IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n
"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\n
In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n
"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\n
In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"423",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Ultra Wideband Communications: Novel Trends - Antennas and Propagation",title:"Ultra Wideband Communications",subtitle:"Novel Trends - Antennas and Propagation",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book explores both the state-of-the-art and the latest achievements in UWB antennas and propagation. It has taken a theoretical and experimental approach to some extent, which is more useful to the reader. The book highlights the unique design issues which put the reader in good pace to be able to understand more advanced research.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-452-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5563-8",doi:"10.5772/941",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"ultra-wideband-communications-novel-trends-antennas-and-propagation",numberOfPages:398,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:null,bookSignature:"Mohammad Matin",publishedDate:"August 9th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/423.jpg",numberOfDownloads:71058,numberOfWosCitations:40,numberOfCrossrefCitations:26,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:9,numberOfDimensionsCitations:47,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:10,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:113,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 13th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 10th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 17th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 16th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 15th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"12623",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Abdul",middleName:"A",surname:"Matin",slug:"mohammad-abdul-matin",fullName:"Mohammad Abdul Matin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12623/images/1967_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohammad A Matin is a Professor of the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at North South University (NSU), where he has been since 2008. He was first appointed as Assistant Professor and then promoted to Associate Professor at North South University in 2011 and later on Professor. While in that post he was also the coordinator of EEE program. During 2012-2017, he was an Associate Professor at Universiti Teknologi Brunei (UTB), Brunei Darussalam (QS World University ranking 379). He received his B.Sc. degree in Electrical and Electronic Engineering from BUET (Bangladesh), his M.Sc. degree in Digital Communication from Loughborough University, UK and PhD in Wireless Communication from Newcastle University, UK. He has taught several courses in communications, electronics and signal processing at KUET, Khulna University, BRAC University, and UKM (Malaysia) during his career. He has published over 90 peer-reviewed journals and conference papers, and is the author/editor of 16 (sixteen) academic books such as Towards Cognitive IoT Networks (Springer, 2020), Communication Systems for Electrical Engineers (Springer, 2018), Spectrum Access and Management for Cognitive Radio Networks (Springer, 2016), Coding for MIMO-OFDM in Future Wireless Systems (Springer, 2015), Advances in Sensor Networks Research (Nova publisher, USA, 2014) and 10 (ten) book chapters. He has presented invited talks in Bangladesh and Malaysia and has served as a member of the program committee for more than 50 international conferences. He is on the editorial board of several international journals such as IEEE Communications Magazine, IEEE, USA, IET Wireless Sensor Systems (IET-WSS), and so on. Dr. Matin is a member of the IEEE, IEEE Communications Society (IEEE ComSoc), and several other international organizations. He served as a counselor of IEEE North South University (2008–2011), and secretary of the IEEE Communication Society, Bangladesh Chapter (2010–2011). He has received a number of prizes and scholarships including the Best student prize (Loughborough University), Commonwealth Scholarship, and Overseas Research Scholarship (ORS) conferred by the Committee of Vice Chancellors and Principals (CVCP) in the UK. He has been fortunate enough to work in WFS Project with Wireless Fibre Sytems Ltd, UK as an expert. His current research interests include UWB communication, wireless sensor networks, cognitive radio, EM modeling, and antenna engineering.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"North South University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"530",title:"Computer Network",slug:"communications-and-security-computer-network"}],chapters:[{id:"17798",title:"Ultra-Wideband Waveform Generation Using Nonlinear Propagation in Optical Fibers",doi:"10.5772/16566",slug:"ultra-wideband-waveform-generation-using-nonlinear-propagation-in-optical-fibers",totalDownloads:2910,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Avi Zadok, Daniel Grodensky, Daniel Kravitz, Yair Peled, Moshe Tur,\nXiaoxia Wu and Alan E. 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1. Introduction
Intestinal obstruction is a clinical manifestation that occurs since the passage of the intestinal contents, which should be into the distal levels, is prevented in any part of the passage. It is a condition frequently encountered in the emergency department, which gives positive results with early diagnosis and accurate treatment methods but may have negative consequences if it is not managed well. The patients usually present with the complaints of nausea and vomiting, colic abdominal pain, and inability to defecate. Intestinal obstruction accounts for 5–15% of the patients presenting to the emergency department with acute abdomen [1, 2, 3].
In parallel with the development of medical technology and the increasing experience of us, the surgeons, morbidity and mortality rates due to intestinal obstruction have decreased, but difficulties in diagnosis and treatment remain. Now, the cases may present with more complex conditions, and treatment may become more complicated. Nowadays, when minimally invasive and conservative methods are more popular, there is no doubt that nonoperative approach should be the preferred approach for intestinal obstruction. However, unfortunately, surgery should not be delayed, and appropriate intervention should be performed in the presence of a condition that requires absolute surgery in its etiology.
Obstruction can occur at any point in the gastrointestinal tract. Correct diagnosis and appropriate treatment of the patient is essential. Another important point, especially in surgical treatment, is to prevent brid formation which may cause re-obstruction. In addition, absolute oncological principles should be followed in obstructions caused by tumors, etc.
Intestinal obstructions can be due to very simple benign causes that need to be considered or malignant causes where no intervention apart from palliative surgical interventions can be performed [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. Here, we will examine this entity with a wide clinical, treatment, and follow-up margin.
2. Etiology
Mechanical intestinal obstructions may be present due to various reasons. Etiology should be learned well to be able to determine the appropriate treatment option. The causes of intestinal obstruction can be broadly classified into three categories [3].
Intraluminal
Intramural
Extrinsic factors
Intraluminal causes can be defined as factors causing obstruction by not allowing intestinal passage. These can be exemplified as gallstones, foreign bodies such as bezoar, and solidified ileal content.
Tumors of the small intestine, inflammatory small bowel diseases such as Crohn’s disease, intramural hematoma, invagination, and stricture due to radiotherapy can be considered as intramural causes.
This part, which is classified as extrinsic factors, appears more than the sum of the other two parts. We know that adhesions secondary to previous abdominal surgery account for approximately 75% of small intestinal obstructions. In addition, we encounter with a considerable amount of hernias, congenital anomalies, and carcinomatosis due to intra-abdominal tumors [7, 8].
According to the mechanism of formation, there are also paralytic ileus, spastic ileus, and chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction as well as mechanical intestinal obstruction. While paralytic ileus can be observed as a result of insufficient nerve conduction due to excessive analgesic use or electrolyte imbalance, spastic ileus occurs in cases of increased nerve conduction, such as metal poisoning [2, 7, 8, 9].
3. Clinic
Small intestinal obstructions usually present with colic abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and constipation. If obstruction is at proximal levels, vomiting is more prominent, while if it is at distal levels, abdominal distension is more prominent. Although intestinal sounds, by listening, may increase in the early period, they decrease in later periods. Strangulation or ischemia should be considered if there is severe abdominal pain that is not correlated with mild distention, and the diagnosis and treatment should be made without any delay [9].
4. Diagnosis
Although it is known by the world of medicine that a good anamnesis is necessary for the diagnosis, it has been shown to be more important in the diagnosis of ileus. The presence of previous abdominal surgery and intra-abdominal disease (Crohn’s disease, tumor, etc.) should be questioned in the anamnesis, and the inguinal region should be checked for hernias during the examination.
Plain abdominal radiography in the standing position should be first obtained for the radiological imaging of the patient. Plain radiography is an examination that has been used for about half a century. The radiograph should be checked for enlarged small intestinal loop and air-fluid level. If present, it should be noted whether this is from the small intestine or the large intestine (Figures 1 and 2). It should not be forgotten that obstructions proximal to the small intestine may be overlooked as they may not be able to produce air-fluid level on the radiograph. Nevertheless, it is still used as the cheapest, most practical, and easiest diagnostic method in appropriate patients [3, 10, 11].
Figure 1.
Volvulus view on plain radiography (from the archive of Burhan Hakan Kanat).
Figure 2.
Enlarged small intestinal loop and air-fluid levels in the radiograph (from the archive of Burhan Hakan Kanat).
Abdominal ultrasonography is an option that may be beneficial in cases where direct radiography is contraindicated such as pregnancy, although it is not in the first place in practice [3, 12].
Computed tomography has a sensitivity and specificity of approximately 80–90% in detecting small intestinal obstructions. Tomography may show the point causing small intestinal obstruction (transition zone), loss of diameter in large loops proximal to the transition zone and loops distal to the transition zone, and decompression in the colon due to lack of ileal content. Closed loop is visible, if present. Hematoma in the small intestinal wall, tumor, and invagination can also be observed if obstruction is due to an intramural cause. Gallstones, bezoars, and foreign bodies, which are among the intraluminal causes, can also be easily observed by computed tomography [10, 11, 12].
In laboratory tests, it should be kept in mind that the patient may be in a hemoconcentrated state following the intravascular volume decrease due to fluid loss to the third space. Dehydration may occur due to loss of intravascular volume. Hypokalemic-hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis may occur depending on the severity of vomiting. Leukocytosis may be added to the condition due to bacterial translocation, and lactate may increase as a finding of ischemia in the presence of closed loop [2, 13, 14].
5. Treatment
Although some statements like “the sun should not rise” or “the sun should not set on the patient with the diagnosis of intestinal obstruction” have been made before, nonoperative approach is now applied to the patients with obstruction as in all areas of surgery. However, it should be kept in mind that complete obstruction and closed loop obstruction must be excluded for this approach [15].
Laboratory tests should be performed to see if there is an electrolyte imbalance. The dehydrated patient should be started on fluid therapy rapidly, and urinary catheter should be inserted to monitor urine output in the presence of additional diseases such as cardiac disorders. If necessary, central venous catheter insertion and CVP monitoring are among the treatment options for continuation of fluid therapy. When leukocytosis and CRP elevation are observed, prophylactic antibiotherapy should be started to prevent peritonitis secondary to bacterial translocation.
When air-fluid level is observed on standing plain abdominal radiograph, a nasogastric catheter should be inserted, and oral intake should be restricted. As a result of this decompression, aspiration, nausea, and vomiting can be prevented [16].
Computed tomography performed using water-soluble radiopaque materials such as gastrografin can show the location, characteristics of the obstruction, and whether complete obstruction occurred or not. Although it has not yet been proven in the literature, there are some authors who argue that gastrografin accelerating the passage inside the loop helps maintain local fluid-electrolyte balance.
After exclusion of closed loop and intestinal ischemia, the patient can be followed up with nonoperative approach. In this context, the presence of peritonitis and distention should be evaluated during regular abdominal examinations. Intermittent plain radiographs should be performed to see if the air-fluid levels seen in the first radiograph have decreased or replaced. Leukocyte and lactate values, gas-stool discharge, and nasogastric catheter flow rates should be closely monitored. Continuous mobilization of the patient during this follow-up reduces the length of hospital stay.
It was reported that no improvement was seen in approximately 5–15% of the patients within the first 48 h by nonoperative approach. Therefore, laparotomy option should be kept in mind for the patients who do not have significant improvement in their clinical findings after 48 h (Figures 3 and 4). It is known that the surgical decision taken after this 2-day waiting period does not increase mortality [17].
Figure 3.
Surgery image of a patient with volvulus (from the archive of Burhan Hakan Kanat).
Figure 4.
Bowel loop gone to necrosis due to internal herniation (from the archive of Burhan Hakan Kanat).
With the decrease of nasogastric catheter flow rate and the onset of gas-stool discharge, NG catheter can be withdrawn first, oral intake can be started over time, and food intake can be gradually increased.
Although open surgical technique is found in the first place in practice, there are also studies showing that laparoscopic surgery can be performed in selected cases. Important parameters such as early diagnosis, proximal obstruction, partial obstruction, and the number of previous abdominal surgeries are available [18]. The algorithm can be followed in follow-up and treatment (Algorithm).
A. Algorithm
6. Postoperative care and prevention efforts
Surgeons have an important duty especially in preventable mechanical obstructions due to adhesions. It is needed to pay attention to surgical rules such as minimal touching the intestines during surgery, preferring laparoscopic surgical procedures if possible, and minimizing perioperative fluid resuscitation. Transition to early oral nutrition, minimal NSAID and opioid use, administration of epidural anesthesia if possible, avoiding excessive fluid resuscitation, and close monitoring of electrolytes should be taken into consideration in the postoperative period.
The main goal in the treatment of the patients with intestinal obstruction should be to prevent unnecessary surgeries. Peristalsis-increasing agents may be given to provide anal discharge of gas in the intestine if there is no contraindication (mechanical obstruction, etc.). It is needed to prevent the introduction and production of new gas into the intestine. It may be necessary to insert a nasogastric catheter to allow the introduction of atmospheric air and easy release of air refluxing in the stomach. Although the nasogastric catheter is not very comfortable for the patient, it is very useful in some patients.
Fluid-electrolyte balance can rapidly change in these patients. It is needed to be on the alert for this condition, and the patient should be closely followed up. Fluid-electrolyte imbalance is the most important pathology that prevents physiological gas absorption from the intestinal wall. If fluid-electrolyte imbalance is corrected quickly and accurately, intestinal mucosal cell functions will be improved, and therefore a large amount of CO2 can be transferred through the lumen into the blood.
There are different approaches for some patients especially those with tumor-induced obstruction. Temporary ostomy and definitive surgery can be performed after bowel cleansing in order to keep patient comfort at a better level. Or appropriate surgery can be performed in a single session considering the general condition and additional diseases of the patient.
It is recommended to follow up some of the patients requiring surgery in the secondary or intensive care units in the postoperative period. There are important steps in early follow-up and treatment of the patients. Pulse rate, respiration rate, blood pressure, oxygen saturation, and body temperature should be closely monitored. There is no standard protocol for their monitoring frequency. Many clinics or intensive care units have standardized blood test monitoring. The laboratory values to be controlled are arranged depending on the factors such as size and duration of surgery, intraoperative interventions, renal functions, etc. Blood count, bleeding-coagulation panel, and renal and liver function tests are the most frequently studied parameters. The acid–base balance of the patient is also monitored, especially if the operation is prolonged. The patient’s intake and discharge should be closely monitored, and fluid intake should be adjusted accordingly. Fluid-electrolyte balance is especially important [19].
In these patients, multimodal management of nausea and vomiting, use of nasogastric catheter, application of urinary catheter and withdrawal time, stimulation of gastrointestinal motility, appropriate analgesia, when to feed the patient, and especially early mobilization are important in the postoperative period [20, 21].
The application of nasogastric catheters was first performed by Levine and Paine to reduce nausea, vomiting, and distension occurring after abdominal surgery. It has continued to be used in the same way since those years. Although many recent studies do not recommend its routine use, a considerable number of surgeons apply it traditionally [22]. Nasogastric catheter poses risks in terms of both comfort and complications for patients.
Despite advances in surgical treatment methods and increased experience of surgeons, postoperative pain is the most common symptom experienced by patients and is a condition that adversely affects patient comfort. Postoperative pain has a negative effect on the quality of life of patient and prolongs the period of return to daily activities and hospital stay. Thus, it increases the cost. Postoperative pain management is an issue that needs to be meticulously addressed. It may cause anxiety both in patients and their relatives, especially in hospitalized patients. The aim of providing analgesia is to minimize or prevent the patient’s discomfort, to protect against side effects, to reduce the length of hospital stay, and to prevent recurrence of pain complaints. Pharmacological and non-pharmacological methods are used in postoperative pain management [23, 24].
Malnutrition is one of the most important patient-related factors affecting morbidity and mortality in surgical patients. The most important step in nutrition is to identify the patient with malnutrition or the patient with the possibility of developing malnutrition. There are several screening methods for this. It is essential to provide adequate support when preparing the patient for surgery. Nutritional support can be provided by direct oral intake, enteral feeding tube, and parenteral route both preoperatively and postoperatively. Each alternative has its own advantages and disadvantages. Many hospitals have nutrition teams that follow up patients and provide adequate support. There are also some authors who argue that excessive feeding in the preoperative period triggers the risk of infection due to hyperglycemia [25].
Nutritional status of the patient should be closely monitored, and necessary support should be provided for early recovery. It is recommended to gradually start oral intake after sarcoma surgeries, if there is no intervention to the gastrointestinal organs. The preferred and recommended route is the enteral route as in any patient.
7. How can adhesions be prevented?
Every surgical intervention has a skin scar that appears from the outside. What about inside? Adhesion formation after surgery is inevitable but it is possible to minimize it. Minimally invasive surgery (robotic, laparoscopic, endoscopic), to which traditional open surgery is gradually giving way, can be considered as the first step to reduce adhesion formation. Minimally invasive surgery is very valuable in reducing brid formation by shortening the duration of surgery, eliminating intestinal contact, and reducing the amount of bleeding.
Bleeding during surgery and insufficient clearance of bleeding-related clots and inadequate intra-abdominal washing are predisposing factors for postoperative adhesions. On the other hand, the amount of contact with the intestines during abdominal surgery is correlated with brid formation.
Surgical planning should be made as soon as possible in infective pathologies (perforation, appendicitis, etc.). The elapsed waiting time will increase postoperative adhesion formation.
8. Conclusions
After surgery, intestinal function usually returns to normal within 5 days. If it persists for longer than this, it is considered a paralytic ileus. Recovering from an ileus depends on getting the proper treatment for the underlying cause. Ileus is a relatively common condition that is easy to treat. It is especially prevalent in those who have undergone recent abdominal or pelvic surgery. An awareness of the symptoms is key to improving the outlook and reducing the risk of complications. It is essential to seek prompt medical treatment as soon as symptoms appear.
The cornerstone of nonoperative management of small bowel obstruction caused by adhesions is starvation and stomach decompression using a nasogastric tube and fluid resuscitation. This approach seems uniform for younger and older patients. Nonoperative management should further include correction of electrolyte disturbances and nutritional support, especially in the frail older patient to avoid delirium, functional decline, and complications as a result of starvation and malnutrition. Nonoperative management is effective in approximately 70–90% of patients with adhesive small bowel obstruction in general. Though it has a significant failure rate, the nasogastric tube remains relevant in the conservative treatment of small bowel obstruction to initially relieve symptoms and avoid aspiration. An ongoing debate in the management of small bowel obstruction is the duration of nonoperative treatment that is deemed mandatory to resolve the bowel obstruction before the decision to operate. Most authors apply the 72-h safe-time rule for duration of initial nonoperative therapy irrespective of age [26, 27, 28, 29].
9. Place of the endoscopy in acute conditions
The term acute mechanical intestinal obstruction describes the condition of preventing the progression of the contents in the intestinal lumen for mechanical reasons [30]. Complaints and clinical findings can be quite guiding in the diagnosis of obstruction and can be meaningless or misleading. The accuracy rate of direct abdominal X-ray in the diagnosis of obstruction is approximately 50–70% among the initial examinations of patients with acute abdominal pain. However, it is possible to say the level and degree of obstruction in diagnostic direct abdominal X-rays and even the presence of some complications (such as perforation) [31, 32]. Today, computed tomography is the gold standard imaging method. It not only makes a diagnosis but also provides important information on determining the etiological cause, determining the level and degree of obstruction, presence of strangulation, monitoring, and treatment [33, 34].
Emergency colonoscopy, which has recently become prominent in distal intestinal obstructions, offers important diagnostic and therapeutic opportunities. Although colonoscopic examination performed in emergency conditions is more likely to not be performed optimally or fails and requires more experience, it not only shows the cause, level, degree, and presence of ischemia in cases where it is successful but also enables endoscopic treatment [30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37]. There are many endoscopic methods used in the treatment of large bowel obstructions; the most preferred among these are procedures that reduce tumor size, tube administration, stenting, dilation, and detortion.
Endoscopic stenting is a frequently preferred method for both malignant and benign bowel obstructions. Stenting has two important advantages in malignant obstructions:
It is also known as bridging treatment, by eliminating the emergency, giving the patient the chance to perform elective surgery with much lower morbidity and mortality rates.
It provides palliation in patients with stage 4 disease or poor candidate for surgery, after the removal of the emergency after stenting, so that the patient does not have to live dependent on stoma in the remaining life [30].
Emergency colonoscopy should be in the first place for patients who are considered to have mechanical obstruction especially for the colon.
10. Pregnancy and intestinal obstruction
Although intestinal obstruction is rare in pregnancy, it is seen in the ratio of 1/10–16 thousand. Intestinal obstruction is most common in pregnancy at the beginning of the second trimester, at the end of pregnancy, and in the puerperium. The time of its appearance is parallel to the displacement of the intestines. Pregnancy can change or mask the signs and symptoms of the disease, so its diagnosis is more difficult [38, 39].
The most important cause of pregnancy intestinal obstructions is brids. Volvulus and intussusception are other common causes. It should be remembered that malignant and benign tumors can also be seen [40]. For diagnosis, abdominal ultrasonography should be the first choice since it does not contain radiation. If it is still preferred, computed tomography should be preferred instead of X-ray [39]. Colonoscopy may be preferred in patients who are considering volvulus. In treatment, surgery should be avoided as much as possible. However, there are the same treatment options as normal patients, if necessary [38].
\n',keywords:"intestinal obstructions, conservative methods, treatment",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72437.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72437.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72437",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72437",totalDownloads:853,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:34,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 12th 2019",dateReviewed:"May 6th 2020",datePrePublished:"June 9th 2020",datePublished:"October 7th 2020",dateFinished:"June 9th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Although initial data on intestinal obstructions are based on Hippocrates, there is still no consensus on approaches today. However, parallel to the development of medical technology and the increasing experience of us surgeons, morbidity and mortality rates due to intestinal obstruction have decreased. Obstruction can occur at any point in the gastrointestinal tract. The main thing is to make a correct diagnosis and to treat the patient in the most correct way. Intestinal obstructions usually present with colic abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and constipation. Intestinal obstructions may be present due to various reasons. Surgeons have an important role in preventive mechanical obstructions due to adhesions. Patients must be hospitalized. If there is no emergency surgical indication, conservative methods can be applied. Patients should be mobilized early, and fluid-electrolyte balance should be adjusted and followed closely.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72437",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72437",book:{id:"7936",slug:"surgical-recovery"},signatures:"Burhan Hakan Kanat, Erhan Eröz, Atakan Saçli, Nizamettin Kutluer, Mehmet Gençtürk and Selim Sözen",authors:[{id:"90616",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Sözen",fullName:"Selim Sözen",slug:"selim-sozen",email:"selimsozen63@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90616/images/system/90616.png",institution:null},{id:"183319",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Burhan",middleName:"Hakan",surname:"Kanat",fullName:"Burhan Kanat",slug:"burhan-kanat",email:"burhankanat@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/183319/images/system/183319.jpg",institution:null},{id:"315196",title:"Dr.",name:"Erhan",middleName:null,surname:"Eröz",fullName:"Erhan Eröz",slug:"erhan-eroz",email:"dr.erhaneroz@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"315197",title:"Dr.",name:"Atakan",middleName:null,surname:"Saçlı",fullName:"Atakan Saçlı",slug:"atakan-sacli",email:"atakansacli@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"315198",title:"Dr.",name:"Nizamettin",middleName:null,surname:"Kutluer",fullName:"Nizamettin Kutluer",slug:"nizamettin-kutluer",email:"nk440623@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"315199",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Gençtürk",fullName:"Mehmet Gençtürk",slug:"mehmet-gencturk",email:"drgencturk@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Etiology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Clinic",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Diagnosis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Treatment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"A. Algorithm",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"6. Postoperative care and prevention efforts",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"7. How can adhesions be prevented?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"8. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"9. Place of the endoscopy in acute conditions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"10. Pregnancy and intestinal obstruction",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Macutkiewicz C, Carlson GL. Acute abdomen: Intestinal obstruction. Surgery (Oxford). 2008;26(3):102-107'},{id:"B2",body:'Jackson PG, Raiji MT. Evaluation and management of intestinal obstruction. American Family Physician. 2011;83:159-165'},{id:"B3",body:'Tavakkoli A, Ashley SW, Zinner MJ. Small bowel obstruction: Section 28. In: Brunicardi FC, editor. 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Intestinal obstruction in pregnancy: A review. Turkiye Klinikleri J Gynecol Obst. 2003;13(6):476-482'},{id:"B40",body:'Lopez Carral JM, Esen UI, Chandrashekar MV, Rogers IM, Olajide F. Volvulus of the right colon in pregnancy. International Journal of Clinical Practice. 1998;52(4):270-271'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Burhan Hakan Kanat",address:null,affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
Strawberries are valued for their harmonious taste and attractive, pronounced aroma, which is formed under the effect of volatiles. Strawberry aroma is known to be very specific and more than 360 compounds constitute its components, such as esters, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, lactones, terpenic compounds, furanone [1, 2, 3, 4]. Esters are considered to be the major components (over 130 different esters were identified); according to various data, they constitute 25–90% of the total amount of volatiles of ripe strawberries and add some flower or fruit flavors to strawberries [1, 2]. About 49 components were identified in volatile compound composition in strawberry varieties “Polka”, “Ducat” and “Honey”: esters, aldehydes, ketones, furanone, organic acids, aroma compounds, lactones, terpenic compounds, and alkanes. The most meaningful ones are: esters—12.8–41.8%, aldehydes—5.9–15.9%, ketones—8.7–35.6%, furanone—22.7–24.4% and organic acids—2.47–21.85% [5].
Aldehydes and furanone represent a large amount of volatile compounds of strawberries, their share being 50%. The latter adds a grass, sweet, or caramel flavor to the strawberry aroma [6, 7, 8]. Instead, according to other data, furanone is the main source of the strawberry aroma. Their level in the most aromatic cultivars exceeds a corresponding indicator of other cultivars by 20 times [4]. A small amount of aroma volatiles can be referred to as terpenic and sulfur compounds which can also have a considerable impact on strawberry aroma [9]. The most important chemical compounds which form strawberry aroma methyl butanoat, ethylbutanoate, 2-methylbutanoat, ethyl hexanoat, methylhexanoat, methyl 2-methylpropanoat [10], 4-hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furanone and 4-methoxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furanone [6, 11, 12], (Z)-3-hexenal; butan-2,3-dion and linalool [13].
The most common ethers are: ethyl butanoate, butylacetate, ethylcrotonate, ethylcapronate, ethyl 3-hydroxycapronate, which give them fresh grass tone. Among aldehydes, those will be trans-2-hexenal and pentanal. Palmitic acid, carvone, and acetoin were found in all studied strawberry cultivars. Terpenic compounds are represented by nerolidol and linalool which give spicy notes to a strawberry flavor [14, 15]. Tetradecane was defined in the alkane class. Furanone were represented by 2,4-dioxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furan-3-one, 2,5-dimethyl-4-methoxy-3(2H)-furanone (mesifurane) and 2,5-dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone (furaneol) [5].
Genetic peculiar features of a cultivar, a maturity degree, and storage conditions have an effect on the composition and concentration of volatiles [9]. The aroma of strawberries can change during storage [3, 16] and processing them into canned products [17]. For instance, the availability of methyl ester is a characteristic feature for “Hokowase”, “Kent”, “SengaGigana” and “Annapolis” strawberries, the share of which is equal to 70% of the total content of volatiles, whereas the availability of ethyl3-methylbutonoat and 3-methylacetate is more typical for cultivars “Kent” and “Micmac”, and that of hexylacetate—for “Honeoye”. Linalool was found in “SengaSengana” and “Annelie” strawberries [1].
Ethylbutanoate (10.1–30.65%), trans-2-hexenal (5.31–15.55%), acetoin (8.20–35.67), 2,5-dimethyl-4-methoxy-3(2H)-furanone (mesifurane) (19.08–19.92%) and 2,5-dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone (3.43–4.40%) were typical compounds for the flavor of the strawberry varieties studied. In addition, strawberries of Honey variety showed high content of Hexanoic (caproic) acid (9.54%) and Hexadecanoic acid (5.08%) [5].
The aroma of strawberries is formed in the process of ripening under the effect of enzymes. It is a known fact that when the strawberry color changes from white to a total red one the content of volatiles in them increases by 14 times. In green, unripe strawberries aldehydes and alcohols predominate and they add grass, green aroma, and in ripe strawberries—esters and furanone [10]. According to [18], EA and aldehydes predominate in green strawberries, in white berries—ketones and alkanes, and in red strawberries—esters, acids, furanes, and alcohols [18]. I has been experimentally proved that in the process of ripening the concentration of grass aroma components, such as hexanal, trans-2-hexanol and cys-3-hexenylacetat, decreases gradually [19]. Instead, the total ether content, including esters, increases, the content of furanone and lactones grows rapidly, the former were not found in green strawberries. Besides, during ripening the concentration of general aldehydes, aromatic compounds and alcohols undergo change [4].
Aldehydes and esters result from the enzymatic oxidation of lipids and a fermentative bio-synthesis of alcohols and acids, the latter occurs with the participation of alcohol-dehydrahenaza [3]. Alcoholacetyltransferaza plays a decisive role in a taste bio-synthesis during strawberry ripening through the formation of esters which are the main components of strawberry volatiles [20], this takes place together with volatile free fatty acids in mesocarp cells and strawberry protoplasts [21]. The role of Fragaria 3 ananassaxinon-oxydoreductasa in bio-synthesis of 2,5-dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone has been proved [22], and the formation of 2,5-dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3 (2H)-furan-3-one catalyzes β-glucozidaza [23, 24].
The environmental conditions, in particular lighting, are the major factor in the formation of a strawberry aroma. It has been proved that shading by 47% leads to a considerable decrease in the concentration of hexanal, hexanal, ethyl-methyl butyrate, and methylbutyrat in strawberries, as compared with well-lighted plants [21], which is due to the deceleration of a photosynthesis process in the plants, and, as a result, the decrease of the number of primary metabolism products; the latter are the raw materials for the synthesis of volatiles [25, 26].
2. The change of strawberry volatiles during the storage in a refrigerated state
When strawberries are harvested, their aroma can enhance during the first days of the storage which results from the fruit aging and the increased synthesis as well as the accumulation of volatile esters in fruit tissues and/or a resistance decrease to the diffusion of these compounds from the fruits because of the tissue aging [23]. It has been proved that during four days of the storage at a temperature of 15°C the concentration of volatiles in the strawberries increases by 7 times; besides, according to the data of some authors the content of esters and furanone increases [9].
The refrigerator storage of strawberries can cause changes in their aroma: its losses or gains of some outside, this decreases quality considerably [3]. Any storage method for strawberries facilitates the losses of aromatic compounds [25]. Both temperature and storage duration have a serious effect on fruit aroma [27].
According to the data of Pelayo-Zaldívar et al. [28], the loss of aroma of strawberries during the storage can be due to the accumulation of acetaldehyde and ethanol in them, the additional synthesis of methyl ether, and the formation of a new profile of aromatic compounds. Besides, the losses can be caused by the changes of non-volatile components of aroma such as sugars and citric acid, the changes of phenol compounds, and the increase of their resistance under the effect of low temperatures. El Hadi et al. [27] consider the temperature to be the main factor that influences fruit taste and aroma.
Pérez with the co-authors [29] states that during the storage strawberry aroma changes and it occurs due to the slowdown of the formation of some volatile esters and the sharp reduction of furaneol amount. Ozcan and Barringer [30] present the data about a low activity of the enzyme of spirit, acetyltransferase in strawberries during the storage at 1°C.
According to Larsen and Watkins [31], the storage of strawberries at high content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere enhances the resistance to physiological decay, but it slows down the development of aroma.
It was proved that as a result of the refrigerator storage of strawberries, cultivar Polka, at temperature 0 ± 1°С and air relative humidity 90–95% during 9 days the content of volatile compounds decreased by 36.3%, that of esters—by 66.0%, which was caused by lowering the temperature and weakening the activity of the enzyme alcoholdehydrohenasa in the conditions of the lowered temperature [32].
During the storage, the content of furanes also decreased—by 45.3%. Similar data was received when the sum of acids, ketones, and terpenes was determined, their share decreased by 9.7, 32.4, and 64.9%, respectively, as compared with the initial content [5]. A serious decrease was typical for some compounds, namely, ethyl butanoate—by 6.8 times, ethyl crotonate—by 11.3 times, ethyl caproate—by 6.1 times. The content of furanes decreased by 1.6 (mesifurane) and by 3 times (furaneol).
Along with a number of biochemical transformations in strawberries after the storage, their organoleptic properties also change. For instance, when strawberries are stored in a modified atmosphere not only the change in aroma, consistency, and a degree of sweetness are recorded; some undesirable features appear such as rancidity, fermented smell, etc. Also, strawberries that were stored in the atmosphere with a high content of carbon dioxide showed undesirable features more often [33].
2.1 Change of volatile compounds of frozen strawberries
The freezing process causes changes in the aromatic profile of strawberries. For instance, the storage of strawberries within one week with a follow-up defrosting at the ambient temperature facilitates the enhanced level of acetaldehyde, cis-3-hexenal, hexenal, ethylacetate, and methyl acetate [34]. The scientists [35] advise about the worsening of strawberry aroma during the freezing and continuous storage. It has been proved that ethers, which are characteristic components of fresh strawberry aroma, in fact, are not recorded in frozen berries, whereas the content of carbon compounds remains at the same level.
The appearance of an unpleasant aroma in frozen berries is associated with the formation of H2S which releases due to рН decrease of cell sap resulted from the cell damage during the freezing process [36]. According to the data presented by Schreier [37], the freezing process leads to the reduction of the concentration of the majority of aromatic compounds, but the content of 2,5-dimethyl-4-methoxy-3(2H)-furanone in them increases. Douillard and Guichard [38] point out the increase of the concentration of nerolidol and the decrease of the ether share in frozen berries.
2.2 Aroma of canned strawberries
The processing of fruits and berries has a serious impact on the taste and aroma of the finished output, the reduction of its effect favors quality preservation. The aroma of the processed strawberry output depends, to a great extent, on fresh berries.
The aroma of strawberry compotes (stewed fruit) is formed under the effect of furanone (15.5–23.5%) and aromatic acids (48.4–76.1%) which add sweet caramel and sour-sweet scents [5].
The aroma of strawberry compotes (stewed fruit) consists of a mixture of compounds: esters, aldehydes, aromatic spirits, aromatic acids, lactones, ketones, furanone, and terpenes. Among them, a large share belongs to acids—48.4–76.1 from the total content of volatiles and to furanes—15.5–23.5%. A considerable amount of aromatic spirits—21.1% and esters—4.2% were recorded in compotes made of Polka strawberries.
Typical volatile compounds of the compotes made of strawberry cultivars Polka, Ducat, and Honey are hexanoic (caproic) acid (7.6–23.3% from the total content of volatiles), 2-ethylhexanoic (capronic) acid (6.9–8.6%), trans-cinnamic acid (22.5–30.2%) which add sour-sweet aroma to them.
Large amounts of 2,4-dioxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furan-3-one (1.1–2.3%), 2,5-dimethyl-4-methoxy-3(2H)-furanone (mesifurane) (7.6–16.0%) and 2.5-dimethyl-4-oxy-3(2H)-furanone (6.4–9.8%) are recorded in compotes (stewed fruit); they all add sweet caramel scents [5].
The presence of furfural (0.3%) and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (0.2%) in compotes confirms a non-fermentative darkening during heat treatment [39, 40].
In addition to the above-mentioned compounds, ethyl butanoate (3.2%), which adds fresh grassy scents, and hydrocinnamicalcohol (15.9%) make their serious contribution to the aroma of the compotes made of cultivar Polka. Vanillin was recorded in the compotes made of cultivars Ducat and Honey, adding typical vanilla scents; its concentrations were 1.4 and 0.8%, respectively. There was γ-decalactone (3.2%) in the composition of volatile compounds of the compotes made of cultivar Honey which added fruit, a sweet scent to aroma [15].
The compotes had 2Н-pyran-2,6(3Н)-dion (0.7–2.0%), 3,5-hydroxy-2-dimethyl-4Н-pyran-4-on (0.2%) and 3.4-dihydropyran (0.2–0.4%), which were the products of Mayar’s reaction, resulted from the reaction of glucose with glutamine acid, glycine, butalamine, lisyn,hydroxyproline and/or fenilalanine [39].
In strawberry compotes terpene compounds include linalool (0.5–0.6% depending on a cultivar), α-Terpineol (0.2–0.7%), which were present in fresh strawberries [16], they add spicy scents to berry aroma, and also oxydebisabolol А (0.1–0.8%), trans-linalool oxide (0.3–0.5%), which were not found in fresh strawberries.
There were ethers, aldehydes, acids, lactones, furane derivatives, and terpenes in the composition of volatile compounds in strawberry juices. Acids—60.1% and furanone—28.9% from the total amount of juice volatiles had a large share among aromatic juice compounds. Among the total amount of volatile compounds, a large share belonged to 2,5-dimethyl-4-methoxy-3(2H)-furanone (mesifurane) (21% of the total sum of juice volatiles), linoleic acid (16.6%), trans-cinnamic acid (16.0%), palmitoleic acid (9.5%), 2.5-dimethyl-4-oxy-3(2H)-furanone (6.7%), hexanoic (caproic) acid (6.2%), 2-ethyl hexanoic (capronic) acid (4.8%). Furfural was found among volatile compounds of natural unclarified strawberry juice; it was identified earlier in other processed strawberry products and this confirms the features of non-fermentative darkening of the product.
Ethyl butanoate in the amount of 1.2% from the total content of volatile compounds and isoamyl butanoate—1.4% were identified among ethers in a strawberry juice. The share of each other ether found in a juice is at the level of 0.1–0.6%. The aldehyde content does not exceed 0.5%. Also, 2Н-pyran-2,6(3Н)-dion, the share of which was 1.7% of the total sum of volatile compounds, was identified, which confirms Mayar’s reaction.
Terpene compounds of a natural strawberry unclarified juice include linalool (0.4% from the total sum of volatiles), α-terpineol (0.3%) that add spicy scents to juice aroma, and oxydebisabolol A (0.9%), oxydebisabolol B (0.5%), nerolidol (0.8%) which add sweet flower scents [5].
The aroma of strawberry jams is formed under the effect of acids, alcohols, and ethers [39, 40], which can be both of natural origin and the result of heat treatment. Acids add a lot to the aroma of jams: 2-methylbutyric acid, hexanoic (caproic) acid, octadecanoic acid, dodecanoic acid, tetradecanoic acid, palmitoleic acid, trans-cinnamic acid; alcohols: 1-hexanol, 3-methyl-3-buten-2-ol, linalool, linalool oxide, α-terpineol, trans-nerolidol, benzyl alcohol [39].
As a result of high-temperature treatment, sugar caramelization, and Mayar’s reaction, strawberry products obtain boiled, burnt, and caramel tastes [29, 41, 42, 43]. Contrary to this, green fruit scents which are typical for fresh berries are less pronounced [2, 30]. High concentrations of furaneols add characteristic caramel and sweet scents to the aroma of strawberry jams [29, 43].
According to Lambert et al. [17], the sterilization of strawberry puree with juice at 120°С for 20 min causes serious losses of flower aromas along with the formation of geraniol and vanillin. In addition, the concentration of butylacetate increases by 1.7 times, 2-Hexen-1-al—by 3.2, butyric acid—by 2, 2-methylbutanoic acid—by 1.6, hexanoic acid—by 1.8, furaneol—by 3.0, nerolidol—1.7, octanoic acid—by 1.7 and γ-decalactone—by 1.5 times, as compared with fresh strawberries.
The main volatile compounds of strawberry jams belong to the classes of acids, alcohols, and ethers [39, 40] and they are both of natural origin and can be the result of heat treatment. The most common among acids are 2-Methylbutyric acid, hexanoic acid, octanoic acid, dodecanoic acid, tetradecanoic acid, palmitoleic acid, trans-cinnamic acid. The most common alcohols are 1-hexanol, 3-methyl-3-buten-2-ol, linalool, cis-epoxy-linalool, cis-Linalool oxide, α-Terpineol, trans-nerolidol, benzyl alcohol. Active compounds include ethyl butanoate, methyl and ethylcapronates, 3-Hydroxybutanoic acid methyl ester, and 3-Hydroxy hexanoic acid methylester [43].
Thirty-eight components, including esters, aldehydes, ketones, furanone, acids, aromatic compounds, lactones, and terpene compounds, were identified in the composition of volatiles of strawberry jams made of cultivars Polka, Ducat, and Honey. The most meaningful shares are: acids—65.6–76.8%, furanes—8.3–14.6% and aldehydes—3.4–10.8%. The share of esters in jams exceeds 0.7–3.1% of the total volatile content. It is important to mention that in strawberry jams made of Polka cultivar the share of esters and aldehydes is much higher: 3.1 and 10.8%, that of furanes and acids, on the contrary, is the lowest—8.3 and 65.6% which proves strong expression of scents typical for fresh strawberries.
Characteristic compounds for strawberry jam flavor made of the studied cultivars are hexanoic (caproic) acid (0.84–6.89 mg/kg), which is 6.9–22.9% of the total volatile amount depending on their quantity for each cultivar, hexadecanoic acid (2.5–12.4%), 2-ethyl hexanoic (capronic) acid (3.1–10.7%), trans-cinnamic acid (17.5–25.3%), linoleic acid (0.3–7.2%), furil hydroxy methylketone (3.1–6.0%), 2,5-dimethyl-4-methoxy-3(2H)-furanone (mesifurane) (7.4–13.7%), furfural (0.8–3.1%), 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (0.8–5.2%), vanillin (0.2–0.8%) [5].
The availability of furfural (0.8–3.1%), 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (0.8–5.2%) 5-methylfurfural (0.7%) in strawberry jams indicates non-fermentative darkening during thermal treatment [39, 40].
Small amounts of 2Н-pyran-2,6(3Н)-dion and 3,5-hydroxy-2-dimethyl-4Н-pyran-4—(0.09–0.66 mg/kg) which, depending on the cultivar, is 0.5–0.9% of the total volatile content in jams, were found; and according to [39] they are the products of Maiyar reaction resulted from the reaction of glucose with glutamic acid, glycine, butylamine, lysine, hydroxyproline and/or phenylalanine (amino acids) [5].
Terpenic compounds of strawberry jams are presented by small amounts of limonene (0.1 mg/kg, which is 0.8%) and α-terpineol (0.2–1.3%), they were found in fresh berries [16] these compounds add aromatic scent to fresh berries [15, 16]; oxyde bisabolol A (0.1–0.3%), trans-linalool oxide (0.1–0.3%), cis-linalool oxide (0.3%), however no data concerning their presence in fresh strawberries is available.
3. Conclusions
Thus, the aroma of fresh strawberries is developed during ripening and it depends on the environmental conditions, a strawberry cultivar, a degree of maturity, and post-harvest conditions. The aroma of strawberries consists of a complex mixture of compounds including ethers, aldehydes, alcohols, ketones, lactones, furanone, and terpene compounds. Refrigerating, freezing, and heat treatment of berries have an impact on the change of aroma. The understanding of the nature of these changes will make it possible to predict the quality of the refrigerated berries and the canned output.
\n',keywords:"strawberries, volatiles, compounds, activity of volatile components",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81795.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81795.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81795",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81795",totalDownloads:8,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 22nd 2021",dateReviewed:"March 3rd 2022",datePrePublished:"June 13th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"May 14th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Strawberries of such cultivars as “Ducat”, “Honey” and “Polka” were studied to define the content of aromatic volatiles using the methods of highly efficient liquid chromatography. About 49 components were identified in the composition of volatiles of ripe strawberries, namely esters, aldehydes, ketones, furanone, organic acids, aroma compounds, lactones, terpenic compounds, and alkanes. Their shares are the following: esters—12.8–41.8%, aldehydes—5.9–15.9%, ketones—8.7–35.6%, furanone—22.7–24.4%, and organic acids—2.47–21.85%. Depending on a cultivar, typical volatile components of strawberries are ethyl butanoate (10.1–30.65%), trans-2-hexenal (5.31–15.55%), acetoin (8.20–35.67), 2.5–dimethyl-4-methoxy-3(2H)-furanone (mesifurane) (19.08–19.92%) and 2.5-dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone (3.43–4.40%). A peculiar feature of volatile compounds of Polka strawberries is the highest ester share—41.77% of total content of volatiles, for Ducat strawberries it would be the share of ketones (35.88%), and for Honey strawberries—γ-decalaktone (12.41%). A high aroma activity of ripe strawberries is recorded on 2.5-dimethyl-4-methoxy-3(2H)-furanone (mesifurane) and 2.5-dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone (furaneol). Sweet, caramel flavors are typical for strawberries of the studied cultivars. Strawberries of Polka cultivar have a pronounced aroma.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81795",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81795",signatures:"Iryna Zamorska",book:{id:"11338",type:"book",title:"Strawberries",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Strawberries",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nesibe Ebru Yaşa Kafkas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11338.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-199-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-198-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-200-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"267714",title:"Prof.",name:"Nesibe Ebru",middleName:"Yaşa",surname:"Kafkas",slug:"nesibe-ebru-kafkas",fullName:"Nesibe Ebru Kafkas"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The change of strawberry volatiles during the storage in a refrigerated state",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Change of volatile compounds of frozen strawberries",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Aroma of canned strawberries",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Larsen M, Poll L. Odour thresholds of some important aroma compounds in strawberries. Zeitschrift für Lebensmittel-Untersuchung und Forschung. 1992;195(2):120-123. DOI: 10.1007/BF01201770'},{id:"B2",body:'Larsen M, Poll L, Olsen CE. Evaluation of the aroma composition of some strawberry (Fragaria ananassa Duch) cultivars by use of odour threshold values. Zeitschrift für Lebensmittel-Untersuchung und Forschung. 1992;195(6):536-539. DOI: 10.1007/BF01204558'},{id:"B3",body:'Forney CF, Kalt W, Jordan MA. The composition of strawberry aroma is influenced by cultivar, maturity and storage. HortScience. 2000;35(6):1022-1026. 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The aroma of strawberry (Fragaria ananassa): Characterisation of some cultivars and influence of freezing. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 1990;50(4):517-531. DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.2740500410'},{id:"B39",body:'Barrеn D, Etiévant PX. The volatile constituents of strawberry jam. Zeitschrift für Lebensmittel-Untersuchung und Forschung. 1990;191(4-5):279-285. DOI: 10.1007/BF01202426'},{id:"B40",body:'Kimura K, Ida M, Yosida Y, et al. Comparison of keeping quality between pressure-processed jam and heat-processed jam: Changes in flavor components, hue, and nutrients during storage. Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry. 1994;58(8):1386-1391. DOI: 10.1271/bbb.58.1386'},{id:"B41",body:'Sloan JL, Bills DD, Libbey LM. Heat-induced compounds in strawberries. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1969;17(6):1370-1372. DOI: 10.1021/jf60166a020'},{id:"B42",body:'Avasoo M, Johansson L. Evaluation of thermal processing technologies for strawberry jam. 2011. 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Uman National University of Horticulture, Uman, Ukraine
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Long-term archiving
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Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
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Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
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Dissemination and Promotion
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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+5,700 OA books published
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Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
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Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
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Personal support during every step of the publication process
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+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
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Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 140,000 international scientists and researchers.
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
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OAPF Publishing Options
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
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850 GBP Chapter - Book Series Topic (Annual Volume)
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10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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If your manuscript:
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Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
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To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
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Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
\n\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+5,700 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
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Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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