or vaccines for the treatment of coronavirus infection; due to the vigorous mutation rate in the viral genome. However, existing anti-parasite drugs like ivermectin and chloroquine could effectively inhibit the virus has been reported. Few of the vaccines have come up with certain degree of efficacy and many are under the clinical trial phase. The research on novel coronavirus is still in the preliminary stage. In this chapter, we systematically summarize the origin, transmission route, molecular characterization, pathogenic mechanism, contagious nature, clinical symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, mutation and infection as well as prevention strategy of coronavirus disease based on the recently available literature. In addition to this, this chapter presents updated insights of the current state of knowledge pertaining to novel coronavirus and can be referred for potential future studies.",signatures:"Raghunath Satpathy and Prangya Ranjan Rout",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77651",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77651",authors:[{id:"347252",title:"Dr.",name:"Raghunath",surname:"Satpathy",slug:"raghunath-satpathy",fullName:"Raghunath Satpathy"},{id:"416313",title:"Dr.",name:"Prangya Ranjan",surname:"Rout",slug:"prangya-ranjan-rout",fullName:"Prangya Ranjan Rout"}],corrections:null},{id:"77515",title:"COVID-19 Pandemic: Analysis and Statistics of Confirmed Cases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98891",slug:"covid-19-pandemic-analysis-and-statistics-of-confirmed-cases",totalDownloads:114,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Coronavirus COVID-19 started in December 2019, and it has spread rapidly across China and the whole world. In this chapter, we analyzed the number of confirmed cases in US, India, France, Russia and Brazil. Additionally, we took into account Latin American countries like Argentina, Colombia, Peru, Chile and Mexico. We noticed, how some countries got a low death rate, despite its high number of confirmed cases (US). Additionally, it is interesting, how some countries with a high percentage of obesity got the highest death rate (Mexico). Also, we noticed a decreasing number in confirmed cases after a intensive vaccination plan (US). Finally, we evaluated Weibull Long Short-Term Memory (W-LSTM) and Multiplicative Trend Exponential Smoothing (MTES) to predict confirmed cases, in this case, W-LSTM showed a more realistic forecasting.",signatures:"Vicente Enrique Machaca Arceda, Miguel Angel Machaca Arceda and Pamela Claudia Laguna Laura",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77515",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77515",authors:[{id:"347173",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Vicente Enrique",surname:"Machaca Arceda",slug:"vicente-enrique-machaca-arceda",fullName:"Vicente Enrique Machaca Arceda"},{id:"416530",title:"BSc.",name:"Miguel Angel",surname:"Machaca Arceda",slug:"miguel-angel-machaca-arceda",fullName:"Miguel Angel Machaca Arceda"},{id:"416531",title:"BSc.",name:"Pamela Claudia",surname:"Laguna Laura",slug:"pamela-claudia-laguna-laura",fullName:"Pamela Claudia Laguna Laura"}],corrections:null},{id:"77976",title:"Demographic, Clinical and Radiological Features of Healthcare Workers and Two Index Cases That Were Infected with COVID-19 (SARS-Cov-2)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99148",slug:"demographic-clinical-and-radiological-features-of-healthcare-workers-and-two-index-cases-that-were-i",totalDownloads:76,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"To evaluate the index cases leading to the transmission of healthcare workers (HCWs) in Rize/Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdogan University Faculty of Medicine Education and Research Hospital with COVID-19 infection and the clinical features of infected HCWs. The first two COVID-19 test positive patients treated at Rize/Turkey between 10.03.2020 and 12.04.2020 and HCWs those who examined these two patients whose COVID-19 PCR test results were positive were included in this study. In Rize/Turkey, the first and second cases of positive COVID-19 which was recorded on 13.03.2020 on 25.03.2020, 27 HCWs (female, 63%, n = 17 and male, 37%, n = 10 and the mean age was 33.2 ± 6.9 years) who contacted during the treatment of these cases and became COVID-19 positive were examined. The median of symptom duration (days) of the HCWs was 5 days (range: 0–17 days). Fever, 55.6% (n = 15); malaise, 44.4% (n = 12); cough, 40.7% (n = 11); sore throat, 33.3% (n = 9); myalgia, 33.3% (n = 9); dyspnea, 14.8% (n = 4); diarrhea, 22.2% (n = 6); vomiting, 14.8% (n = 4); anosmia, 18.5% (n = 5); ageusia, 22.2% (n = 6) and headache, 37% (n = 10) of the cases. The rates of headache in female HCWs infected with COVID-19 were found to be significantly higher compared to men (52.9%). None of them had severe clinical situation requiring intensive care follow-up or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Laboratory measurements of HCWs were carried out at the first when they had symptoms and when they recovered, and results were compared accordingly. The thorax computerized tomography (CT) findings of HCWs were normal in 74.1% (n = 20) of total. HCWs were initially affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Early measures provided by the Health authorities, access to diagnosis and treatment, and the young age average in HCWs prevented severe outcomes such as severe clinical course and mortality at the beginning of the outbreak.",signatures:"Ayse Erturk, Ugur Kostakoglu, Ilknur Esen Yildiz, Nur Hursoy, Sevda Ozdemir Al, Songul Ozyurt, Neslihan Ozcelik, Hatice Beyazal Polat and Aysegul Copur Cicek",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77976",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77976",authors:[{id:"347352",title:"Prof.",name:"ayse",surname:"erturk",slug:"ayse-erturk",fullName:"ayse erturk"}],corrections:null},{id:"77771",title:"Coronavirus Disinfection Physical Methods",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99091",slug:"coronavirus-disinfection-physical-methods",totalDownloads:137,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Since 2019, the spread of the Coronavirus pandemic becomes the global health crisis. To fight the pandemic, several measures were adopted such as: Hygiene measure, massive test, social distancing, quarantine and distancing. Disinfection is an important operation in the fight against the spread of Corona virus pandemic. The disinfection methods are of chemical and physical type. In this work, we focused our interest to the physical methods. These methods are classified in three principal categories: irradiation techniques, heat treatment and mechanical techniques. All the different aspect of techniques are exposed in this chapter. The efficiency of the used techniques is also discussed.",signatures:"Moez Guettari and Ahmed El Aferni",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77771",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77771",authors:[{id:"228088",title:"Dr.",name:"Moez",surname:"Guettari",slug:"moez-guettari",fullName:"Moez Guettari"},{id:"349723",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"El Aferni",slug:"ahmed-el-aferni",fullName:"Ahmed El Aferni"}],corrections:null},{id:"77575",title:"Immune Response to COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98964",slug:"immune-response-to-covid-19",totalDownloads:105,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) invades the host’s cells via the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2). ACE2 and TMPRSS2 molecules are highly expressed on the respiratory tract but are also expressed in other organs such as kidneys, heart, and intestine, which could partially explain the multiple organ infection, damage, and failure. During the COVID-19 disease course, patients may develop a dysregulation in the immune response, with an exacerbated production of pro-inflammatory molecules and hypercoagulation, which can collaborate to the increase in tissue damage and death. This chapter will cover general aspects of the innate and adaptive immune response during COVID-19, the impact of comorbidities on the immune response to SARS-CoV-2, and the immune response generated by COVID-19 vaccines.",signatures:"Ricardo Wesley Alberca",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77575",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77575",authors:[{id:"347669",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ricardo Wesley",surname:"Alberca",slug:"ricardo-wesley-alberca",fullName:"Ricardo Wesley Alberca"}],corrections:null},{id:"77675",title:"Clinical Characteristics of COVID-19 Infection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99088",slug:"clinical-characteristics-of-covid-19-infection",totalDownloads:101,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The typical clinical symptoms of the patients who suffered from the novel viral pneumonia were fever, cough, and myalgia or fatigue with abnormal chest CT, and the less common symptoms were sputum production, headache, hemoptysis, and diarrhea. This new infectious agent is more likely to affect older males to cause severe respiratory diseases. Major risk factors for severe illness and mortality from COVID-19 are age, comorbidities such as: heart disease, hypertension, prior stroke, diabetes, chronic lung disease, and chronic kidney disease and associated with adverse outcomes. Loss of taste and smell preceding the onset of respiratory symptoms has been reported.",signatures:"Mohamed Abdullah Jaber",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77675",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77675",authors:[{id:"347257",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdullah Jaber",slug:"mohamed-abdullah-jaber",fullName:"Mohamed Abdullah Jaber"}],corrections:null},{id:"77612",title:"Loss of Smell and Taste as Clinical Onset of COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99087",slug:"loss-of-smell-and-taste-as-clinical-onset-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:114,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Initially, symptoms of COVID-19 associated with Ear-Nose-Throat were thought to be flulike symptoms in the foreground. Such as fever, chills, cough, dyspnoea, myalgia, headache, sore throat. Olfactory and gustatory dysfunction was not a noticeable symptom at first. As the number of cases has risen worldwide, sudden onset hyposmia/anosmia has received increasing attention as a symptom of COVID-19. The reported incidence of anosmia varies internationally: as low as 30% in South Korea, and as high as 88% in Europe. The loss of smell that occurs in COVID-19 infection its general character is sudden onset anosmia. There is currently no specific treatment for COVID-19 related anosmia. Olfactory dysfunction can heal spontaneously. However, not a small number of patients may have permanent impairment.",signatures:"Nihal Seden",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77612",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77612",authors:[{id:"347230",title:"Dr.",name:"Nihal",surname:"Seden",slug:"nihal-seden",fullName:"Nihal Seden"}],corrections:null},{id:"75899",title:"Cardiovascular System and SARS-CoV-2: Etiology, Physiopathology and Clinical Presentation: A Systematic Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97076",slug:"cardiovascular-system-and-sars-cov-2-etiology-physiopathology-and-clinical-presentation-a-systematic",totalDownloads:106,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"During SARS-CoV-1 and Middle East Respiratory Distress Syndrome (MERS) outbreaks it was observed a particularly elevated incidence of cardiovascular disease among patients. With COVID-19, this correlation becomes evident again. However, the cardiovascular impacts by COVID-19 pandemic are not yet well established although publications about its potential deleterious effects are constant. Thus, aimed to carry a systematic review of the literature with meta-analysis, the following question was used as a guide: what practical contributions does the scientific literature produced in the period of 2019-2020 has to offer about the impact of the COVID-19 on cardiovascular system? A systematic review of the literature using the Virtual Health Library (VHL) and PubMed with the following descriptors: #1 “cardiovascular disease” [MeSH] AND #2 “COVID-19” [keyword], as well as their equivalents in the Portuguese and Spanish language, during the period from December 2019 to March 2020 was performed. One hundred articles were found in Pubmed and twenty-seven were selected. In VHL there are 59 articles and four were selected totaling thirty-one papers. The findings were then divided into three subcategories: Etiology, Physiopathology and Risk factors of SARS-CoV-2 in Cardiovascular System; Clinical presentation, laboratory markers and imagenological aspects of SARS-CoV-2 in cardiovascular system; and Anti-Hypertensive Drugs, Cardiovascular System and SARS-CoV-2. When it comes to the cardiovascular system, these issues are aggravated and urge as a joint commitment from researchers, medical and governmental organizations to carry out more robust studies with bold methodologies aimed at mapping prognostic factors and assertive therapeutic approaches in the management of cardiovascular complications of COVID- 19.",signatures:"Jucier Gonçalves Júnior, Estelita Lima Cândido, Gislene Farias de Oliveira and Modesto Leite Rolim Neto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75899",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75899",authors:[{id:"325872",title:"Dr.",name:"Jucier Gonçalves",surname:"Junior",slug:"jucier-goncalves-junior",fullName:"Jucier Gonçalves Junior"},{id:"325992",title:"Dr.",name:"Estelita Lima",surname:"Cândido",slug:"estelita-lima-candido",fullName:"Estelita Lima Cândido"},{id:"347185",title:"Dr.",name:"Gislene Farias De",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"gislene-farias-de-oliveira",fullName:"Gislene Farias De Oliveira"},{id:"347186",title:"Dr.",name:"Modesto Leite",surname:"Rolim-Neto",slug:"modesto-leite-rolim-neto",fullName:"Modesto Leite Rolim-Neto"}],corrections:null},{id:"77664",title:"Post COVID-19 Conditions and the Cardiovascular System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99197",slug:"post-covid-19-conditions-and-the-cardiovascular-system",totalDownloads:125,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"One out of four patients affected by COVID-19 will experience persistent (>3-4 weeks) signs and symptoms (Post COVID-19 conditions or Post-Acute Sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 – PASC) and this fact will have a major significance for the healthcare and economic systems in the upcoming years. The cardiovascular system is one of the key targets for the Post COVID-19 syndrome, given the pathogenesis of the virus and prevalence of ACE-2 receptors. According to our initial personal experience via the campaign “Life after COVID” of the Bulgarian Cardiac Institute, a substantial proportion of patients having suffered from COVID-19 develop long-term cardiovascular consequences. They could range from rhythm disorder and blood pressure variation, through impairment of myocardial mechanics and heart failure, and to acute vascular manifestations of Post COVID-19 conditions, such as acute coronary syndrome, acute pulmonary embolism, and acute limb ischemia. These cardiovascular complications require special and dedicated medical attention, and we could share our personal experience on the matter.",signatures:"Iana Simova, Denislava Hristova, Hristina Tzanovska, Denis Nikolov, Diliana Iakova, Anyuta Ivanova, Maria-Magdalena Pintova, Pavlin Pavlov, Ognyan Matkov, Todor Samardjiev, Vladimir Kornovski, Jordan Krasnaliev, Todor Kundurzhiev, Nikolay Dimitrov and Toni Vekov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77664",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77664",authors:[{id:"347581",title:"Prof.",name:"Iana",surname:"Simova",slug:"iana-simova",fullName:"Iana Simova"},{id:"416409",title:"Dr.",name:"Denislava",surname:"Hristova",slug:"denislava-hristova",fullName:"Denislava Hristova"},{id:"416410",title:"Dr.",name:"Hristina",surname:"Tzanovska",slug:"hristina-tzanovska",fullName:"Hristina Tzanovska"},{id:"416411",title:"Dr.",name:"Denis",surname:"Nikolov",slug:"denis-nikolov",fullName:"Denis Nikolov"},{id:"416412",title:"Dr.",name:"Diliana",surname:"Iakova",slug:"diliana-iakova",fullName:"Diliana Iakova"},{id:"416414",title:"Dr.",name:"Aniuta",surname:"Ivanova",slug:"aniuta-ivanova",fullName:"Aniuta Ivanova"},{id:"416415",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria-Magdalena",surname:"Pintova",slug:"maria-magdalena-pintova",fullName:"Maria-Magdalena Pintova"},{id:"416416",title:"Dr.",name:"Ognyan",surname:"Matkov",slug:"ognyan-matkov",fullName:"Ognyan Matkov"},{id:"416417",title:"Dr.",name:"Todor",surname:"Samardjiev",slug:"todor-samardjiev",fullName:"Todor Samardjiev"},{id:"416418",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Kornovski",slug:"vladimir-kornovski",fullName:"Vladimir Kornovski"},{id:"416419",title:"Dr.",name:"Jordan",surname:"Krasnaliev",slug:"jordan-krasnaliev",fullName:"Jordan Krasnaliev"},{id:"416420",title:"Prof.",name:"Todor",surname:"Kundurzhiev",slug:"todor-kundurzhiev",fullName:"Todor Kundurzhiev"},{id:"416421",title:"Prof.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Dimitrov",slug:"nikolay-dimitrov",fullName:"Nikolay Dimitrov"},{id:"416422",title:"Prof.",name:"Toni",surname:"Vekov",slug:"toni-vekov",fullName:"Toni Vekov"},{id:"416434",title:"Dr.",name:"Pavlin",surname:"Pavlov",slug:"pavlin-pavlov",fullName:"Pavlin Pavlov"}],corrections:null},{id:"78277",title:"COVID-19 and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99647",slug:"covid-19-and-type-2-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:123,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"COVID-19 pandemic caused by SARS-COV-2 virus has evolved into a global crisis and is a major concern especially for the diabetes community. People with diabetes mellitus have increased morbidity and mortality associated with COVID-19 infection. Conversely, COVID-19 infection and treatment may predispose to hyperglycemia. Potentially modifiable risk factors have been discussed and urgent need to mitigate the risks is warranted. In this book chapter we summarize the available evidence on COVID-19 and type 2 diabetes mellitus including link between COVID-19 and type 2 diabetes, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, management and complications.",signatures:"Ritwika Mallik and Mohammed S.B. Huda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78277",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78277",authors:[{id:"356482",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed S.B.",surname:"Huda",slug:"mohammed-s.b.-huda",fullName:"Mohammed S.B. Huda"},{id:"428233",title:"Dr.",name:"Ritwika",surname:"Mallik",slug:"ritwika-mallik",fullName:"Ritwika Mallik"}],corrections:null},{id:"77285",title:"Pregnancy and COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98710",slug:"pregnancy-and-covid-19",totalDownloads:88,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pregnancy is a physiological state that alters the body’s response to infections. COVID-19 has been found to cause severe disease in pregnancy with morbidity and mortality that is higher than in non-pregnant adults. There is risk of transmission of SARS-CoV2 infection to fetus during ante-natal period, intra-partum and post-delivery from an infected mother. It is necessary to provide an un-interrupted ante-natal care and delivery services to pregnant women during the pandemic. Tele-consultation is important modality to reduce the physical exposure of pregnant women to the hospital environment and should be utilised. Screening, isolation, testing and treatment for SARS-CoV2 infection in pregnant women should follow the local guidelines and remain essentially the same as in non-pregnant adults. Admission, if required, should be in a facility that can provide obstetric maternal and fetal monitoring in addition to care for COVID-19 illness. Use of nitrous oxide and inhalational oxygen for fetal indication should be avoided during labor. Second stage of labor is considered an aerosol generating procedure and should be managed with adequate precautions. Mode of delivery should be as per obstetric indications. Regional anaesthesia should be preferred during caesarean. COVID-19 is not a contra-indication to breast feeding. For antenatal women, COVID-19 vaccination can be considered after shared decision making.",signatures:"Sushruti Kaushal and Harpreet Kaur",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77285",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77285",authors:[{id:"347217",title:"Dr.",name:"Harpreet",surname:"Kaur",slug:"harpreet-kaur",fullName:"Harpreet Kaur"},{id:"357302",title:"Dr.",name:"Sushruti",surname:"Kaushal",slug:"sushruti-kaushal",fullName:"Sushruti Kaushal"}],corrections:null},{id:"77970",title:"Neurological Involvement in COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99309",slug:"neurological-involvement-in-covid-19",totalDownloads:101,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The respiratory system is the most common target of COVID-19, however, various experimental studies and case reports have shown its affinity for neural tissues. In this chapter, we described pathogenesis and propagation of SARS-CoV-2 virus in the nervous system, potential routes of the SARS-CoV-2 invasion in the brain, as well as indirect effects of COVID-19 on multiorgan disorders. We have also presented all of the reported neurological manifestations in COVID-19 with an explanation of possible underlying pathways. Among patients who tested positive on SARS-CoV-2, various neurological irregularities have been described, affecting both the central and peripheral nervous systems. In general, neurological complications in COVID-19 patients occur within 1 and 14 days, in most cases on average on the 5th day of the incubation period. We have demonstrated all of the reported neurological findings, whereas the most commonly reported were headache, dizziness, myalgia, hypogeusia, hyposmia, and impaired consciousness. More serious neurological conditions in COVID-19 included meningitis, encephalitis, and ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke.",signatures:"Valentina Opancina, Kristijan Krstic, Predrag Sazdanovic, Nebojsa Zdravkovic, Ruzica Radojevic Marjanovic and Radisa Vojinovic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77970",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77970",authors:[{id:"240937",title:"Prof.",name:"Radisa",surname:"Vojinovic",slug:"radisa-vojinovic",fullName:"Radisa Vojinovic"},{id:"347171",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",surname:"Opancina",slug:"valentina-opancina",fullName:"Valentina Opancina"},{id:"419154",title:"Dr.",name:"Kristijan",surname:"Krstic",slug:"kristijan-krstic",fullName:"Kristijan Krstic"},{id:"419248",title:"Prof.",name:"Predrag",surname:"Sazdanovic",slug:"predrag-sazdanovic",fullName:"Predrag Sazdanovic"},{id:"419249",title:"Prof.",name:"Nebojsa",surname:"Zdravkovic",slug:"nebojsa-zdravkovic",fullName:"Nebojsa Zdravkovic"},{id:"419289",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruzica",surname:"Radojevic Marjanovic",slug:"ruzica-radojevic-marjanovic",fullName:"Ruzica Radojevic Marjanovic"}],corrections:null},{id:"77830",title:"“Neurocovid”: An Analysis of the Impact of Covid-19 on the Older Adults. Evolving Psychological and Neuropsychological Understanding",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99414",slug:"-neurocovid-an-analysis-of-the-impact-of-covid-19-on-the-older-adults-evolving-psychological-and-neu",totalDownloads:120,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"When SARS-CoV-2 began to spread, older adults experienced disproportionately greater adverse effects from the pandemic, including exacerbation of pre-existing physical and cognitive frailty conditions. More severe complications, higher mortality, and concerns about disruptions to their daily routines and access to care. Knowledge about the impact of COVID-19 on the brain is rapidly accumulating and this is reflected in the increasing use of the term “neurocovid”. Co-involvement of the central and peripheral nervous system had already been observed in SARS patients, but COVID-19 seems to invade it with greater affinity than other coronaviruses. This chapter provides an overview of the expanding understanding of the multiple ways in which COVID-19 affects the human brain, discuss the likelihood of long-term sequelae of neurocovid, and their implications for cognitive functions and behaviors in the elderly.",signatures:"Sara Palermo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77830",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77830",authors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],corrections:null},{id:"75822",title:"Consequences of the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic on Mental Health: Integrative Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96816",slug:"consequences-of-the-sars-cov-2-pandemic-on-mental-health-integrative-review",totalDownloads:104,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The lack of specific treatment and knowledge about the exact pathophysiology of the 2019 Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and its vaccines makes the organic aspects of the pandemic a concern and puts the psychiatric consequences and psychological effects of SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19, in second place. Hence, the psychiatric impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic have not been well established yet. We have performed an integrative literature review in three electronic databases: Medline, PsycINFO, and Published International Literature on Traumatic Stress (PILOTS). The findings were then divided into five subcategories: impacts of COVID-19 on the mental health of psychiatric patients; use of technology as an ally in combating impacts on mental health in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic; mental health promotion measures in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic for the population; mental health promotion measures in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic for health professionals; and mental health in specific groups in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. This study has showed that the situation and measures proposed to fight the COVID-19 pandemic cause stress, anxiety, fear, and uncertainty in the population. Psychiatric patients, the elderly, refugees, and migrant workers are more vulnerable due to the stigmatization and lack of specialized support in health services and reduced access to medications. Therefore, they require care from governments and health authorities. In addition, measures to promote hospital health for health professionals seem to be essential to improve care and reduce the psychologic/psychiatric impacts on professionals. Thus, technology is a valuable ally in this process.",signatures:"Jucier Gonçalves Júnior, Gislene Farias de Oliviera and Modesto Leite Rolim-Neto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75822",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75822",authors:[{id:"325872",title:"Dr.",name:"Jucier Gonçalves",surname:"Junior",slug:"jucier-goncalves-junior",fullName:"Jucier Gonçalves Junior"},{id:"347185",title:"Dr.",name:"Gislene Farias De",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"gislene-farias-de-oliveira",fullName:"Gislene Farias De Oliveira"},{id:"347186",title:"Dr.",name:"Modesto Leite",surname:"Rolim-Neto",slug:"modesto-leite-rolim-neto",fullName:"Modesto Leite Rolim-Neto"}],corrections:null},{id:"78678",title:"COVID-19 in India: Problems, Challenges and Strategies (Psychological Aspects)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100111",slug:"covid-19-in-india-problems-challenges-and-strategies-psychological-aspects-",totalDownloads:150,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The pandemic COVID-19 is a global challenge which has infected and killed people worldwide. Some people do not show any symptom while some have fever, cough, sore throat, general weakness and fatigue and muscular pain and in most severe cases, severe pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome, sepsis and septic shock all leading to death. It has adversely affected the economy and social integrity of countries. There is rising concern about the mental health challenges of the general population (children, adults, or elderly), along with health workers and family of infected people. This study aims to determine effect of COVID-19 on mental health of people in India. It also focuses on the stigma and discriminating factors in our society and ways to cope with such conditions. A structured survey was conducted with 250 participants of different age groups. Our analysis focuses on the factors affecting mental health of any person, changes in behavior and daily routine due to stress, anxiety or fear of transmission of virus in their family and friends, some are worried for their lifestyle and career. There is a need to understand that pandemic is affecting everyone, either physically or mentally. There must be increase in the study of the aspects of mental health during the pandemic and methods to cope with issues like discrimination for better mental health during pandemic period.",signatures:"Sarika Jain and Manish Yadav",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78678",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78678",authors:[{id:"354182",title:"Dr.",name:"sarika",surname:"jain",slug:"sarika-jain",fullName:"sarika jain"},{id:"435340",title:"Dr.",name:"Manish",surname:"Yadav",slug:"manish-yadav",fullName:"Manish Yadav"}],corrections:null},{id:"78248",title:"COVID-19 and Multiorgan Dysfunction Syndrome",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99676",slug:"covid-19-and-multiorgan-dysfunction-syndrome",totalDownloads:162,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is the leading cause of death in COVID-19 infection, however, multi-organ dysfunction due to COVID-19 and/or because of co-morbidities is a usual accompaniment causing unfavorable outcome. Early detection of organ failure and giving appropriate organ support may improve the chances of survival. Arterial Blood Gas (ABG) analysis; electrolytes coupled with clinical picture and with organ related laboratory investigations may help in diagnosis of MODS and sepsis in COVID-19 SEVERE SYNDROME. Acute kidney injury (AKI), myocarditis, thromboembolism, acute liver de-compensation, hospital acquired infections, cardiac arrest, glycemic variability, thyroid dysfunction and other organ failure may lead to MODS. As patients having multiple organ syndrome requires ICU admission and interventions like intubation, hemodialysis and other extracorporeal treatment support knowing holistically about “COVID-19 MODS” is important for treating physicians.",signatures:"Jitendra D. Lakhani, Sajni Kapadia, Rohit Choradiya, Roop Preet Gill and Som J. Lakhani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78248",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78248",authors:[{id:"348628",title:"Prof.",name:"Jitendra",surname:"D. Lakhani",slug:"jitendra-d.-lakhani",fullName:"Jitendra D. Lakhani"},{id:"416797",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajani",surname:"Kapadia",slug:"sajani-kapadia",fullName:"Sajani Kapadia"},{id:"416798",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",surname:"Chordiya",slug:"rohit-chordiya",fullName:"Rohit Chordiya"},{id:"416799",title:"Dr.",name:"Roop",surname:"Gill",slug:"roop-gill",fullName:"Roop Gill"},{id:"416800",title:"Dr.",name:"Som J.",surname:"Lakhani",slug:"som-j.-lakhani",fullName:"Som J. Lakhani"}],corrections:null},{id:"78555",title:"COVID-19 and Catastrophic Antiphospholipid Syndrome",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99896",slug:"covid-19-and-catastrophic-antiphospholipid-syndrome",totalDownloads:71,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"One year after the beginning of the epidemic, mortality continues to be high despite several different protocols being tried. Critical patients with Covid 19 in some degree of organ failure and thrombotic events meet the diagnostic criteria of a complete or incomplete catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome (CAPS) or at least we may need to consider a partial form of it. The findings of autopsies and the involvement of different organs and systems are similar to those of CAPS. Currently the only therapy that has been shown to reduce mortality include steroids, anticoagulation and an antinuclear antibody. The same therapy has been shown to be effective for CAPS.",signatures:"Hisyovi Cardenas Suri, David Jimomila Bening and Benjamín Demah Nuertey",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78555",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78555",authors:[{id:"347297",title:"Dr.",name:"Hisyovi",surname:"Cardenas Suri",slug:"hisyovi-cardenas-suri",fullName:"Hisyovi Cardenas Suri"},{id:"416522",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Jimomila Bening",slug:"david-jimomila-bening",fullName:"David Jimomila Bening"},{id:"446433",title:"Dr.",name:"Benjamín",surname:"Demah Nuertey",slug:"benjamin-demah-nuertey",fullName:"Benjamín Demah Nuertey"}],corrections:null},{id:"77900",title:"Fighting COVID-19: The Medical Laboratory Involvement",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99459",slug:"fighting-covid-19-the-medical-laboratory-involvement",totalDownloads:243,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) virus has infected many people across the globe. The health system particularly medical laboratory has been overwhelmed by the pandemic, and many health professionals including medical laboratory professionals have lost their lives during the fight against the virus. Medical laboratory science is the bedrock of medical practice and the role of medical laboratory science in containing the COVID-19 pandemic cannot be overemphasized as they are also behind the testing of clinical specimens from infected and any recovered patients. As disease detectives, Medical laboratory scientists and other medical laboratory professionals’ role in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic include; diagnosis, monitoring, development of vaccines, testing protocols, testing kits, offering advice to the guide government policy on containment of the virus.: Various methods and techniques such as virological cell culture, genomic sequencing, amplification, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) /gene Xpert systems, immunological testing, biosensors and rapid diagnostic techniques (RDTs) have been employed towards discovery, testing and epidemiology since the onset of COVID-19. The medical laboratory workers and other health workers are so visible at the COVID-19 frontline and are being recognized and applauded for the role played in the recovery of patients affected with the virus. The medical laboratory component is very germane in the COVID-19 vaccine research and vaccination so as to provide pre- and post-vaccination laboratory data.",signatures:"Obeta M. Uchejeso, Jwanse I. Rinpan, Mantu E. Chongs and Maureen O. Ekpere-Ezeugwu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77900",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77900",authors:[{id:"329113",title:"Dr.",name:"Obeta",surname:"M. Uchejeso",slug:"obeta-m.-uchejeso",fullName:"Obeta M. Uchejeso"},{id:"331230",title:"MSc.",name:"Jwanse",surname:"I. Rinpan",slug:"jwanse-i.-rinpan",fullName:"Jwanse I. Rinpan"},{id:"333607",title:"MSc.",name:"Mantu",surname:"E. Chongs",slug:"mantu-e.-chongs",fullName:"Mantu E. Chongs"},{id:"416206",title:"MSc.",name:"Maureen O.",surname:"Ekpere-Ezeugwu",slug:"maureen-o.-ekpere-ezeugwu",fullName:"Maureen O. Ekpere-Ezeugwu"}],corrections:null},{id:"77810",title:"Evolution of Diagnostic Methods and Prevalence Detection of COVID-19: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99241",slug:"evolution-of-diagnostic-methods-and-prevalence-detection-of-covid-19-a-review",totalDownloads:85,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In clinical, research, and public health laboratories, many diagnostic methods are used to detect the coronavirus. Some tests directly detect infection by detecting viral RNA, while others detect the disease indirectly by detecting host antibodies. Several studies on SARS-CoV-2 diagnostic methods have found varying throughput, batching capacity, infrastructure requirements, analytical efficiency, and turnaround times ranging from minutes to hours. Serosurvey studies have been conducted for antibodies to understand, model, and forecast the prevalence of the disease in an area. While on the research and predictive modeling side, sampling and analysis of sewage have been conducted to determine the number of RNA copies and hence the prevalence. Certain studies indicate usefulness of GIS (Geographic Information System) for understanding the pervasiveness of COVID-19 in an area as well. The current chapter deals with the evolution of diagnostic techniques for COVID-19 and discusses use of specific techniques and appropriateness in certain specified conditions. It also focuses on understanding the methods used for assessing the prevalence of COVID-19 in a particular region to extract mitigative strategies from it, either by prediction or management of the affected area.",signatures:"Hemant Bherwani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77810",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77810",authors:[{id:"347215",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Hemant",surname:"Bherwani",slug:"hemant-bherwani",fullName:"Hemant Bherwani"}],corrections:null},{id:"77621",title:"Usefulness of the Hemogram in COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98950",slug:"usefulness-of-the-hemogram-in-covid-19",totalDownloads:101,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"SARS-CoV2 infection has devastating consequences on healthcare systems and has caused 3 million deaths by April 2021. Identifying patients at risk of death is a priority. Moderate–severe COVID-19 cases seem to associate a cytokine release that follows endothelial injury, triggering a hyperinflammatory and procoagulant state in which leukocytes and platelets are protagonists. Our group has published some reports about the usefulness of the hemogram in COVID-19. Hemogram-derived ratios, mainly the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) and the novelty neutrophil-to-platelet ratio (NPR), obtained on admission and their rate of change during hospitalization, can easily detect patients with high risk of mortality. Hemogram is a tool available to all hospitals and analyzing the hemogram-derived ratios would provide much more information than could be extracted by evaluating the counts in isolation. We now know that in COVID-19 it is essential to start early anti-inflammatory treatment when patient deteriorates and the hemogram could be a good indicator of this situation. More comprehensive studies are needed to determine how useful these hemogram-derived ratios and prognostic scores are. In the next chapter we will present information related to this aspect as well as our group’s research on the usefulness of the hemogram in COVID-19.",signatures:"Sara Jimeno, Alejandro Peixoto, Sara Velázquez, Paula Sol Ventura, Salvador I. García Adasme and Alejandro López-Escobar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77621",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77621",authors:[{id:"350502",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro",surname:"López-Escobar",slug:"alejandro-lopez-escobar",fullName:"Alejandro López-Escobar"},{id:"416342",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Jimeno",slug:"sara-jimeno",fullName:"Sara Jimeno"},{id:"416343",title:"MSc.",name:"Alejandro",surname:"Peixoto",slug:"alejandro-peixoto",fullName:"Alejandro Peixoto"},{id:"416344",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Velázquez",slug:"sara-velazquez",fullName:"Sara Velázquez"},{id:"416345",title:"Mr.",name:"Salvador I.",surname:"García-Adasme",slug:"salvador-i.-garcia-adasme",fullName:"Salvador I. García-Adasme"},{id:"416346",title:"Dr.",name:"Paula",surname:"Ventura Wichner",slug:"paula-ventura-wichner",fullName:"Paula Ventura Wichner"}],corrections:null},{id:"77533",title:"COVID-19 Vaccine: A Way Out of Crisis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98736",slug:"covid-19-vaccine-a-way-out-of-crisis",totalDownloads:115,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"COVID-19 pandemic has taken toll on the entire globe at physical, emotional and administrative level; straining each and every aspect to its fullest. As on April 19/2021, COVID-19 has infected more than 140 million people around world with around 3 million deaths worldwide. Covid-19 vaccine has emerged as an important direction to walk the world out of this crisis. This chapter covers the basic aspects and principles of vaccination and Immunology and its application in COVID-19 pandemic. This chapter further covers the different type of vaccines being developed, their dosage schedule and route of administration, common adverse events and myths related to them.",signatures:"Aman Sachdeva and Arup Saha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77533",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77533",authors:[{id:"415348",title:"Dr.",name:"Aman",surname:"Sachdeva",slug:"aman-sachdeva",fullName:"Aman Sachdeva"},{id:"416535",title:"Dr.",name:"Arup",surname:"Saha",slug:"arup-saha",fullName:"Arup Saha"}],corrections:null},{id:"77283",title:"Myths: Barriers to Fighting the COVID-19 Pandemic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98711",slug:"myths-barriers-to-fighting-the-covid-19-pandemic",totalDownloads:106,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Myths are widely dispersed but false ideologies or misconceptions. With the thousands of deaths recorded daily and the negative toll of the novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) on public health, national economy, and human interaction, it remains surprising how people are still being swayed by conspiracy theories. Due to the novelty of the disease, the quest for an answer, what works, and what does not work gave room for the propagation of misinformation, especially on social media. Identifying and debunking myths is very important in managing disease outbreak, since myths can negatively influence the response of people to preventive and containment strategies. Major proponents of COVID-19 myths have promoted their falsehood on the guise that it is a biological weapon engineered to control the world population. Others have also falsely claimed the use of antibiotics or other antiviral drugs in the treatment of COVID-19 and that COVID-19 is no worse than the common flu or it is just the disease of the elderly. This has promoted refusal to take up the COVID-19 vaccine and increased non-adherence to the preventive guidelines. Myths have been a major stumbling block to curtailing the menace of COVID-19. All hands must be on deck to fight this.",signatures:"Olabode Omotoso, Teibo John and Gbenga Ojo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77283",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77283",authors:[{id:"348192",title:"Mr.",name:"Olabode",surname:"Omotoso",slug:"olabode-omotoso",fullName:"Olabode Omotoso"},{id:"416536",title:"MSc.",name:"Gbenga",surname:"Ojo",slug:"gbenga-ojo",fullName:"Gbenga Ojo"},{id:"416537",title:"Mr.",name:"John",surname:"Teibo",slug:"john-teibo",fullName:"John Teibo"}],corrections:null},{id:"77282",title:"Myths Surrounding Covid-19 Vaccine Candidates: A Guide to Fight Back",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98714",slug:"myths-surrounding-covid-19-vaccine-candidates-a-guide-to-fight-back",totalDownloads:126,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Covid-19 pandemic has propelled public health officials into the socio-political sphere due to the need for constantly updated information on behalf of the public. However, many individuals choose to acquire health information/guidance from indirect sources, including social media, news organizations, and general word of mouth. As a result, myths and false narratives about various essential health topics, including vaccine characteristics and protective measures, can circulate un-verified between millions of individuals with little recourse. These can further widen the “gap” between public knowledge and current research, resulting in lower vaccine uptake (vaccine hesitancy) and protective measure adherence. Such actions have profound implications as nations attempt to achieve herd immunity and end the pandemic once and for all. Thus, it is vital that public health officials, health providers, researchers, and the general public be able to differentiate common Covid-19 myths from facts and be prepared to approach such interactions via sound reasoning and research-based evidence. This chapter will serve as a guide to accomplish just that.",signatures:"John Zizzo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77282",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77282",authors:[{id:"347174",title:"M.D.",name:"John",surname:"Zizzo",slug:"john-zizzo",fullName:"John Zizzo"}],corrections:null},{id:"77774",title:"Covid-19 Vaccines and Institutional Trust",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99124",slug:"covid-19-vaccines-and-institutional-trust",totalDownloads:106,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Major public and private laboratories entered into a race to find an effective Covid-19 vaccine. With the arrival of the vaccines, governments have to implement vaccination programs to achieve the necessary immunization levels to prevent further transmission of the disease. In this context, the ethical dilemma of compulsory vaccination vs. voluntary vaccination has been raised. Underlying this dilemma lies the problem of the ethical models on which the political decisions of governments in health matters based. The chapter proposes and argues the need to base health policy decisions on an ethical “first person” model, based on personal responsibility, that allows us to move from a normative ethic to an ethic of responsible behavior. This change in the ethical model, together with certain proposals for political action, will help us to restore institutional trust, so that the necessary levels of collective immunity against Covid-19 can be achieved through the voluntary vaccination of the citizens.",signatures:"Fermín Jesús González-Melado and María Luisa Di Pietro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77774",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77774",authors:[{id:"349316",title:"Dr.",name:"Fermín Jesús",surname:"González-Melado",slug:"fermin-jesus-gonzalez-melado",fullName:"Fermín Jesús González-Melado"},{id:"416173",title:"Prof.",name:"María Luisa",surname:"Di Pietro",slug:"maria-luisa-di-pietro",fullName:"María Luisa Di Pietro"}],corrections:null},{id:"75843",title:"Pharmacotherapy for COVID-19: A Ray of Hope",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97012",slug:"pharmacotherapy-for-covid-19-a-ray-of-hope",totalDownloads:222,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Most viral infections have limited treatment options available and the same holds for COVID-19, its causative agent being the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Drugs used in the past against Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) or Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) viruses, which belong to the same family of viruses as the novel Coronavirus included ribavirin, interferon (alfa and beta), lopinavir-ritonavir combination, and corticosteroids. There remains controversy regarding their efficacy to date, except for the last one. Hence, large-scale multicentric trials are being conducted involving multiple drugs. Chloroquine and hydroxy-chloroquine were initially taking the race ahead but have now been rejected. Remdesivir was a promising candidate, for which the FDA had issued an emergency use authorization, but now is not recommended by the WHO. Convalescent plasma therapy had promising results in the early severe viremia phase, but the PLACID trial made an obscure end. Only corticosteroids have shown demonstrable benefits in improving mortality rates among severe COVID-19 cases. Many new modalities like monoclonal antibodies and tyrosine kinase inhibitors are discussed. In this chapter, we review the therapeutic drugs under investigation for the COVID-19 treatment, their mode of action, degree of effectiveness, and recommendations by different centers regarding their use in current settings.",signatures:"Mayank Kapoor, Prasan Kumar Panda and Vivek Mohanty",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75843",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75843",authors:[{id:"269294",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasan Kumar",surname:"Panda",slug:"prasan-kumar-panda",fullName:"Prasan Kumar Panda"},{id:"348097",title:"Dr.",name:"Mayank",surname:"Kapoor",slug:"mayank-kapoor",fullName:"Mayank Kapoor"},{id:"348098",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivek",surname:"Mohanty",slug:"vivek-mohanty",fullName:"Vivek Mohanty"}],corrections:null},{id:"77142",title:"Home Care as a Safe Alternative during COVID-19 Crisis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98529",slug:"home-care-as-a-safe-alternative-during-covid-19-crisis",totalDownloads:97,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"High mortality rate for the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has been reported worldwide in nursing home residents, and the global concern about the safety of patients and professionals in these institutions is relevant. A large part of post-acute and chronic patient care in Brazil is performed at home through Home Care (HC) services. The objectives of this chapter are to describe the main measures that can be implemented in patient homes in order to keep professionals, patients, and family members safe and to analyze the safety of choosing the home as the place of care during a pandemic, especially in contrast to the results observed in long-term care facilities. COVID-19 infection data among home care patients, obtained after a year of severe epidemic in Brazil, demonstrate that home care is safe and is associated with a low incidence and low lethality related to the new coronavirus.",signatures:"Heloisa Amaral Gaspar and Claudio Oliveira Flauzino",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77142",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77142",authors:[{id:"347923",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Heloisa",surname:"Amaral Gaspar",slug:"heloisa-amaral-gaspar",fullName:"Heloisa Amaral Gaspar"},{id:"347927",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudio",surname:"Oliveira Flauzino",slug:"claudio-oliveira-flauzino",fullName:"Claudio Oliveira Flauzino"}],corrections:null},{id:"78423",title:"Tackling COVID-19 through the One Health Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99677",slug:"tackling-covid-19-through-the-one-health-approach",totalDownloads:107,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Covid-19 pandemic is currently ravaging the globe with enormous morbidity and mortality. This pandemic, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 started from China and has spread across the globe. Initial reports indicated that the SARS-CoV-2 initially emerged among animals from where they transfer to humans. Different strategies deployed to curtail the pandemic have yielded little result. Therefore, the One-Health concept may compliment existing strategies. The One Health places emphasis on the between the animal-human-ecosystem interface and how this can be used to tackle public health problems, including the COVID-19 pandemic. One Health Surveillance will involve tracking viral pathogens in animals to access risk of transfer to humans. It will also stimulate targeted approaches for prevention and treatment of viral zoonotic infections. 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Since the 1980s, researchers have been working on polymeric drug delivery systems [1, 2, 3, 4]. Several of the frontier scientific fields are the hunt for novel medication delivery mechanisms and novel action mechanisms. These include multidisciplinary research techniques that aim to make significant improvements in therapeutic efficacy and bioavailability just at point of medication administration [5, 6]. One or more traditional medication delivery mechanisms are combined with engineering technologies in a drug delivery system. The technologies allow for precise targeting of the place in the body where a medicine has been delivered and/or the pace at which it has been released.
Short half-lives, low bioavailability, and physicochemical instability are all common limitations of biopharmaceutical therapies. Physiological instability is characterized by changes in the highly organized structure of proteins, which can result in undesired events including denaturation, aggregation, and precipitation. The chemical instability of pharmaceuticals is exacerbated by processes including such oxidation, deamidation, hydrolysis, and racemization. Stimulus-responsive polymers provide a pharmaceutical delivery mechanism for delivering pharmaceuticals at a regulated pace and in a durable and physiologically functional state. Research in stimuli-responsive polymers has grown over the years, and a lot of effort has gone into designing eco-friendly macromolecules that may be molded into novel smart polymers [7]. A composition or platform that allows the administration of a medicinal chemical into the body is known as just polymeric drug carriers. By regulating the pace, duration, and location of medication distribution in the system, it increases its effectiveness and safety. There in previous two decades, delivery of drugs has progressed significantly, but regulating medication entrance into the system, particularly the brain, has remained a tough challenge. Recent development in investigations of nano-drug delivery system distribution across the blood-brain membrane via carrier-mediated carriage is starting to give a reasonable basis for directing medication delivery to the brain. Natural materials such as amino acids, hexose, peptides, monocarboxylate, and stem cells are transported over the blood-brain membrane via ingestion transporters [8, 9, 10]. In the type of biomaterials with liposomes, polymers in reservoir-containing drug delivery applications have made tremendous development. Additional applications of the polymers include diffusion-based drug delivery systems and solvent-triggered/activated drug delivery systems. Drugs are dissolved in a non-swellable solution or a completely inflated matrix that does not breakdown throughout their engagement period in diffusion-based drug delivery applications. Whenever subjected to an aquatic media, solvent triggered materials such as hydrogels expand and release the medication. They are naturally hydrophilic. Because of their well-engineered polymeric by the changes in the underlying reasons of the biological function, biocompatible polymers provide a safe pathway for medication transport. Biodegradable polymers disintegrate owing to the breakage of covalent bonds among them, whereas bioerodible polymers cause degradation of the polymer owing to the dissolving of connecting strands without causing any changes in the molecule’s chemical properties. Aqueous soluble, safe, as well as non-immunogenic polymers are being used as therapeutic carriers. They act in the background to reduce medication breakdown and increase circulation time. Another crucial consideration is the drug’s appropriate elimination. If indeed the polymer is non-degradable, it really should be avoided accumulating in the body, and if it is biodegradable, the fragmented elements should be safe and not cause an immune reaction. Polymers that resemble important biological respond to environmental stimuli such as changes in pH or thermal by altering features such as solubility, hydrophobic/hydrophilic equilibrium, biomolecule (pharmaceutical component) releases, as well as configuration [11, 12].
The polymeric medicinal delivery compositions are classified into several classes, such as, biodegradable (chemically-controlled), diffusion-controlled, externally-responsive systems (e.g., temperature pH,) [13], solvent-actuated [14] and nanosized polymeic delivery platform that accomplish in three prime technologies [15]: (i) PEGylation [16, 17], (ii) active targeting of certain cells and organs [18, 19, 20] and (iii) Increased permeability and retaining allows for passive targeting effect [20, 21]. The more sophisticated polymeric therapeutic delivery technologies are indeed being anticipated as multidimensional fully – featured systems that will enable instantly improved pharmacokinetics, decreased toxicity, faster targeting, as well as a programmable drug release pattern. Furthermore, greater appropriate therapy might be provided by combination treatment, which involves the simultaneous administration of 2 or more medicaments/diagnostics substances [22, 23, 24]. In reaction to a modest external/internal stimulation, a stimuli-reactive or smart polymer changes its physical characteristics abruptly. Although minor changes take place in subjected to external/internal stimuli stimulus until a crucial limit is found, and they have the potential to revert to their original form when the stimulus is withdrawn, those polymers are indeed known as smart polymers [25, 26, 27]. The uniqueness of these polymers resides in their unpredictable reaction, which is initiated by a really tiny stimulus and results in enormous structural changes. Different triggers responsible for modulating the release of the drug using innovative polymeric drug delivery compositions are depicted in Figure 1. Modifications in physical state, structure, solubility, solvent interactions, aqueous soluble and lipid soluble equilibrium, and conductance are all reversible transitions. The introduction of oppositely charged polymers or a pH change to neutralize charged groups, as well as variations in the water-loving/lipid-loving balance or hydrogen bonding owing to temperature differences, are the driving factors underlying such transitions. Fewer dosage periodicities, simplicity of preparation, preservation of optimal therapeutic level at a single dose, longer delivery of integrated medication, decreased adverse effects, and increased stability are all advantages of innovative polymer-based medicaments delivery systems [28, 29, 30].
Stimuli and materials that respond to them.
A dynamic polymeric material can respond in a variety of ways. The breakdown and development of numerous secondary interactions such as hydrogen bonding, van der Waals forces, hydrophobic forces, and electrostatic interaction [31, 32] restrict the responsiveness of such a polymeric solution induced by physicochemical stimuli. Fundamental processes including acid-base reaction, reduction, oxidation, and hydrolysis of components linked to the polymer chain are examples of chemical processes. Destruction of a polymeric structure owing to irreversible bond breaking in response to external stimuli is one example of the significant conformational shift in the polymer backbone. Biodegradability and biocompatibility; sustained-release characteristics; drug-loading potential; the dearth of deleterious characteristics including systemic toxicity, carcinogenic effects, immunogenicity, and reproductive toxicity; as well as outstanding stability characteristics are all important characteristics of a smart polymer.
These are polymeric frameworks that are susceptible to thermal fluctuations. These polymers exhibit a gel-to-gel shift as temperature dependent, and can be used to deliver medicinal compounds in vivo. This sort of system seems to have a crucial temperature of the solution (usually in aqua) where the polymer and solution phases shift according to respective content. The solubility of several polymers varies dramatically as a result of ambient temperature. This characteristic was used to create aqueous solutions of these polymeric materials that go through a sol-gel changeover when the temperature varies. A maximum crucial solution temperature (MaxCST) exists for thermally sensitive polymer blends that display one component above a specific temperature with phase separation underneath it (MaxCST). Polymeric solutions that seem to be monophasic under a certain temperature but biphasic beyond that temperature are said to have a minimum crucial solution temperature (MinCST) [33, 34]. The MinCST seems to be the temperature where a polymer solution divides into two portions (anisotropic and isotropic states), abundant and deficient in the polymer. Such solution also is monophasic under a certain temperature but biphasic beyond that degree. The enthalpy parameter, which is connected to hydrogen bonding here between polymer and the water molecules, is accountable for polymer breakdown underneath the MinCST. When temperatures are raised just above MinCST, the entropy component (lipophilic contacts) takes precedence, resulting in polymer deposition. Among the most biocompatible polymers with MinCST characteristics includes poly (ethylene oxide). Nevertheless, based on the molecular mass, the MinCST transition of poly (ethylene oxide) aqueous solutions happens at ambient temperature, spanning between 100° C to 150° C. At minimum temperatures than just the poly (ethylene oxide) MinCST, a polymer with ethylene oxide components and hydrophilic sections (e.g. ethanol) would show phase changes. When a linear polymer with small sufficient Ethylene oxide sections is utilized to avoid micelle production, the precipitating from the aqueous phase can be thought about as a rapid MinCST changeover. Furthermore, in the lack of intermolecular and intramolecular hydrogen bonding, a continuous alternation of ethylene oxide-ethylene monomer copolymer pattern throughout the polymer would result in a MinCST defined either by lipophilic/hydrophilic equilibrium.
Poly(N-alkylacrylamide)s, Poloxamers, Poly(N-vinylcaprolactam)s, Chitosan, poly (ethylene oxide)- poly (propyleneoxide)- poly (ethylene oxide), Cellulose, xyloglucan, etc. are instances of thermally sensitive polymers (lactic acid) – tri blocks of poly (ethylene glycol). Poly (N-isopropyl acrylamide) and Poly (N-alkyl substituted acrylamides) with an annealing temperature of 32° C as well as poly (Nvinylalkylamides) like poly (N-vinyliso-butyramide) with just an annealing temperature of 39° C are perhaps the most extensively utilized thermally sensitive polymers [7, 35].
The occurrence of a minimum crucial solution temperature (MinCST) above which the polymer turns aqueous insoluble is generally the source of thermally-responsive smart polymeric solubility. This is characteristic of polymers that create hydrogen bonds with aqua, and it also has a wide spectrum of biological possibilities, including cell mapping, smart medication delivery, DNA sequencing, and so on. The chemical makeup of the monomers is varied throughout this strategy to regulate the polymer thermal sensitivity in aqua. To accomplish this, a variety of polymers centered on ethyleneoxide/ethylene monomer were developed and produced via multiple condensation processes of polyfunctional ethyleneoxide/ethylene monomer oligomers. The cloud point reflects the hydrophobicity/hydrophobicity balance continuously and may be customized in the spectrum of 7–70°C by adjusting the composition and polymer type.
The lack of organic solvents is an important benefit of such compositions. The shrinking in the volume that emits a considerable quantity of an encapsulating medication has been linked to the strong initial bursting impact of such approaches. The solubility behavior of polymer grafted onto the silicon surface is identical. The solubility cloud levels of grafting polymers are similar to those of bulk polymer solutions, according to binding energy studies.
Thermally responsive smart polymers’ dynamic solubility is generated by variations in the lipophilic/hydrophilic balance of the electron-deficient polymer, which are triggered by rising temperature or ionic intensity. Because of hydrogen bonds between aqueous molecules, electron-deficient polymers are soluble in aqua. The efficacy of hydrogen bonding decreases even as the temperature goes up. Whenever the effectiveness of hydrogen bonding is inadequate for macromolecule immersion, a polymer phase transition occurs. A phase transition occurs whenever the temperature of the water solution of innovative polymers is raised beyond a particularly critical point. There is a formation of an aqueous phase with almost minimal polymer and a polymer richer phase. The temperature at which a phase transformation occurs is determined by the amount of polymer present as well as the molecular mass of a polymer [35, 36].
pH-Adaptive polymers are a class of stimuli-sensitive polymers that may alter their structural and physical properties in reaction to variations in solution pH, including surface properties, chain conformation, solubility, and arrangement. The phrase “pH-reactive polymers” refers to polymers containing ionizable basic or acidic groups where ionization is affected by the pH of the solution. In the latest days, the topic of pH-reactive polymers has grown in popularity, with scientific research being published year after year. As either a result, pH-sensitive polymer systems are extremely helpful in a broad array of applications, including gene delivery, drug administration, surfaces, membranes receptors, and chromatography [37, 38, 39].
Polymers that respond to pH might be linear, branching, or networked. According to their architectures, polymers may have varied sensitivities to solution circumstances and variable self-assembly tendencies. A pH shift, for instance, might result in the (de)protonation of functional moiety in the polymeric chain. It can produce flocculation, strand collapse-extension, including deposition in homopolymers in certain situations. It also might produce self-assembly in the forms of micelles, unimers, gels, vesicles, swelling, and deswelling, among other things. Surface active behaviors are demonstrated by pH alteration in block (co)polymers, branching (co)polymers, and starry (co)polymers with pH-sensitive block(s). Furthermore, pH changes cause (de)swelling in hydrogel as well as dendrimer-like formations. Surfaces altered with polymers allow for the creation of ionic interfaces with thin/thick layers as a result of pH changes. Figure 2 depicts the variations in polymers of various topologies caused by pH changes.
Polymers that respond to pH in a variety of ways.
pH Adaptive polymers are polyelectrolytes with weakly basic or acidic moieties in their architecture that receive or liberate protons in reaction to variations in the pH of the surroundings. Polymers containing acidic or basic groups, such as carboxyl, pyridine, sulfonic, phosphate, and tertiary amines, are commonly referred to as pH adaptive polymers because of ionization of the molecules with pH variation causes a structural change. Their pH sensibility or ionization allows us to modify its self-assembly behavior, wettability phase segregation, polyelectrolyte character, and other properties, in complement to their biotechnological uses. It is feasible to make a polymer with a pKa ranging from 1 to 14. pH Reactive polymers having basic monomers behave like cationic polymers in acidic conditions, whereas polymers having acidic monomers behave like anionic polymers in basic conditions. Depending on the requirements, a few of these two types or a combination of the two with the appropriate composition is necessary. Natural polymers, as well as manmade polymers, have indeed been thoroughly investigated. Biopolymers are by far the most widely investigated because of their richness in ecology, rapid degradation, bio-compatibility, their potential to be modified. Polypeptides such as poly(histidine), poly(L-glutamic acid), and poly(aspartic acid) can be used to synthesize pH-reactive polymers. Such polymers are biodegradable and biocompatible, just like biopolymers. These biopolymers are quite significant among pH-sensitive polymers [38, 40, 41].
These really are polymeric frameworks that are thermal and pH-sensitive, but they are created by combining ionizable with lipophilic (inverse thermo-sensitive) moiety in a straightforward way [42]. Chitosan, acrylic acid, N,Ndimethylaminoethylmethacrylate, and other polymers that really are thermal and pH-responsive are instances. This is accomplished mostly by copolymerizing monomers with all these molecules, integrating thermally responsive polymers with polyelectrolytes, or developing novel monomers that adapt to both stimulation concurrently [43, 44].
Glucose-sensitive polymers can imitate typical internal insulin production, reducing diabetes problems and allowing for regulated delivery of the bioactive chemical. These really are sugar responsive and exhibit a wide range of responses to glucose. Although their applicability for both glucose monitoring and insulin administration, such polymers have gotten a lot of interest. Despite these benefits, the main drawbacks are the quick reaction time as well as the possibility of non-biocompatibility. The following techniques have been used to build glucose-sensitive polymeric-based formulations: enzymatic oxidation of glucose using glucose oxidase, glucose binding using lectin, or reversible covalent bond creation using phenylboronic acid molecules. Glucose responsiveness is caused by the polymer’s reaction to the by-products produced either by oxidation (enzymatic) of glucose. Glucose oxidase (GOx) is oxidized to form glucose to produce gluconic acid with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Within the instance of poly (acrylicacid) coupled with GOx mechanism, for instance, when blood glucose levels rise, conversion of glucose to gluconic acid, causing a drop in pH enabling hydrogenation of PAA carboxylate groups, allowing insulin to be released more quickly. Because its release profile closely resembles that of internal insulin, this approach is gaining popularity [45, 46].
Another technique makes use of lectin’s specific carbohydrate-binding characteristics to create a glucose-responsive system. Lectins are bifunctional proteins, and their glucose-biding function allows them to produce a variety of glucose-sensitive materials. The responses of these mechanisms were unique to glucose and mannose, with no reaction to certain other sugars. Concanavalin A is a 4 binding-site lectin that has been widely employed in insulin-containing medication delivery. The insulin component is chemically changed by inserting functional moieties (or glucose molecule) and afterward connected to a transporter or support via particular interactions that can only be disrupted by the glucose it in this sort of system. Concanavalin A competitive binding characteristic to glucose as well as glycosylated insulin is exploited in the glycosylated insulin-Concanavalin A combination. The bioactive unbound glucose moieties cause glycosylated Concanavalin A-insulin complex to be displaced inside the surrounding structures. The production of single-substituted glucosyl terminal PEG with insulin complex was also described in other investigations. The G-PEG–insulin complex was covalently coupled to Concanavalin A, which was connected to a PEG–poly(vinylpyrrolidone-co-acrylic acid) framework, and when the levels of sugar grew, the competitive attachment of glucose to Con A caused the G-PEG insulin complex to be displaced and released (Figure 3) [47].
Polymers that respond to glucose in a variety of ways.
Photo-sensitive polymeric materials are useful in that they could transport bioactive substances in reaction to light, including drug release happening nearly instantly and with excellent precision due to photo-induced restructuring in nano-carriers [48]. Three primary strategies were used to do this: This non-invasive form of drug administration reacts to the lighting of a certain wavelength and depends on either a single or multiple on-off drug release patterns [49]: (1) photo-generated change of hydrophobic nature to hydrophilic nature, (2) photo splitting reaction, and (3) photo-induced warming. Whilst also electromagnetic radiations with wavelengths in the range from 250 to 380 nm (ultraviolet region) and 700–900 nm (near-infrared region) are being used to stimulate photo-sensitive responses, light with wavelengths greater than 900 nm is inappropriate for delivery of drugs to certain parts of the human body, including the posterior section of the ocular system, because it cannot permeate the ocular soft tissue. Despite the fact that various polymers have been explored for ocular administration, several have been ruled out owing to chromophore intolerance and tissue destruction from photostimulation [50]. In order to establish an osmolality of a gel system, UV-responsiveness polymeric materials have been used in the eye to trigger an ionization process in the exposed to UV light, culminating in drug release through an inflow of solvent [51]. In another study, Viger et al. [52] used light thermally release of drugs to show the liberation of aqueous nano-platforms from watered poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) micro-particulate system. Whenever moisture was subjected to NIR light with a wavelength of 980 nm, the photo-energy was quickly converted into thermal energy. The PLGA changed to a rubbery condition as a result of the warming, allowing the Nile red or Nile blue to be released from the micro-particulate system more easily. When compared with untreated particulates, the substantial release was achieved, which was also shown in vitro [52].
At the minimum one aqueous soluble area, at minimum one biodegradable part, as well as at least minimum of two free radical polymerizable portions are included in the macromers. Free radical activators polymerize macromers in presence of UV irradiation, visible light stimulation, or heat energy. Poly (vinyl alcohol), PEG, polysaccharides like hyaluronan, or peptides like albumin can make up the core aqueous soluble area. Polymers consisting of polyglycolic acid, polylactic acid, poly(anhydrides), polylactones, and poly(amino acids), may be used in the biodegradable zones. Acrylates, methacrylates, diacrylates, and other physiologically acceptable polymerizable units are favored polymerizable areas. Ethyl eosin, camphorquinone, and acetophenone analogs, are examples of promoters that can be employed to generate free radicals [53].
Some fundamental guidelines should be followed while synthesizing enzyme-sensitive polymers with biomedical utilization. Enzymes must work in certain settings (e.g., an aquatic milieu having multiple ions with a pH of 7.4 or mildly basic or acid), while enzyme-sensitive polymers must withstand these circumstances. Apart from the availability of a substrate/substrate-mimic molecule for such focused enzyme to respond, the focused enzymes’ operations must cause a variation in the polymers’ characteristics for the particular activities to occur. The activity of the enzyme and the reaction of the final substance can be performed concurrently or in a step-by-step manner. For instance, proteins were used as a crosslinking agent in the DNA nanoparticles, and proteases quickly degrade the protein, destroying the nanoparticles [54]. In some other cases, enzymatic dissociation of a protective moiety causes peptides generated from amyloid to fold, reorganize, and self-assemble forming fibrillar clumps [55].
In live organisms, enzymes govern the bond generation and breakage, substrate oxidation/reduction, as well as isomerization processes, with the first two chemical reactions being exploited in the development of enzyme-sensitive materials. The bond breakage process has been utilized to cleave protein as well as ester bonds with polymers and/or tiny moiety, which really is important in controlled medication delivery with implant biodegradation. The kinase/phosphatase combination, which catalyzes the dephosphorylation/phosphorylation events here on substrates, might be employed to build reversibly sensitive materials through enzymatic bond creation and breaking.
Chitosan, alginate, dextran, polyethylene glycol, polyacrylamide, and polyethylene oxide have all been investigated as polymer matrices for the creation of enzyme-sensitive systems (butyl methacrylate) (Figure 4) [56, 57, 58].
Polymers that respond to enzymes in a variety of ways.
Redox polymeric materials can be separated into reduction reactive systems and oxidation reactive processes depending on the nature of a reductive stimulus. Disulfide and diselenide connections are typically seen in the reduction reactive system, which will be disrupted by considerable growth in the cost of nearby reducing molecules such as GSH. Direct production of disulfide coupling and bridging with a disulphide-containing crosslinking agent are basically two strategies for incorporating disulfide coupling in the process. By live or regulated polymerization, disulfide could be incorporated into the polymer as the oligomer (e.g. Reversible addition-cleavage crosslinking polymerization and atomic transfer radical polymerization) [59]. The thiol-disulfide interchange process, which is commonly utilized to create reduction reactive prodrugs including genetic transporters, is another viable method with gentler circumstances (e.g. at room temperature) than the controlled/living polymerization [60]. To stop the drug leaking, polymeric micelles comprising substances can indeed be crosslinked with covalently crosslinking agents (using bis(2,2′-hydroxyethyl)disulfide, dithiodipropionic acid, and their derived products) and afterward the disulfide conduits split to discharge the substances after the micelles meet the goal [61]. Since the bond-breaking energies of the C-Se (244 kJ mol1) and Se-Se (172 kJ mol1) bond formation are lesser than those from the C-S (272 kJ mol1) and S-S (251 kJ mol1) bond formation, replacing the disulfide interconnection with the diselenide connection is a simple approach to strengthen the responsiveness of the redox-sensitive system. However, diselenide link insertion into a polymeric matrix is more difficult than disulfide link formation, and more research into effective synthetic techniques is needed (Table 1) [62].
Responsiveness | Merits | Constraints |
---|---|---|
Thermal | Introduction of active moieties is simple. Manufacturing and composition are easy. | Issues with injectability during application criteria. Weak mechanical sturdiness, biocompatibility problems, and thermolablile medicine instabilities. |
pH | Drugs that are thermolabile will benefit from this. | There is a scarcity of data about toxicity. Mechanical strength is low. |
Light | Managing the trigger procedure is simple. Controlling the stimuli with precision. | Gel has a poor mechanical strength, which increases the risk of noncovalently bound chromophores seeping off. |
Electric field | Variations in electrical charge cause pulsative releasing. | Unpredictable behaviors to light. Implantation via surgery is necessary. External stimulus delivery necessitates the use of extra equipment. Perfecting the size of electric charge is challenging. |
Ultrasound | Protein release that can be controlled. | Regulating the release using specialized equipment. Non-biodegradable delivery systems necessitate surgical implantation. |
Mechanical abrasion | Possibility of obtaining medication release | Managing the release pattern is difficult. |
Several smart polymeric drug delivery technologies are available [7].
The reactive oxygen system, the result of aerobic metabolism, is what activates oxidation reactive systems. Oxidation reactive materials include sulfur-based compounds. To accomplish the lipophilic-hydrophilic shift, reactive oxygen moiety can oxidize poly(propylene sulfide) (PPS) to generate sulphoxide [63]. The comparatively higher stability of sulfur in sulfur-containing substances is a fundamental restriction, and the reaction to reactive oxygen may not be as sensitive. The addition of selenium to the polymeric materials, which will be more sensitive than sulfur, improves the susceptibility of the reaction to reactive oxygen [64]. Owing to its own oxidation responsiveness, ferrocene-containing polymeric materials are another prominent family of oxidation reactive polymers [65, 66]. Ferrocene can be inserted in the framework, side chain, and terminal unit of the polymeric materials. Developing themes such as boronic ester moieties, oligoproline, and tetrathiafulvalene have been studied for the development of new oxidation-sensitive polymeric substances to broaden the uses [67, 68].
The majority of bio-sensitive systems, notably those used in cancer therapy, rely on regulated medication release. While significant advancements in chemotherapy have resulted in the development of a number of novel medications for treating cancer that has significantly improved patients’ prognoses and standard of living, a key obstacle remains the treatments’ lack of compassion for neoplastic cells [69]. The treatment impact of the anticancer treatment is harmed by the possibility of a deadly systemic adverse effect and the development of resistant strains [70]. Continued improvement of chemotherapy necessitates adequate drug release at the tumor site as well as the avoidance of drug-carrier endosomal sequestration, and the development of suitable stimulus-sensitive systems has shown tremendous promise in both areas. This is attributable to the fact that tumor tissues’ milieu can produce a variety of natural signals. For instance, tumor cells contain moderate acidity, significant GSH (glutathione) levels, as well as a top-level of hyaluronidase [71], therefore pH-, redox-, and enzyme sensitive drug carriers, as well as their combinations (to optimize the release of drug efficiency), have been extensively studied. Blood serum albumin (HSA)-coatedMnO2 nanomaterial’s as an adaptive transporter of cis-platinum is a fresh example. The MnO2 combines with internal H2O2 just at tumor site to produce O2 in vivo, overcoming medicaments resistance caused by local hypoxic, while the nanoparticles disintegrate in an acidic medium, releasing cis-platinum [72]. In another layout, the water-soluble rhodamine B was covalently conjugated to the PDMAEMA (Poly((2-dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) and via disulphide bond formation with the lipophilic coumarin 102 physiologically encapsulated inside the nanogel, and the hydrophilic rhodamine B has been covalently linked to the PDMAEMA via disulfide bond formation with the lipophilic coumarin 102. The nano gel is swollen in an acidic medium and shrinks at increased temperature to liberate the coumarin 102, whereas decreasing DL-dithiothreitol cleaves the disulfide bridges to liberate the aqueous cargo medication [73]. The development of bio-sensitive drug carriers for controlled release has exploded in the past few decades, and additional improvements in release effectiveness have resulted in dual and numerous systems that can carry several medicines for programmable site-specific delivery of drugs. Pharmaceutical loading, persistence in a microenvironment, tumor-targetability, effective absorption of cancerous cells, and controlled intracellular release of the drug are among the fundamental difficulties in the delivery of drugs addressed by the many configurations of the bio-sensitive delivery mechanism. Even though there are a lot of good studies, most of it makes a specialty of the difficulties and still in the concept-proofing phase [74]. The challenges are associated with most existing bio-sensitive drug delivery mechanisms, such as poor drug loading efficiency, biodegradability, as well as the ability to remain circulatory and concentrate in the target organs, must be overcome in order to convert the study into practical practice (e.g. tumor). In contrast, more research into the subatomic scale in vivo behavior of bio-sensitive systems, as well as the influence of systemic physiological parameters on the release of the drug, is needed [74].
Designing microfluidic technologies for biochemical applications has proven to be a difficult task, and a properly working valve is a critical component in these technologies. Traditional micro-actuators are somewhat sophisticated components that needed additional electricity to operate. The use of sensitive smart polymer composites to govern flow eradicates this need for external power, output control, and complicated fabrication ploys, allowing them to be integrated within microfluidics streams and dwindle or perk up in response to an external stimulus, causing streams to open or close. Photo triggered polymerization inside the stream of a microfluidic chip that may be employed as a gate for changing; transmission, measuring, and closing of a PCR reaction vessel produced monolithic plugging PNiPAAm complexes using 5% methylenebisacrylamide. Because of their simple construction of sensors, the kinetic studies of the volume phase change process as a feature of gel structure and shape, the capacity of the sensors to thwart and supplant the transition between two fluids, anisotropic bulging of a polymer, as well as the ability to adapt to changing stimuli, responsive smart polymeric materials are the structural elements for microfluidic devices. Thermally sensitive smart polymeric materials have also been utilized to create “smart” affinities beads which can be transiently mounted on microfluidic walls of the channel just above MinCST in order to acquire the target biomaterials via its friendliness component. Proteomic functionalities, such as pre-concentration and isolation of soluble proteins on an embedded fluidics device, have been enabled by this technology. Many efforts were made to emulate live creatures’ effective transition of chemical energy to mechanical energy. The bio-inspired actuators might be employed in future ‘soft’ technologies that are based on biological concepts rather than mechanical ones. Because bio-inspired actuators can tolerate extremely hostile conditions, they can also be utilized to pick up extremely small items in watery solutions. By contorting a barrier that subsequently occludes an opening, a system built on pH-sensitive smart polymeric discs of polymethacrylic acid-triethylene glycol dimethacrylate (PMAA-EG) has indeed been utilized to control medication delivery. The electronegative interpenetrating matrix (IPM) made of PVA with PNiPAAm was studied in aquatic NaCl solution for its moisture content and carrying behavior with electromagnetic current, with the goal of using it in bio-inspired sensors and devices that respond quickly to exterior electric fields. The immobilized smart polymer’s prompted manipulation of interfacial characteristics at the solid-liquid interface has benefits in the development of microfluidics bio-analytical systems since they supply the actuation pressure necessary for both valving and dispensing functionalities in micro-dispensing gadgets [75, 76, 77].
Biomedicine research involves advancing our understanding of biology and the processes behind physiological activity and disorders. As a result, in addition to illness therapy, one of the most significant goals is diagnostics, wherein bio-sensitive materials have shown promising potential in detecting low concentrations of biochemical, proteins, and genes that act as sickness-specific indicators. Those indicators are typically tested using high-cost chromatography techniques like high-performance liquid chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, but using stimuli-sensitive systems, easy, rapid, precise, and low-cost detection procedures may be established.
For instance, metallic nanoparticles with a size of 4 nm may greatly boost T1 distinction in magnetic resonance imaging; however, their aggregation led in T2 contrasting augmentation owing to in uniform magnetic field around the aggregates. As a result, IONs like these have been employed as a T2 contrast media to diagnose liver disorders. They are, nevertheless, unsuitable for the identification of smaller hepatocellular carcinomas that requires a good detection to improve the individuals’ average five-year rate of survival [78]. The fall in pH dispersed the aggregation of the functional metallic nanoparticles when they were treated using i-Motif DNAs that really can convert from unistranded to fused quadruple-helical structure in an acidic medium. Because acidification of the tumor encouraged the breakdown of the metallic nanoparticles aggregates and shifted the MRI signal between T2 to T1 augmentation to better the differentiation between hepatocyte and tiny hepatocytic carcinoma tissues, tiny hepatocytic carcinoma may be diagnosed with these bifunctional metallic nanoparticles [79]. pH-sensitive surfaces made comprised of nanoparticles with just an amino group having a silane layer are another intriguing instance. In an acidic medium, the amino groups are protonated, making the surfaces highly hydrophilic, whereas in a highly alkaline, the surfaces become really hydrophobic. The amount of glucose in the mouth and pee may be reliably determined in one second using this surface via measuring the contact area of the liquid specimen, which is dependent on the created gluconic acid following adding glucose oxidase to the specimen [80]. This non-invasive, economic approach of fast glucose measurement is useful for overcoming the drawbacks of standard intrusive diagnosis of diabetes, including such discomfort and infection hazard. While contemporary research has demonstrated the stimuli-sensitive system’s potential and performance in preclinical testing for diagnostic uses, the majority of the built systems do not fulfill the standards for clinical usage. This is owing to the large variety of chemicals found in real specimens collected from individuals with varying situations (e.g., various diets, ethnicities, and lifestyles), which considerably affects the measurement’s specificity and stability [81]. Aside from identifying biochemical levels, constant monitoring and distribution centres in human, both of which are challenging to perform, may be required. As a result, motivated monitoring technologies are still in the early stages of development, and more investigation is necessary before they can be used in clinical illness treatment.
Creating actuators including such valves and levers out of the material, which could be utilized as blood artery implants, is one potential application. To modulate blood flow, the artery might be enlarged or constricted, also utilizing internal biochemical impulses. The valves would’ve been placed into the blood channels of the heart, or prosthetic muscular implants may be created [82].
Hydrophilic polymers must be employed to construct the liquid ophthalmic delivery mechanism since they may serve as a useful viscosity altering or boosting agent. In the ophthalmic mucoadhesive delivery method, polysaccharides are often employed. Hyaluronic acid, methylcellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, chitosan, gellan gum, carrageenan, xanthan gum, and guar gum are some of its variants. Chitosan is a polysaccharide polymer made up of polysaccharides. It is appropriate for usage in medication compositions due to its biodegradability, low toxicity, and biocompatibility [83]. Polyvinylpyrrolidone, poloxamer, and polyvinyl alcohol are among additional non-ionic polymers utilized for mucoadhesive characteristics [84].
The medications as well as the polymer have a physiologically labile connection. Paclitaxel [poly(L-glutamic acid)] is a chemotherapeutic medication employed to treat cancers of the ovary, breast, as well as lung. Phase III studies have been conducted on it. Among its 2’hydroxyl unit and the carboxylic acid of poly(L-glutamic acid), it possesses an ester bond [83]. To improve its efficacy as an antitumor targeted drug delivery, Poly (amidoamine) and PEG is covalently attached with the chemotherapy medication Paclitaxel. Both improve the solubility of the substance. In an in vitro investigation of mankind ovarian cancer cells, it was discovered that PEG-based conjugates lowered paclitaxel activity by 25-fold, but the Poly (amidoamine)]-G4 dendrimer increased its efficacy by more than ten times [12]. The medication 5-fluorouracil induces cell death. Some researchers created PLA nanospheres as an encapsulating reagent for 5-fluorouracil [12].
Smart polymeric materials may be chemically attached to bio-substances or physically combined with them to create a vast variety of polymeric materials and bio-molecular systems that really can adapt to physiological and chemical stimuli. Oligosaccharides, Polypeptides, glucose and polysaccharides, solitary as well as double-sided oligonucleotides, DNA plasmid, basic lipids and ligands, phospholipids, as well as synthesized medicine compounds are examples of bio-substances that can be polymer linked. Smart polymeric materials and sensitive surfaces that cope with environmental stimuli are made with these materials. Smart polymers with size-specific switches for turning proteins on and off were also studied. When a sensible polymer chain is connected to a protein complex that is further away from active site, the expanded polymer chain shields the active-locations, preventing bigger molecules from attaching. These polymers operate as a molecular gatekeeper, limiting the types of molecules that really can attach to proteins depending on their size [85].
The manufacture of insulin administration devices for the management of diabetic individuals is a prime utilization of smart polymeric materials. Several technologies have been used to give precise amounts of insulin at precisely the right moment, and all of them include a glucose sensor, sometimes known as a “biosensor,” incorporated into the mechanism. The word ‘biosensor’ refers to sensing devices that are used to detect the number of chemicals and other biologically relevant analytes. mGlucose oxidase (GluOx) is primarily employed in glucose monitoring and enables the use of various pH-sensitive smart polymeric materials for regulated insulin administration [86, 87].
Tissue culture techniques have leveraged the shift in surface characteristics of thermally sensitive smart polymeric materials from hydrophilic well above threshold temperature to hydrophobic underneath it. Human cells are grown on hydrophobic solid culture plates and are normally separated from them using a protease therapy that causes the cells to be damaged. Because of the close connectivity among cells and cells, this allows for a high level of effectiveness whenever transplanted into individuals. The intensity of each molecule’s reaction to variations in stimuli is a combination of single monomer unit modifications that are weak on their own, and these modest reactions combine to generate a force that drives biochemical mechanisms. Likewise, the chromatographic matrix has been modified using surfaces with thermally responsive hydrophobic/hydrophilic qualities. For protein-rich selectivity with minimal non-specific couplings, thermally responsive size-exclusion chromatography is utilized. Smart polymeric mats are distinguished by their non-linear behavior [88, 89]. A minor stimulus can cause a substantial change in structure and characteristics (Table 2). Once that shift happens, the polymer exhibits a predictable all-or-nothing reaction with full homogeneity throughout [96].
Stimuli | Drug | Polymer | Uses | Goal/outcome of the research |
---|---|---|---|---|
Thermal responsive | Exenatide | PLGA–PEG–PLGA | Diabetic type 2 treatment | To create an injectable composition with a long-acting effect [90]. |
Leuprolide | Polybenzofulvene | For treatment of tumors | External warmth is used to preserve the oligopeptide medication and modulate the release rate [91]. | |
pH responsive | Ketoprofen | Poly(acrylamide)-g-carrageenan and sodium alginate | Targeted distribution to the colon | Whenever the ph of the sample was changed from acidic to basic, ketoprofen release rose considerably [92]. |
Dauxorubicin and paclitaxel | Poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly (propylene glycol)-poly(ethylene glycol) | Survival time is extended as compared to single-drug treatment. | The rate of release can be enhanced by lowering the pH of the external surroundings from acidic to basic [93]. | |
Glucose responsive | Insulin-Con A complex | Methacrylate derivatives of dextran and concanavellin | Insulin delivery that is self-controlled | The findings showed that insulin release was bidirectional in reaction to varying glucose level, and also that the insulin produced was effective [94]. |
Sulphonamide | N,N(dimethylacrylamide) and sulfadimethoxine monomer | Glucose-responsive hydrogel made of sulphonamide | In such a buffered salt solution at pH 7.4, the gelatin displayed bidirectional expansion as a result of glucose content from 0 and 300 mg/dL [95]. | |
Enzyme responsive | Amyloid | Chitosan | The amyloid-derived proteins are rearranged as a result of this. | In live organisms, enzymes govern binding and breakage, substrates oxidation / reduction, including isomerization processes, with the first two chemical reactions being exploited in the development of enzyme responsive substances [57]. |
Photo responsive | Cross linked hyalouronic acid hydrogel | Trisodium salt of copper chlorophyllin | The enzymatic reaction is what drives the prospective application of visible light-responsive hydrogels for temporal delivery of drugs. | Photosensitive compounds including such chromophores are used to make visible light-sensitive hydrogels [94]. |
Several uses of advanced drug delivery systems.
The topic of stimuli-sensitive polymeric materials is quickly evolving, with evidence of its pharmacokinetic and therapeutic usefulness in the delivery of drugs. Stimuli-sensitive polymeric materials, which constitute an adaptive delivery strategy, have been proven to effectively respond in the required manner to the associated stimuli and are interesting prospects as a specific drug delivery option. Despite the fact that most of these polymeric’ multifunctionality qualities enable for a variety of health uses, stimuli sensitive polymeric substances have limited therapeutic potential due to cytocompatibility and toxicity concerns. The enormous progress and different benefits and prospects of stimuli-sensitive polymeric materials have been highlighted in this chapter. Despite the various options that are already available, additional research into healthier and much more biocompatible delivery mechanisms has still been needed.
Not applicable.
All the information in the manuscript has been referred from the included references and is available upon request from the corresponding author.
The authors declare no competing interest.
I declare that this work was done by the author named in this article. PS conceived, designed the study, carried out the literature collection of the data, writing, and corrected the manuscript. PS, MT, and VJ read and approved the final manuscript.
MaxCST | Maximum crucial solution temperature |
MinCST | Minimum crucial solution temperature |
GOx | Glucose oxidase |
PEG | Polyethylene Glycol |
PPS | poly(propylene sulphide) |
GSH | Glutathione |
PDMAEMA | (Poly((2-dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) |
PMAA-EG | Polymethacrylic acid-triethylene glycol dimethacrylate |
IPM | Interpenetrating matrix |
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The literature source was Web of Science and SSCI, SCI-EXPANDED, A&HCI, CPCI-S, CPCI-SSH, and ESCI indexes. Fifty-two articles were reviewed; however, 14 of them were not been included in the study. As a result, 38 articles were examined. Level of education, field of education, and material types of AR used in education and reported educational advantages of AR have been investigated. All articles are categorized according to target groups, which are early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, high school education, graduate education, and others. AR technology has been mostly carried out in primary and graduate education. “Science education” is the most explored field of education. Mobile applications and marker-based materials on paper have been mostly preferred. 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The more active a lesson, the more students tend to engage intellectually and emotionally in the learning activities. Cooperative learning is the foundation on which many of the active learning procedures are based. Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning. Most of the active learning procedures, such as problem-based learning, team-learning, collaborative learning, and PALS, require that students work cooperatively in small groups to achieve joint learning goals. Cooperative learning is based on two theories: Structure-Process-Outcome theory and Social Interdependence theory. Four types of cooperative learning have been derived: formal cooperative learning, informal cooperative learning, cooperative base groups, and constructive controversy. There is considerable research confirming the effectiveness of cooperative learning. 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The importance of VR/AR for the mental health field comes from three main concepts: (1) VR/AR as an imaginal technology, people can feel “as if they are” in a reality that does not exist in external world; (2) VR/AR as an embodied technology, the experience to feel user’s body inside the virtual environment; and (3) VR/AR as connectivity technology, the “end of geography’. In this chapter, we explore the opportunities provided by VR/AR as technologies to improve people’s quality of life and to discuss new frontiers for their application in mental health and psychological well-being promotion.",book:{id:"6543",slug:"state-of-the-art-virtual-reality-and-augmented-reality-knowhow",title:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow",fullTitle:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow"},signatures:"Sara Ventura, Rosa M. Baños and Cristina Botella",authors:[{id:"106036",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Baños",slug:"rosa-maria-banos",fullName:"Rosa Maria Baños"},{id:"227763",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura",slug:"sara-ventura",fullName:"Sara Ventura"},{id:"229056",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Botella",slug:"cristina-botella",fullName:"Cristina Botella"}]},{id:"58060",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72341",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8743,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"64583",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81714",title:"Evaluating a Course for Teaching Advanced Programming Concepts with Scratch to Preservice Kindergarten Teachers: A Case Study in Greece",slug:"evaluating-a-course-for-teaching-advanced-programming-concepts-with-scratch-to-preservice-kindergart",totalDownloads:1408,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Coding is a new literacy for the twenty-first century, and as a literacy, coding enables new ways of thinking and new ways of communicating and expressing ideas, as well as new ways of civic participation. A growing number of countries, in Europe and beyond, have established clear policies and frameworks for introducing computational thinking (CT) and computer programming to young children. In this chapter, we discuss a game-based approach to coding education for preservice kindergarten teachers using Scratch. The aim of using Scratch was to excite students’ interest and familiarize them with the basics of programming in an open-ended, project-based, and personally meaningful environment for a semester course in the Department of Preschool Education in the University of Crete. For 13 weeks, students were introduced to the main Scratch concepts and, afterward, were asked to prepare their projects. For the projects, they were required to design their own interactive stories to teach certain concepts about mathematics or physical science to preschool-age students. The results we obtained were more satisfactory than expected and, in some regards, encouraging if one considers the fact that the research participants had no prior experiences with computational thinking.",book:{id:"6936",slug:"early-childhood-education",title:"Early Childhood Education",fullTitle:"Early Childhood Education"},signatures:"Stamatios Papadakis and Michail Kalogiannakis",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58060",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8743,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"61746",title:"Facilitation of Teachers’ Professional Development through Principals’ Instructional Supervision and Teachers’ Knowledge- Management Behaviors",slug:"facilitation-of-teachers-professional-development-through-principals-instructional-supervision-and-t",totalDownloads:3349,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"With the rise of global competition and the focus on teacher quality, teacher professional development is becoming increasingly crucial, and the stress and challenges for principals are more severe than ever. Teachers can improve their professional abilities through principals’ instructional supervision and their own knowledge-management (KM) behaviors to benefit students. Thus, this chapter analyzes the relationship among principals’ instructional supervision, teachers’ KM, and teachers’ professional development. The author believes that principals’ instructional supervision and effective KM can facilitate the professional development of teachers. The author also believes the readers can know the relationships among them, and teachers’ professional development can be improved through principal’s instructional supervision and teachers’ KM behaviors.",book:{id:"6674",slug:"contemporary-pedagogies-in-teacher-education-and-development",title:"Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development",fullTitle:"Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development"},signatures:"Chien-Chin Chen",authors:[{id:"232569",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Chien Chih",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chien-chih-chen",fullName:"Chien Chih Chen"}]},{id:"75908",title:"From the Classroom into Virtual Learning Environments: Essential Knowledge, Competences, Skills and Pedagogical Strategies for the 21st Century Teacher Education in Kenya",slug:"from-the-classroom-into-virtual-learning-environments-essential-knowledge-competences-skills-and-ped",totalDownloads:501,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"As teachers in Kenya begin to migrate from the classroom to virtual learning spaces following COVID 19 pandemic, there is pressing need to realign Teacher Education to requisite Knowledge, competences, skills, and attitudes that will support online teaching. This chapter explores these needs using a combination of lived experiences and literature review that captured a meta-analysis of research trends on e-learning. While trends in Teacher Education indicate progression towards adoption of technology, there are disparities between the theory and practice. Evidence from recent research and reports; and the recollected experiences confirmed knowledge, competence, skills and pedagogical gaps in the implementation of online learning, that have been exacerbated by COVID-19. The researcher recommends that teacher education should sensitize and train teacher trainees on how to access, analyze and use new knowledge emerging with technology; they also should be coached on how learners learn with technology and on fundamentals of the communication process. Particularly the course on educational technology, should focus on how to create and manage online courses. The 5-stage E-Moderator Model and Universal Design for Learning (UDL) are recommended as effective pedagogical scaffold for online teaching.",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Catherine Adhiambo Amimo",authors:[{id:"333482",title:"Dr.",name:"Catherine Adhiambo",middleName:null,surname:"Amimo",slug:"catherine-adhiambo-amimo",fullName:"Catherine Adhiambo Amimo"}]},{id:"75224",title:"Decoding the Digital Gap in Teacher Education: Three Perspectives across the Globe",slug:"decoding-the-digital-gap-in-teacher-education-three-perspectives-across-the-globe",totalDownloads:552,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Educational use of technology is regularly assessed, and results often show a gap between educational policies and what is actually practiced. This chapter will help clarify how teacher educators experience the changing educational contexts due to the digital revolution, how their meaning-making shifts, and how outside forces influence those processes. The results are based on comparative international studies. Central for this study is practitioners’ professional digital competence, their attitudes towards digital technology and the use of digital technology in education. We found that the influence and contribution of digital practice is carried out quite differently across the globe. Our research questions were: How do practitioners experience teaching in a rapidly changing context? How do attitudes change due to top-down governing of education? and What motivates teacher educators to implement digital technology?",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Steinar Thorvaldsen and Siri Sollied Madsen",authors:[{id:"332624",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Siri Sollied",middleName:null,surname:"Madsen",slug:"siri-sollied-madsen",fullName:"Siri Sollied Madsen"},{id:"332626",title:"Prof.",name:"Steinar",middleName:null,surname:"Thorvaldsen",slug:"steinar-thorvaldsen",fullName:"Steinar Thorvaldsen"}]},{id:"75416",title:"Self-Study Research: Challenges and Opportunities in Teacher Education",slug:"self-study-research-challenges-and-opportunities-in-teacher-education",totalDownloads:724,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This article aims to describe what self-study research is, why self-study can be a good approach to teacher educators’ professional development and improvements in practice and highlight some challenges and opportunities in this research approach. In addition, the article will shed light on some methodological aspects related to self-study. Self-study refers to teacher educators who in an intentionally and systematically way examine their practice to improve it, based on a deeper understanding of practice, as well as the context practice takes place. In the article, I argue that engaging in self-study is a learning and development process and an approach to developing personal professionalism, collective professionalism and improvements in practice.",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Kåre Hauge",authors:[{id:"332053",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Kåre",middleName:null,surname:"Hauge",slug:"kare-hauge",fullName:"Kåre Hauge"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"265",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81937",title:"Socialization Experiences among Undergraduate Students in Higher Learning Institutions (HLI)",slug:"socialization-experiences-among-undergraduate-students-in-higher-learning-institutions-hli-",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99007",abstract:"This work portrays the problems of socialization among undergraduate students in higher learning institutions. The socialization processes in higher learning institution are significant for the successful navigation of students in the academic programs and university environment in preparing the next generation of professional practitioners and scholars. But the undergraduate student socialization experiences of students at university environment are overlooked. To navigate in the higher learning institutions, students should be socialized effectively to the normative contexts of the higher learning institutions. The normative contexts of the higher learning institutions are generally categorized into social and academic contexts, because these context academic and social context integration have been linked to student retention and success. Social integration involves interpersonal relationships, support, interactions with others, and a sense of belonging at a university, which stems from extracurricular activities, informal dealings with peer groups, and interactions with faculty and staff, whereas academic integration is described through grade performance and intellectual development that reflects an ability to meet the standards of the academic system; intellectual development involves a student valuing their education as a process of development in which they gain knowledge and ideas. Students’ background is also the contributing factor for students’ socialization in the University.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Mulusew Birhanu Ayalew"},{id:"80280",title:"Adoption of Online Learning during the Covid19 Pandemic Lockdown by Universities in Garowe",slug:"adoption-of-online-learning-during-the-covid19-pandemic-lockdown-by-universities-in-garowe",totalDownloads:88,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99941",abstract:"In response to the Covid-19 outbreak the world closed and therefore countries like Somalia have not been exceptional. The government of Somalia and all higher education institutions adopted crisis intervention measures on implementation of blended learning approaches like online teaching and learning. In this chapter we explore the process and challenges of adopting online learning in response to the world wide lockdown due to the pandemic. Given that this was an abrupt requirement, the survey was interested in finding out whether universities adopted and adapted easily. Researchers compared findings from previous studies and theoretical inclinations on online learning. Results indicate that the adoption of online learning among universities in Garowe was as a matter of crisis management whereby administration, lecturers and students were all not ready and had no prior grounding in this pedagogical learning platform. Just like previous studies online learning implementers have continued to encounter several challenges like intermittent internet network, cost of gadgets and facilities, inadequate skills of both the instructors and students, aspects of communication and satisfaction from stakeholders. With the research survey in Garowe, results show that this is still pervading and therefore need for more rigorous contextualised research on this subject.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Tumwebaze Alicon Auf and Omer Abdi Hamdi"},{id:"78597",title:"Public-Private Participation in Funding University Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Nigerian Case-Study for Sustainable Development",slug:"public-private-participation-in-funding-university-education-in-sub-saharan-africa-a-nigerian-case-s",totalDownloads:134,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99940",abstract:"The developing countries in Africa still cannot withstand the pressure of the highly competitive global education market. Together with the large numbers of people who make a living in various innovative companies, these countries have solved key contemporary issues affecting global education. For this reason, it is necessary to actively respond to current technological innovation and educational challenges and to eliminate new technology graduates who can effectively interact with students through the responsive expansion of education and training. Expansion of education can produce effective expansion that promotes educational development, but due to budget constraints, most African governments cannot successfully and sustainably implement such educational programs. This is difficult. However, public-private partnership efforts provide a way out of this financial dilemma. The Sub-Saharan Africa initiative has achieved important educational objectives, such as: ensuring relevance for quality; secure funding for sustainability and establish resource mobilization partnerships and connections; and promote international cooperation. This discussion is relevant to the basic conditions for a successful public-private partnership with educational institutions and extended education and sheds light on the impact, lessons, and challenges. The public is increasingly concerned about the importance of higher education in the 21st century. This chapter explores some of the key functions of an innovative education system that supports the development of education in Nigeria and enhances people’s ability to use information. Nigeria’s education system re-emphasizes the importance of public and private universities, but the country does not have a sustainable education system and well-equipped educational institutions to support people’s ability to use information, learning, education, and research activities.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Lawrence Jones-Esan"},{id:"79197",title:"University Teachers’ Conceptions of What University Is: Implications for the Future of Higher Education",slug:"university-teachers-conceptions-of-what-university-is-implications-for-the-future-of-higher-educatio",totalDownloads:107,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100813",abstract:"This chapter presents the perception of university teachers about the university, the most recent changes and how they have influenced their activity. The phenomenographic study was conducted with 10 university teachers, nine females and one male with more than 15 years of professional activity. The perception of the university emerges, in the teachers’ voice, focused on the description of its mission, namely as a context for the production and diffusion of knowledge to society, as a space for creative and critical thinking about the world, as an interdisciplinary space and as a system focused on teaching and research. It also includes characteristics related to its structure and functioning, such as the level of hierarchization, bureaucratization, competitiveness, dehumanization and bibliometrics overvaluation. Regarding the perceived changes, they are related to the structural reforms resulting from the Bologna Process, diverse student populations, research and internationalization, new technologies, institutional cooperation, bureaucratization and relationship with the community. Teachers also revealed some dissatisfaction in the way they are experiencing university life due to the overwork resulting from the multiple tasks required in the four activity strands (teaching, research, management and extension) with an impact on quality and innovation, but in line with what the institution demands.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Elisa Chaleta"},{id:"78595",title:"Globalization and Education: Trends towards Sustainability",slug:"globalization-and-education-trends-towards-sustainability",totalDownloads:58,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99974",abstract:"Higher Education Institutions (IES) have a very relevant role in the path towards sustainability. The problem of the implementation of curricular sustainability is the disparity of solutions that can be adopted depending on the political and economic situation of each country. The study of a practical case in the south of Honduras allows the student to approach key decisions in a real scenario to bring improvements to a very disadvantaged population, lacking basic services, such as water and electricity, under the premise of sustainability, facing aspects as relevant such as sustainable mobility, water resources management, energy and construction models, in a context where globalization and technological innovation play a very important role. It is essential to know in depth the real context where structural changes will be applied to understand that there is no single reality, that actions are built adapting to specific situations and that the effectiveness of the measures that can be adopted to establish models that prioritize that part of sustainability that best weighs the balance between the environment, society and the economy for each case.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Maria Olga Bernaldo and Gonzalo Fernandez-Sanchez"},{id:"79255",title:"Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in Africa Embracing the “New Normal” for Knowledge Production and Innovation: Barriers, Realities, and Possibilities",slug:"higher-education-institutions-heis-in-africa-embracing-the-new-normal-for-knowledge-production-and-i",totalDownloads:128,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101063",abstract:"If Africa is to remain relevant and competitive in today’s knowledge-based economy, it has to rely on higher education institutions (HEIs) as centers of excellence for knowledge production. HEIs nurture and sustain the production of highly-skilled individuals to support Africa’s growing economies. Among all possible ways, this could be achievable through strategic curricula innovation driven by emerging mobile technologies. Consequently, Africa’s HEIs need to embrace the ‘New Normal’ by optimizing online teaching and learning in their pursuit to expand information and communications technology (ICT) literacy as a means to increase students’ opportunities in higher education (HE). However, Africa’s ability to embrace the ‘New Normal’ has been marred by inadequate ICT infrastructures, low connectivity, unreliable power supply, and national budget constraints that may undermine Africa’s HEIs’ potential to augment knowledge production and innovation.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Christopher B. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"38",type:"subseries",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713"},editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",slug:"meng-chuan-ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",slug:"olga-anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"80964",title:"Upper Airway Expansion in Disabled Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102830",signatures:"David Andrade, Joana Andrade, Maria-João Palha, Cristina Areias, Paula Macedo, Ana Norton, Miguel Palha, Lurdes Morais, Dóris Rocha Ruiz and Sônia Groisman",slug:"upper-airway-expansion-in-disabled-children",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"80839",title:"Herbs and Oral Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103715",signatures:"Zuhair S. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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