Temperature-Humidity Index combining ambient temperature (°C) and relative humidity to determine the degree of heat stress (Adapted from Armstrong, 1994).
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-80356-678-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-677-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-679-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"6dcb071a2e978694b6b1cb9c20afc1a3",bookSignature:"Prof. Hai-Zhi Song",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11494.jpg",keywords:"Electric Field Effect, Nano-Materials, Electric Field Design, Antenna, Microelectronics, Optoelectronics, Electric Field Stimulation, Brain and Nerve, Electric Field Imaging, Atomic Electric Field, Space Science, Climate",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 22nd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 26th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 25th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 13th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 12th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in the fields of new materials, optoelectronic devices, and quantum information processing, appointed vice director of the Science and Technology Committee of SWITP, author/co-author of more than 170 research papers, and holder of 40 patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"196114",title:"Prof.",name:"Hai-Zhi",middleName:null,surname:"Song",slug:"hai-zhi-song",fullName:"Hai-Zhi Song",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196114/images/system/196114.jpg",biography:"Curriculum Vitae\n\nName: Hai-Zhi Song \nGender: male\nDate of Birth: Oct. 20, 1968\nPlace of Birth: Shanxi, China\nAffiliation and Address: \nSouthwest Institute of Technical Physics\nNo.7, Section 4, Renminnan Road, Chengdu 610041, China\nAnd\nInstitute of Fundamental and Frontier Sciences,\nUniversity of Electronic Science and Technology of China,\nNo. 4, Section 2, Jianshebei Road, Chengdu 610054, China\n\nWork Phone: +86-28-68180751, +86-28-83208728\nMobile Phone: +86-158-28239155\nFax: +86-28-83201896\nE-mail: hzsong1296@163.com, hzsong@uestc.edu.cn\n \nEducation \nSept, 1990 – July, 1995:Peking University, PhD, Thesis “Visible luminescence of porous silicon and its mechanism”, Researches on hydrogen-influenced Schottky diodes and silicon-based light-emitting materials. \nSept, 1986 – July, 1990:Nanjing University, Bachelor of Science, Thesis “Study of refractory metal silicides”, Research on Ohmic contact of semiconductors.\n\nWork Experience \nJuly, 1995 – Sept. 1997: Nanjing University, Nanjing, China, Postdoctoral Researcher, Research on silicon-based light-emitting materials. \nOct, 1997 – Sept. 1998: Catholic University Leuven, Leuven, Belgium, Visiting free Researcher, Research on amorphous semiconductors. \nOct, 1998 – Sept. 2001: Tsukuba University, Tsukuba, Japan, Assistant Professor, Research on semiconductor quantum dots. \nOct, 2001 – March 2012: Fujitsu Lab. Ltd., Atsugi, Japan, Researcher/Senior Researcher, Researches on Semiconductor Quantum Dots for Quantum Information, Semiconductor Optoelectronic Materials and Devices. \nApril, 2012 – March 2014: University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan, Senior Researcher, Researches on Quantum Information Processing Devices. \nApril, 2014 – now: Southwest Institute of Technical Physics, Chengdu, China, Professor, Researches on Semiconductor Optoelectronic Materials and Devices. \nJune, 2015 – now: University of Electronic Science and Technology, Chengdu, China, Professor, Researches on Nanoscaled Semiconductors and Quantum Information Processing Devices.\n \nAchievements\nSystematically studied the property of porous silicon materials and verified their mechanism; found green and ultraviolet luminescence, and clarified the multiple luminescence mechanisms of nanocrystalline-silicon embedded in SiO2, which is valuable to silicon-based optoelectronic integration; realized enhanced hole mobility in amorphous silicon, verified the existence of deep trap states in amorphous selenium, providing ways to improve amorphous optoelectronic materials. \nDiscovered lateral coupling between self-assembled quantum dots (QDs) and their tuning effect to 2D electron gas; illustrated and deeply explained the metal-insulator transition in 2D ordered QD arrays, all of which are worth in optoelectronic application of semiconductor QDs. \nDeveloped Sb-free technique to double the InAs/GaAs QD density and suppress the atomic interdiffusion, helped producing 1.3 um QD lasers, which won Japanese national prizes and had been merchandized; developed 1.06 um quantum-well lasers, which have been used to produce pure-green lasers robust against high temperature. \nFound a way to access buried QDs by scanning tunneling microscope; achieved a way to prepare diluted QDs by post-annealing and clarified its mechanisms; invented a technique to control the size and site of QDs by atomic-force microscopy lithography, and an apparatus to detect single electron spin states by optically-detected magnetic resonance; designed a few types of micropillar cavities applicable to realize 1.55 um highly-efficient, even coherent (strongly coupled) InAs/InP QD single photon sources; produced fiber-integrated photon-entangled sources, all of which are very useful to the applications of QDs in quantum information processing. \nDeveloped focal-plane single-photon avalanche detectors, providing central devices for 3D laser detecting and ranging system; explored antimonide middle- and long-wavelength infrared detectors and the surface plasmon enhancement effect in such detectors; advanced the acetone-sensing function of Eu-doped SnO2 nano-belt; found Nickle Phosphide serving as a good catalyst in hydrogen-producing. Realized a series of optoelectronic quantum devices for quantum information processing, such as fiber-integrated photon-pair-entangler, chiplet heralded single photon emitter, fiber quantum memories, quantum number generator, etc.\n\nHonor and Group Memberships \nSelected Scholar of the Recruitment Program of Global Experts, China\nEditorial member of “Laser Technology”\nEditorial member of “Journal of Electronic Science and Technology”\nEditorial member of “Internal J. Mat. Sci. Appl”\nMember of APS (American Physics Society)\nMember of OSA (Optical Society of America)\nPermanent Member of China Physical Science and Technology\nPermanent Member of the Chinese Optical Society\nTechnical committee member of PIERS, organizing a series of “quantum information processing and devices” sessions\nTechnical committee member of ICICM",institutionString:"Southwest University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Southwest University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453623",firstName:"Silvia",lastName:"Sabo",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453623/images/20396_n.jpg",email:"silvia@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8356",title:"Metastable, Spintronics Materials and Mechanics of Deformable Bodies",subtitle:"Recent Progress",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1550f1986ce9bcc0db87d407a8b47078",slug:"solid-state-physics-metastable-spintronics-materials-and-mechanics-of-deformable-bodies-recent-progress",bookSignature:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran, Pramoda Kumar Nayak and Ezgi Günay",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190989",title:"Dr.",name:"Subbarayan",surname:"Sivasankaran",slug:"subbarayan-sivasankaran",fullName:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"39481",title:"Heat Stress Management for Milk Production in Arid Zones",doi:"10.5772/51299",slug:"heat-stress-management-for-milk-production-in-arid-zones",body:'Arid and semi-arid zones account for one third of the earth\'s surface land area and cover most parts of the developing nations in the world including Latin America, Africa, and parts of India and South East Asia. Nevertheless, these ecosystems are not exclusive of developing countries because they also exist in developed nations such as United States of America, Spain, Australia, and Israel, among others. Arid zones are characterized by excessive heat loads and an insufficient and erratic pattern of precipitation. Also, actual evapotranspiration equals rainfall and recharge of groundwater is relatively infrequent. In general, summers are very hot and intense, but winters have commonly cold weather. In many countries with arid zones, high environmental temperatures during summer seasons may last up to 6 months, with average temperatures over 30°C. This is important because approximately one third of the cattle population in the world is located in arid zones, and according to IPCC predictions, the global average surface temperature may increase between 1.8 and 4°C by year 2100 (IPCC, 2007). The negative effects of global warming will be manifest in animal agriculture of both developed and developing countries, but the pressure will be greater on developing countries because of their deficiency of resources, their lack of veterinary and extension services, and their limitations on research technology development (FAO, 2007).
One of the chief problems facing dairy producers located in arid regions is thermal stress. In temperatures above 28°C, even without humid conditions, lactating cows show evidence of hyperthermia and emerges a condition called heat stress, so that the events feed intake, milk yield, milk fat and protein production, as well as fertility rate are reduced. Meanwhile, body temperature and respiration rate show a significant increased (West, 2003).
There are a number of options to assist in minimizing the negative effects of heat stress on dairy cows. Some of these options are feeding management, housing and facilities adjustments, and selection of tolerant breeds. Rations should be adjusted to increase energy and protein intake while maintaining rumen and cow health. The purpose is to increase the quantity of grain fed and decreased the quantity of forage in the ration. Also, environmental modifications that help to alleviate heat stress problems are structure orientation, structure ventilation, use of shades, and use of cooling systems in different sections of the dairy farm. Evaporative cooling means a combination of wetting and forced ventilation drying the cow’s coat to maximize the cooling effect. Milking parlors with adequate holding pens can employ the use of subsequent sprinkling and forced air in the pens. In dairies with adequate drainage and housing, evaporative cooling can be provided above the feed bunks in addition to or instead of in the holding pen (Armstrong, 1994).
Therefore to reduce heat stress on dairy cattle it is required a multi-disciplinary approach and should include nutrition, environmental modifications, and management practices. This chapter will focus on these strategies with special reference to arid zones.
Emissions to the atmosphere of the gasses carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide are believed to be a major cause of global warming. These gasses are able to absorb and emit infrared radiation, so they restrict the rate of thermal energy flowing out of the earth, causing the greenhouse effect. In addition, most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the last 200 years is very likely due to the increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations. The animal agriculture sector is responsible for almost 40% of annual methane emissions that are consequence of enteric fermentation in ruminants and from farm animal manure (Koneswaran & Nierenberg, 2008). So is common to hear that livestock are important contributors to climatic change.
A resultant rise in the earth’s temperature may boost the occurrence and concentration of severe climate events, as well as to intensify desertification of arid and semi-desert regions which results in warmer and more intense summers. The frequency and severity of extreme climatic events such as drought, flooding, and long heat waves would have substantial impacts on crop and livestock productivity, and therefore in food production and security. As a result of global warming, the prospective for food production from livestock is expected to decline because of high mortality, less productivity and more competition for animal resources (IFAD, 2010).
Dairy cattle are specially affected by climate change because most of the high production breeds were originated in cold regions. For instance, the breed Holstein was developed in Europe, in a cold region what is now The Netherlands, and then introduced to many ecological zones of the world such as tropical and desert regions. Because of that this breed is well adapted to cold environments, thus harsh ambient conditions like hot temperatures or elevated relative humidity make this breed difficult to reproduce and produce under these circumstances. Furthermore, Holstein breed is recognized as the world\'s highest milk production cattle nowadays. So many approaches have been made to adapt this breed to adverse conditions like those prevalent in arid and semi-arid zones (Place & Mitloehner, 2009).
Climate change is projected to increase the number of days each year when dairy cows experience heat stress. Kadzere et al. (2002) defined heat stress in dairy cows as all temperature-related forces that encourage changes or adjustments which may occur from the cellular to the total animal level to help the cows stay away from physiological disorders and then to better adapt to an adverse thermal environment. Heat stress in dairy cows results in greater nutritional requirements, lower fertility, reduced milk production and milk quality, and increased frequency of health-related issues such as mastitis. Using simulation models in a dairy basin located in Australia, researchers estimated that by 2025, production of greenhouse gas emissions will increase 25% heat stress days, which could account for a decline of 35 to 210 kg of milk per cow per year. Projecting this scenario by year 2050, there will be a 60% increase in heat stress days, which may result in a decline from 85 to 420 kg of milk per cow per year (Crimp et al., 2010).
Few years ago, St. Pierre et al. (2003) conducted an extensive study on the economic losses from heat stress to USA livestock revealing convinced evidence to all dairy farmers of the importance of providing heat abatement practices for their cattle. For dairy cows, the equations to estimate the cost of heat stress on productivity included dry matter intake, milk production, change in days open, change in monthly reproductive cull rate, and change in monthly death loss. Equations were also developed for replacement heifers that considered dry matter intake loss, weight gain loss, and change in monthly death rate due to heat stress. It was estimated that hot weather costs dairy farmers $ 900/million per year considering milk production and fertility. This economic loss was higher in dairy cattle compared to any other livestock specie in that country. The general conclusion was that for dairy cows some type of heat abatement is always economically justified across all states, and the optimum environmental strategy is the use of spray and fans. However, in regions where heat stress is more intensive, the use of high-pressure evaporative cooling chambers could be economically necessary.
Dairy cows are homoeothermic animals, so they exhibit optimum performance in their neutral environment which is known as thermoneutral zone (TNZ). For lactating dairy cows from European breeds, this TNZ ranges between -5 and 25°C, and are called lower critical temperature (LCT) and upper critical temperature (UCT). Within this temperature range, dairy cows require no additional energy above maintenance to cool or heat their body. LCT is the environmental temperature at which an animal needs to increase metabolic heat production to maintain body temperature. UCT is the environmental temperature at which the animal increases heat production as a consequence of a rise in body temperature resulting for inadequate evaporative heat loss (Fuquay, 1981; Johnson, 1987). Figure 1 shows LCT and UCT for dairy cattle. Thermoneutral zone depends on the age, breed, feed intake, diet composition, previous state of temperature acclimatization, production, and housing and stall conditions, tissue (fat, skin) insulation and external (coat) insulation, and the behavior of the animal. As ambient temperature increases, the cow\'s body temperature will also increase. The physiological mechanisms for regulating body temperature are under the control of a region of the brain called the hypothalamus, which acts like a thermostat. There are two main mechanisms used by dairy cows to increase the amount of heat loss from the skin when heat stress is increasing internal heat production. The first is dilatation of the blood vessels in the dermis so that blood flows close to the skin surface and heat loss to the environment comes about. The second is by sweat production from the sweat glands (Willmer et al., 2004). The evaporation of sweat on the skin surface produces a cooling effect. However, dairy cows sweats at only 10 percent of the human rate, so that they are more susceptible to heat stress and need mechanical ways to reduce heat.
Critical temperatures and thermo-neutral zone in dairy cattle.
The physiological mechanisms for dealing with heat stress include sweating, more rapid respiratory rate, greater vasodilatation with increased blood flow to the skin surface, decreased dry matter (DM) and nutrient intake, reduced rate of metabolism, an altered water metabolism, and alterations of levels of numerous hormones. Maintenance of a high milk production during elevated ambient temperatures is determined primarily by the balance between metabolic heat production and heat loss. Metabolic heat production is relative to the amount of milk production plus the heat produced for maintenance. High producing cows exhibit more signs of heat stress than low producing cows because higher producing cows generate more heat as they eat more feed for higher milk yield (West, 2003).
The best recognized effect of heat stress is an adaptive depression of metabolic rate associated with reduced appetite (Silanikove, 2000). Reduced DM consumption, and consequently heat generated during ruminal fermentation and body metabolism, assists in maintaining heat balance. Furthermore, an elevated environmental temperature reduces gut motility, rumination, ruminal contractions and thereby depresses appetite by having a direct negative effect on the hypothalamus (Chaiyabutr et al., 2008; Kadzere et al., 2002).
As ambient temperatures get higher, the respiratory rate rises with panting growing to open mouth breathing. As a result cow enters in respiratory alkalosis resulting from a rapid drop of carbon dioxide. The cow counterbalances this situation by increasing urinary output of bicarbonate, and rumen buffering is affected by a reduction in salivary bicarbonate reservoir. The risk is that lameness, with individual ulcers and white line disease may emerge in a few weeks to a few months after the heat stress takes place (Wheelock et al., 2010).
The best approach to conclude that cows are being affected by heat stress is to measure the rectal temperature. Normal body temperature of the cow is about 38.5°C, and a cow that has a rectal temperature of 39°C or higher during the afternoon, and it is not sick, is possible to be heat stressed. Determining rectal temperature on group of cows in the afternoon can be a quick way to get a precise judgment of the degree of heat stress and the efficiency of any cooling system integrated into cow housing (West, 2003; Willmer et al., 2004).
Joint genetic selection for heat tolerance and milk production can be a possible way to reduce heat stress. Also, identification of genetic traits which enhance heat tolerance without affecting milk yield in dairy cattle breeds. Some of these traits would be coat color, hair length and genes controlling heat shock resistance n cells (Hansen and Aréchiga, 1999).
Usually, a reasonable assessment of cow\'s heat stress is the Temperature-Humidity Index, which combines ambient temperature and relative humidity to express an indicator of the degree of heat stress. This index was developed by environmental physiologists and it is shown in Table 1. It represents a general classification of different combinations of ambient temperature and relative humidity and is, at present, the most used stress index for use in animal production. There are different formulas to estimate the THI, being one of them as follows (Hahn, 1999):
Where Tdb is the dry bulb temperature in degrees Celsius, and RH the relative humidity
Temperature-Humidity Index combining ambient temperature (°C) and relative humidity to determine the degree of heat stress (Adapted from Armstrong, 1994).
Below 72 units, which can be reached with 25 °C of ambient temperature and values below 50% of relative humidity, lactating dairy cows express their optimum productivity performance, so there are no evident signs of heat stress. Slight heat stress can be reached between 72 and 79 units of THI; dairy cows are likely to begin experiencing heat stress; cows start looking for shade to cover them from solar radiation, respiration rate increase but there is a minimum effect on milk yield. This heat stress level can be reached with combinations 25°C of ambient temperature and relative humidity values above 50%; or with 30°C and more than 30% of relative humidity. Moderate heat stress occurs from 80 to 89 units of THI, and cows show and increased in respiration and salivation rate. Reduction in feed intake is evident as well as an increase in water consumption. Body temperature increases and milk production and reproduction parameters are seriously affected. This level of heat stress can be reached with combinations of 35°C and 40% of ambient temperature and relative humidity respectively, or with 40°C of ambient temperature and 35% of relative humidity. The next level of heat stress ranges from 90 to 98 units of THI and is considered severe. Dairy cows feel very uncomfortable because of a dramatic increase in body temperature and respiration rate. Panting and drooling are common events under this level of heat stress and some cows even hang out her tongue. There are significant losses in milk yield and cows rarely become pregnant. When THI is above 98 units, heat stress is extreme and some dairy cows may die during this conditions, which are characterized by combinations of ambient temperature and relative humidity of 40°C and 60% or 49°C and 35% of relative humidity. These levels of heat stress are very excessive but not uncommon in arid zones during heat waves in summer months (Avendaño, 1998; Bohmanova et al., 2007).
Dairy cows automatically will reduce their feed intake during period of heat stress, and this reduction could increase as weather becomes hotter. Typically, early and high producing cows are more directly and severely affected than late or low producing cows. The reduction in nutrient intake has been identified as a major cause of decline milk synthesis because has been associated to a negative energy balance state, regardless of the stage of lactation but under heat stress conditions (Wheelock et al., 2010). Nevertheless, in order to know the exact contribution of reduction feed intake to the overall reduced milk yield during heat stress, Rhoads et al. (2009) used a group of thermo-neutral pair-fed dairy cows to eliminate the confounding effects of nutrient intake. The cows were in mid-lactation and were either subjected to a THI of 80 units for 16 h/d (cyclically heat-stressed) during 9 d or kept under a THI of 64 units during 24 h/d (constant thermoneutral conditions). Both groups of cows were pair-fed to maintain similar nutrient intake. Heat-stressed cows showed a rapid reduction of 5 kg/d of DMI, reaching the nadir in DMI by day 4, and keeping constant afterward (Figure 1). Milk production was reduced in 14 kg/d and production steadily declining in the first 7 d and then reaching a plateau (Figure 2). In summary, these results indicate that the reduction in dry matter intake can only account for about 40 to 50% of the reduction in milk yield when cows are under heat stress conditions and that the remaining 50 to 60% could be explained by other changes induced by heat stress.
Effects of heat stress and pair-feeding thermoneutral lactating Holstein cows on dry matter intake (Adapted from Rhoads et al., 2007).
Effects of heat stress and pair-feeding thermoneutral conditions on milk yield in lactating Holstein cows (Adapted from Rhoads et al., 2007).
The mammary gland requires glucose to synthesize milk lactose, which is considered the primary osmoregulator and thus determinant of milk yield. However, in an attempt to generate less metabolic heat, the body (primarily skeletal muscle) appears to use glucose at an increased rate. As a result, the mammary gland may not receive adequate amounts of glucose; thus mammary lactose production and subsequent milk yield are reduced. This may be the primary mechanism which accounts for the additional reductions in milk yield that cannot be explained by decreased feed intake (Wheelock et al., 2010).
Acute stress in response to dehydration resulted in more intense inhibition of lactose and fluid secretion than of fat and protein secretion, which is reflected in increased fat and protein concentrations in milk, though these increases did not compensate for the overall reduction in their yields (Kadzere, 2002; Wheelock et al., 2010).
Silanikove (2000) states that heat stress stimulates a short-term rapid regulatory response, since in lactating cows under commercial conditions, the effects of heat stress that may be experienced under exposure to high ambient temperatures during the day appears to be alleviated when temperatures drop at night, and that lack of a cool night-time ambient temperature intensifies the reduction in milk yield.
The detrimental effects of heat stress on reproduction processes of Holstein cattle have been well documented and include in cows: a) reduction in the intensity and duration of estrus, b) reduction in the pulse and amplitude of luteinizing hormone, c) reduced estradiol secretions, d) delayed ovulation, e) low progesterone concentrations, f) reduced quality of oocytes, g) decreased blood flow to the uterus, h) increased uterine temperature, i) higher follicular persistency, j) changes in endometrial prostaglandin secretions, k) increased embryonic mortality, and l) reduced fertility rates (Jordan, 2003). In bulls we have: a) hyperthermia of the scrotum, b) deterioration of semen quality as evidenced by reduced semen motility, semen concentration, percentage of motile sperm, and percentage of intact acrosome; as well as increased of abnormal sperm, c) decreased testosterone levels, and d) reduced spermatogenesis (Hansen & Arechiga, 1999; Wolfenson, 2009). So it is evident that the negative effects of heat stress on reproduction efficiency is the result of direct impact on reproduction functions and embryonic development, as well as indirect influences mediated by changes in energy balance. The negative energy balance is caused by a reduction in dry matter intake, and if this physiological status is prolonged may reduce plasma concentrations of insulin, IGF-1, and glucose, which finally can lead to retarded follicle development, poor estrus expression, and low quality of oocytes (Jordan, 2003). The effect of using cooling systems during summer on milk production performance and reproductive efficiency differs considerably, because of summer cooling is capable of substantially improves summer milk yield, while summer fertility is only slightly enhanced. Flamenbaum & Ezra (2003) conducted several trials during 4 consecutive summers in dairy herds located in an arid region of the Middle East to compare productive and reproductive traits during summer and winter. They found that milk production during summer months was almost similar (difference of 2 - 4%) to that during winter season, which means that cooling systems are capable of minimize the drop in milk production attributable to heat stress. In contrast, conception rates were only somewhat improved during summer, so that reproduction efficiency was still low in summer compared to the observed during winter. These results suggest that additional hormonal treatments are required during summer to further improved summer fertility. In addition, other studies in arid and semi-arid conditions have shown that fertility of Holstein dairy cows drop from 40 to 20% during summer months (Wolfenson, 2009).
Embryo transfer has been mentioned as a possible solution for improving summer fertility because it has shown a considerably progress in pregnancy rates during the summer months. This is because embryo transfer can escape the period in which the embryo is more susceptible to heat stress, considered before day 7 after AI (Jordan, 2003). However, embryo transfer is not a commonly adopted technique, consequently there is the necessity to improve events such as
Dairy cows reduce their feed intake during heat stress, so more nutrients need to be consumed into a smaller volume of feed. Maintaining adequate nutrient intake becomes vital to avoid a reduction in milk production. Some alternatives to increase dietary nutrient density include feeding high quality forage, feeding more grain and use of supplemental fats. Reducing the forage to concentrate ratio may result in more digestible rations that may be consumed in greater amounts. However, feeding more concentrate would have problems of acidosis and cows stop feeding. Sodium bicarbonate may help buffer the rumen to adapt to a higher levels of concentrate. Other feed additives that have been successful in heat stress conditions to stabilize rumen health from dietary modifications are yeast, which improves fiber digestion, and fungal cultures and niacin, which improves energy utilization. As a practical recommendation, do not use together these additives (Escobosa et al., 1984; Zimbelman et al., 2010).
Dairy cows experiencing heat stress often shows a negative N balance because of reduced feed intake. Increasing the level of crude protein may increase energy requirements and excess of dietary protein is converted to urea and excreted, causing problems of environmental pollution. It is suggested that during heat stress the level of crude protein in the diet should not exceed 18%, while the level of rumen-degradable protein should not exceed 61% of crude protein or 100 g/N/d (Huber et al., 1994).
The feed manager can provide shades in the feed bunk for added comfort to the cows while they are eating and feeding. It is also recommended to add a water sprinkler system and fans that are directed towards the cows to further reduce the heat felt in the place. Do not spray water on the feed as dry matter intake is important. As much as possible, keep the udders of the cows dry to reduce the possibility of having mastitis. Also make sure that the floor is still good enough for the cows to walk on and prevent injuries due to slipping.
Other strategies that dairy managers consider when feeding lactating dairy cows during heat stress periods are feeding frequency, time of feeding, and adequate feed bunk space. Feeding frequency consists of increasing an extra feeding or two during the day, obviously these extra feedings should be provided during the cooler times of the day. This strategy promotes a reduction of flies around the feed, therefore decreasing the insect population in the dairy barn. Also, increasing the amount of feed during these cooler periods of the day (early morning or late evening) is another alternative to avoid the reduction in feed intake during summer. Providing between 60 to 70 percent of the ration from 20:00 to 08:00 h has proven to have a positive impact on milk yield during periods of hot weather. The objective to provide enough space in the feed bunk is that all dairy cows can eat together without crowding (Hahn, 1999; West, 2003).
The increase in respiration rate and perspiration can cause an excessive loss of water, therefore reducing mineral levels in the cow. The recommendation is to increase K content from 1.3 to 1.5% of the total dietary dry matter, Na to 0.3% and Mg to 0.5%. Feed complete mineral mixes with higher K and Na levels only to the milking cows. If fed to dry cows, these mineral mixes may cause increased udder edema.
Water is really a priority when the temperature rises. We can say that management and the feeding of the cows are also part of the process in reducing heat stress in dairy cows. Some responses of the cows, though, can help reduce heat production in them, like selective consumption of feeds and cooling strategies. The dairy cows can only do so much and the dairymen are the one controlling their environment.
Before performing any critical modification to the diet during heat stress periods, be sure to ask for advice from a feed consultant. This is because we have to remember that dairy cows are under severe heat stress and any drastic change could be detrimental. Maintaining cows comfortable is the key to hold them eating which is critical in keeping them productive.
Use of environmental modifications such as shade and cooling systems is critical in arid and semi-arid zones affected by heat stress in order to maintain milk production, milk component levels, reproductive performance, and animal welfare.
The most basic attempt to reduce heat load from direct solar radiation in cattle is the use of shades. They can be from natural or artificial materials and are considered practical and economical ways for reducing heat stress. Trees are considered the most effective shade since they protect from the sun and capture radiation through the evaporation of humidity in the leaves (Avendaño, 1995). The wood or leaves of palms are materials also used for shade although corrugated steel sheets are the most widely used material because they last longer and of low maintenance costs (Armstrong, 1994).
Buffington et al. (1983) pointed out that painting of white color the upper part of the shade unit and installing a 2.5 cm thick of isolating material may considerable reduce solar radiation. For arid and semi-arid zones, areas of 3.5 to 4.5 m2 per lactating cow are recommendable. A more reduced area could provoke lesions in the udder due to competition of cows for shade space, while an area greater than 4.5 m2/cow have little or no benefit (Armstrong, 1994; Berman, 2006). Height of shades in the corral must be from 3.6 to 4.2 m2 in order to guarantee reduction in solar radiation. However, the shade structure should be high enough from the ground to allow circulation and tractor access for corral cleaning.
Orientation of shades is also important to minimize heat load during summer months. North-South orientation will expose the surface to the sun under the shade during the morning and the afternoon, helping to maintain it dry, but under extremely hot conditions and low rainfall (10 to 12 cm), the East-West orientation could be preferable, although it requires greater labor for maintaining the surface under the shade in dry conditions. In any case, shades must be placed in the center of the corral and should avoid accumulation of humid material under the structure. If concrete floors are used, shade orientation is indistinct (Avendaño, 1995). Figure 4 shows an example of a shade for dairy cattle made from artificial material.
A group of cows seeking for shade during hot weather. Shade structure is from artificial materials.
Cooling systems alleviate heat load from dairy cows by using the principle of evaporation, combining water misting and forced ventilation through use of spray and fans, and are frequently placed inside free-stall barns or under shades in open space corrals (Berman, 2006). Even though responses have varied, cooling techniques have consistently improved feed intake and milk production in areas with high environmental temperatures (Armstrong, 1994; Ryan et al., 1992).
In general, cooling systems based on spray and fans consist of conventional fans of variable diameter (60 to 90 cm) suspended from the ceiling of the shade. There are lines with water sprinklers in front of them, that creates a kind of breeze with small water droplets which completely moisture the cow surface and skin and support loss of heat by evaporation. These cooling systems can operate at different time intervals which vary according climatic conditions. One disadvantage is the accumulation of moisture under the cooling area because cows spend hours under this area, so urine and feces build up very easily. More labor is required to maintain clean resting areas where the cooling is installed (Avendaño, 1995). Figure 5 shows a cooling system based on spray and fans located in a free stall barn to improve comfort of cows during feeding.
A cooling system based on spray and fans placed over the head-locks, next to the feedbunk.
Traditionally, dry cows are provided little or no protection against heat stress because they are not producing milk and it is erroneously assumed they are less prone to heat stress. However, dry cows are experiencing many physiological changes (milk-producing tissue formation, colostrum secretion, accumulation of antibodies, and final fetal growth) that may increase their susceptibility to hot weather and have a critical impact on postpartum cow health, milk yield and reproduction (Avendaño-Reyes et al., 2010 a). Avendaño-Reyes et al. (2006) allocated a group of dry cows in a pen with a cooling system based on spray and fans and compared them to a group with just shade in the pen. Cooled dry cows showed better physiological status than control dry cows. Fat content and fat-corrected milk production at eight week postpartum was significantly higher in cooled cows, as well as conception rate; however, calf birth weight and milk yield showed a trend to be higher in the cooled group. In addition, culling rate was higher in the control group and there was a benefit for using the cooling system during 60 d prepartum in Holstein cows. The physiological rationale for improved postpartum productivity in response to prepartum cooling is not entirely clear, but heat stress was found to negatively influence secretory function of the udder by decreasing mammary blood flow, thereby reducing the efficiency of energy utilization for milk fat precursor synthesis (Kadzere et al., 2002).
Using a cooling system based on spray and fans and installed in the holding pen, previous to the milking parlor, in an arid zone with extreme hot temperatures, Avendaño-Reyes et al. (2010 b) provided 1, 2 or 3 h of cooling to a mid-lactating Holstein cows bringing the cows to that site. They found that even though cows under the cooling management system with the highest time of cooling per day showed better milk yield (+2 kg/d of milk), their physiological status did not correspond to a those non-heat stressed lactating cows. So they conclude that is necessary to increase the time of cooling to effectively reduce heat load during severe summer heat conditions. Figure 6 illustrates an installation of a cooling system on the roof of the parlor holding pen, and Figure 7 exemplifies a cooling system based on evaporative environmental chambers.
A cooling system based on spray and fans installed in the roof of the holding pen, prior to the milking parlor.
A cooling system based on evaporative chambers. Note at the curtains in one side of the corral to avoid water misting goes out the shade.
With milk production increases between 5 and 10% the benefits for investment in cooling equipment (spray and fans) is from 2 to 3 years. As production increases approach to 20%, the profit on cooling investment could be one year or even less. Management strategies that reduce the impact heat stress has on milk peak production can produce large economic returns to cows that are in their second or higher lactation. The benefit of reducing heat stress in first lactation cows is considerably less because of their inherent lower productivity (Avendaño, 1995; Berman, 2006).
In Table 2 are presented several results of milk production from the use of three environmental modifications against heat stress in different regions of the world. It can be noted that the milk production from the use of spray and fans has a obvious advantage over the use of just shades in the corrals. However, there is no clear evidence that cooling chambers has an advantage over the use of spray and fans, recalling that the cooling chambers are characterized by a considerable investment cost.
In general, Livestock Environmental Management is an emerging area in Animal Science that is getting more acceptance due to the Climatic Change. This new area is an attempt to avoid adverse environmental impacts on animal production systems and is also an effort to minimize the need for expensive environmental protection measures for domestic animals.
Place | Shade | Spray and fans | Evaporative cooling chambers | THI | Cooling time | Reference |
Missouri | 23.3 a | 25.3 b | -- | 76 | 24 | Igono et al., 1987 |
Israel | 37.2 a | 40.7 b | -- | 80 | 9 | Wolfenson et al., 1988 |
Saudi Arabia | -- | 26.8 a | 27.7 b | 88 | 12 | Ryan et al., 1992 |
Mexicali | 27.0 a | 31.0 b | -- | 89 | 8 | Correa et al., 2002 |
Arizona | 31.0 a | 39.1 b | 37.9 b | 85 | 11 | Correa et al., 2004 |
Mexicali | 19.1 a | 21.1b | -- | 88 | 4 | Avendaño-Reyes et al., 2010b |
Arizona | -- | 38.3 a | 42.2 b | 76 | 12 | Burgos et al., 2008 |
Milk production of Holstein cows cooled with different environmental modifications in several studies in arid and semi-arid zones of the world.
It is clear that farm animals are not the cause of climate change. If livestock is managed and their feed production properly, cattle actually can help us take carbon out of the air and store it in the soil. Environmental issues will become more important and we need to make sure people understand that farm animals are part of the solution and not part of the problem. Tell people how cows are helping our farming systems to be more environmentally friendly and more sustainable.
The productive and reproductive efficiency of dairy cattle is notably reduced under conditions of high temperature. The temperature-humidity index is an indicator of the degree of heat stress on the animal. Hest stress is a heavy load for the cow’s zootechnical performance and health status that costs the diary industry millions of dollars every year. Implementing adapted herd management strategies as early as possible before the problems are visible at production level is the key. These management strategies include primarily diet manipulation and environmental modifications. Summer environmental adjustments in arid zones mean to provide shades and cooling systems to efficiently reduce the negative effects of heat stress. Those environmental strategies have demonstrated to increase production performance during heat stress periods. However, an economical analysis helps to determine the best cooling system for a specific production system in arid ecosystems.
Filters play a vital role in numerous microwave applications. A microwave bandpass filter (BPF), in general, is a class of filter that is utilized to operate on the frequency response within the range of frequencies lying between 300 MHz and 300 GHz and allowing the best signal transmission at desired frequencies (passband), while eliminating signals at redundant frequencies (stopband) [1]. Among various techniques to design a bandpass filter, substrate integrated waveguides (SIWs) [2] are becoming more popular recently. SIW is a planar structure that is fabricated by using two periodic rows of conducting cylindrical vias implanted in a dielectric substrate, as shown in Figure 1. Hence, it acts as a bridge between planar and nonplanar technology.
Conventional substrate integrated waveguide.
To design efficient and well-performing wireless systems, there is a great need to design compact, lightweight microwave components. Over the past few years, various SIW miniaturization techniques have been proposed by researchers. Recently, [3] has reviewed the recent trends and various miniaturization techniques of SIW. Recently, folded SIW (FSIW) technique (C & T type FSIW) has been proposed by [4, 5]. Miniaturization was achieved using half mode SIW and Hilbert fractal for 5G applications [6]. Further, [7] proposed a ridge SIW to achieve miniaturization and suppress the harmonics.
From the design Equations [8] for a substrate integrated waveguide (SIW), d as the diameter of the vias and p as distance between the vias known as pitch, the equivalent width of dielectric-filled rectangular waveguide,
Width of SIW,
Also, for choosing the value of
A metamaterial is a word derived from the Greek word—it is a combination of the words “meta” and “material,” in which “meta” means something beyond normal, altered, changed, or something advanced. It is an artificial material designed to obtain the physical properties that do not exist in natural materials. A metamaterial [9] is an artificially engineered material with desirable properties not found in nature. A metamaterial affects electromagnetic waves by having structural features smaller than the wavelength of the medium of electromagnetic interaction. Metamaterials rely mainly on their physical structure to manipulate the electromagnetic waves to exhibit superior characteristics.
In 1999, John Pendry was the first to identify a practical way to make a left-handed metamaterial. Pendry’s theoretical idea was that metallic wires aligned along the direction of a wave could provide negative permittivity (ε < 0), and a split ring with its axis placed along the direction of wave propagation could do so could provide negative permeability. In 2000, Smith et al. reported the experimental demonstration of functioning electromagnetic metamaterials by stacking, periodically, split-ring resonators and thin wire structures as shown in Figure 2.
The array of split-ring resonators plus wire assemblies.
Metamaterials with negative RI have numerous interesting properties. Several physical phenomena are reversed in LH media and at the intersection between LH and RH media due to the opposite sign of phase and group velocities. Some of the effects are:
Reversal of Snell’s law
Reversal of Doppler effect
Reversal of Vavilov-Cherenkov radiation
Lensing effect (convex lenses produce diverging rays, which is opposite to RH lenses)
The time-averaged Poynting vector (S) is antiparallel to phase velocity
Russian scientist Veselago first proposed the metamaterial classification by considering the permittivity, ε, and the permeability, μ of a homogeneous material. The relationship between the refractive index and the constituent parameters ε and μ is given by the formula:
where εr and μr are the relative permittivity and permeability of the material. From Eq. (4), sign ± of n can get 1 in the four cases, which depends on the pairs of the sign of εr and μr. The electromagnetic metamaterials are classified based on each case of the pair sign ε and μ; they are shown in Figure 3.
Metamaterial classification.
In quadrant I, both parameters ε and μ are positive and are called double positive (DPS) or right-handed medium (RHM). In quadrant II, the parameters are ε < 0—negative, and μ > 0—positive, and such material is called epsilon negative (ENG) medium and is represented by plasma. In quadrant III, parameters ε < 0—negative, and μ < 0—negative, this region is called double-negative (DNG) or left-handed medium (LHM), and such material could not be found in nature. The quadrant IV ε > 0—positive, and μ < 0—negative, such material is called μ—negative (MNG), represented by ferrite materials.
A split-ring resonator (SRR) is a type of metamaterial, which is artificially created. SRR cell is made up of a pair of enclosed loops of nonmagnetic metals that split at opposite ends, as shown in Figure 4. When these materials are exposed to the magnetic field of electromagnetic waves, they give strong magnetic coupling unavailable in conventional materials. When SRRs are arranged periodically (array), they provides negative permeability.
Split-ring resonator with its equivalent circuit.
The above structure of SRR is known as edge-coupled split-ring resonator (EC-SRR) structure, which comprises concentric metal split rings printed on the same side of the dielectric substrate. EC SRR benefits of strong magnetic polarizability near resonance and easy fabrication. However, it has certain drawbacks: (i) Its electric size cannot be reduced below one-tenth of wavelength; (ii) it suffers from cross-polarizability/bianisotropic effect. Another type of SRR overcomes these limitations, called broadside-coupled SRR (BC-SRR) [10]. In the BC-SRR configuration, the rings are etched on both faces of the substrate, as shown in Figure 5a. Similar to EC-SRR, charges formed in the lower half of the BC-SRR are the replica of charges formed in the upper half, as shown in Figure 5b. Though this formation of charge does not create an electric dipole, BC SRR is non-bianisotropic. Since both rings are of identical dimension and keep inverse symmetry, for this reason, cross-polarizability tensor vanishes.
Charge distributions in (a) EC-SRR (b) BC-SRR. rext is the outer radius of ring and ro is the inner radius of the ring.
The application of the Babinet principle leads to the origin of its counterpart known as a complementary split-ring resonator (CSRR) in which the rings are engraved on the conductive surface, and its magnetic and electric characteristics are changed when compared with SRR.
A SIW bandpass filter based on edge-coupled CSRRs was proposed for the first time in 2007 by [11]. The SIW filter consisted of the tapered transition line with the CSRR. As SIW possesses high-pass characteristic, whereas a CSSR manifests band-stop characteristic, therefore by integrating CSRR with SIW, a bandpass SIW filter is designed. Figure 6 depicts the structure of SIW with CSSR etched in the top side of the substrate.
(a) Top and (b) bottom view of basic unit cell [
Figure 7 depicts the equivalent lumped equivalent circuit for Figure 6. CSRRs etched in the center are excited by the electric field induced by the SIW. Therefore, this coupling can be labeled by connecting the SIW capacitance to the CSRR. In these models, L is the inductance of SIW vias, and C is the coupling capacitance between the CSRR and SIW. The resonator is represented by a parallel LC tank, where Lc and Cc represent the reactive elements, and R accounts for losses.
The equivalent circuit model.
Figure 8a shows the dimensional geometry of the proposed SIW-CSSRs bandpass filter [11], and Figure 8b shows the photograph of the fabricated design. The substrate used in the filter is RT/Duroid 5880, with a permittivity of 2.2 and a height of 0.254 mm.
(a) Dimensional layout of BPF and (b) fabricated BPF [
Figure 9 compares the simulated and measured results of the filter. The measured insertion and return losses are about 2.16 dB and 11.6 dB, respectively. The filter shows a wide bandwidth ranging from 6.2 to 8.6 GHz (FBW of 32.4%).
Comparison of simulated and measured results [
The effect of changing the orientations of the CSRR ring was exhaustively studied by [12], which was verified by simulations and experiments that modify CSRR’s orientations, different passband characteristics can be obtained. The orientation was specified with respect to the direction of the outer ring’s split, as shown in Figure 10. Hence, they are aligned face to face, back to back, and side by side. The side-by-side type has also been divided into two cases with the CSRRs reversely or equally oriented.
Configurations of various SIW-CSRR unit cells in which the CSRRs are: (a) face to face, (b) back to back, (c) side-by-side reversely oriented, and (d) side-by-side equally oriented.
After simulation of various orientations, it was found that by altering the configuration of the CSRRs in a particular position (face-to-face orientation), the propagation of TE10 mode can be suppressed, resulting in enhanced selectivity and stopband rejection of the filter. The waveguide width was chosen as w = 12.3 mm to keep the cutoff frequency of the initial SIW at about 8.7 GHz. The Rogers substrate RT/Duroid 5880 with a thickness of 0.508 mm and a relative permittivity of 2.2 is used in the design. The metalized vias have a diameter of 0.8 mm and a center-to-center spacing of 1.48 mm.
After the simulation of various configurations, it was found that the unit cells with face-to-face and back-to-back oriented CSRR exhibit a similar kind of passband with one transmission zero and one pole located above the passband. Nonetheless, for the second case, the transmission zero is close to the pole leading to a steep upper side transition but with large insertion loss due to the weak coupling. For the third case, two rings are arranged side by side in opposite directions, and two transmission poles with two transmission zeros in the upper band are achieved. The propagation is quite weak for the fourth case due to weak magnetic coupling.
Eventually, a two-stage filter using the unit cell aligned face to face is simulated and fabricated using Rogers RT/Duroid 5880. A distance of 8.8 mm separates the two cells. The proposed bandpass filter achieves one transmission zeros at 6.4 GHz in the upper band, resulting in high selectivity and a wide upper stopband. The two-pole filter has a measured center frequency of 5.0 GHz and a 3-dB bandwidth of 0.33 GHz (3.2% FBW).
Recently, a novel bandpass filter using diamond-shaped edge-coupled CSRR was proposed [13]. This section discusses the design methodology of single-stage and two-stage bandpass filters with diamond-shaped EC-CSRR structures.
The physical construction of CSRR is shown in Figure 11, where the upper orange part is conducting layer, and the light gray part is the substrate. The CSRR structure consists of two diamond-shaped split resonant rings with their openings opposite (face to face) to each other for tight coupling between them. As CSRRs are integrated with SIW, a passband with an evanescent resonant mode lower than the SIW’s cutoff frequency is created, miniaturizing the size of the conventional SIW [13]. Figure 11 shows the dimensional view of a single-stage SIW filter loaded with diamond-shaped CSRR. The optimized dimensions of filter are: length of single-stage SIW LSIW = 10 mm, width of SIW WSIW = 8.5 mm, the inner radius of ring R1 = 1.0 mm, the outer radius of ring R2 = 1.6 mm, the thickness of ring T = 0.25 mm, the gap between open ends of outer ring G = 0.40 mm, the perpendicular distance between outer rings S = 1.25 mm. Figure 12 shows the frequency response of single-stage CSRR incorporating SIW filter. The figure shows that in a single-stage SIW filter, one passband is formed with a center frequency of 8.75 GHz, below the waveguide cutoff frequency causing miniaturization by approximately 33%. The passband has 3-dB bandwidth of 0.42 GHz with an in-band insertion loss of 0.62 dB. The maximum value of return loss is −24.4 dB. Also, the stopband created has a high rejection level at the upper stopband.
Schematics of single-stage SIW BPF.
Frequency response of single-stage SIW BPF.
The two-stage filter is proposed to improve the passband and stopband performance of the filter, as shown in Figure 13. The length of the two-stage SIW filter is taken as LSIW
Schematics of two-stage SIW BPF.
(a) Current distribution in the passband. (b) Current distribution in the stopband.
Figure 15 shows the simulated frequency response of two-stage SIW BPF. The response clearly shows that one passband is formed with two poles and transmission zero. The passband has a center frequency of 8.86 GHz with 3-dB bandwidth of 0.74 GHz and an in-band insertion loss of 0.48 dB. The maximum return loss is −29.4 dB. Further, the stopband rejection is more than 60 dB, which is relatively better than a single-stage filter. In the second stage of transmission, zero is in proximity to poles leading to a high roll-off rate of 72.5 dB/GHz and 40.5 dB/GHz at the upper and lower edge, respectively.
Frequency response of two-stage SIW BPF.
A novel SIW BPF using broadside-coupled complementary split-ring resonator (BC-CSRR) pairs was implemented for the first time by [14]. Figure 16 (left) shows the structure of the BC-SRR (broadside-coupled split-ring resonator. It can be derived from EC-SRR by substituting one of the rings with another ring situated precisely at the opposite side of the substrate. From the duality principle, the negative image of the BC-SRR is termed as the broadside-coupled complementary split-ring resonator (BC-CSRR), as shown in Figure 16 (right).
Broadside-coupled SRR (BC-SRR), left and broadside-coupled CSRR (BC-CSRR), right.
Figure 17 depicts the layout of the proposed SIW BC-CSRR. It is evident that two BC-CSRRs are aligned side by side with opposite orientations to each other. A microstrip feed line is used to excite the SIW cavity. For the selected dielectric substrate with ɛr = 2.65 and waveguide cutoff frequency of 8.15 GHz, the width of the SIW (w) is calculated to be 12.5 mm. Figure 18 shows the simulated transmission response for the SIW integrated with the unit cell. It is evident from the response that it creates a passband with a center frequency of 5.6 GHz, which is below waveguide cutoff frequency.
Structure of the proposed SIW BC-CSRR unit cell [
Simulated frequency response of the original SIW and SIW BC-CSRR pair [
Figure 19 depicts the proposed two-stage BC-CSRR BPF with separation between rings (
Structure of the proposed SIW BC-CSRR unit cell [
Figure 20 shows the photograph of the fabricated filter using a substrate with ɛr = 2.65 and a thickness of 1 mm. Figure 21 compares the simulated and measured frequency response of the BPF. The measured center frequency and 3-dB bandwidths are 5.75 GHz and 0.32 GHz, respectively. The measured in-band return loss is below 12 dB. The dimension of the filter is 20 mm x 13 mm (0.38 x 0.25 λo2).
Snapshot of the SIW BPF with BC-CSRR pairs [
Comparison of simulated and measured result [
This work [15] proposes the design of a substrate integrated waveguide (SIW) bandpass filter (BPF) incorporated with a novel broadside-coupled complementary split-ring resonator (BC-CSRR). The complementary double S shape as metamaterial is carved on the top and broad bottom walls of SIW with orientation 180o to each other. The proposed filter is designed for X band using substrate alumina with a relative permittivity of 9.8 and height of 0.508 mm. Further, the width of the SIW, WSIW is set to 5.4 mm to keep the nominal cutoff frequency of the waveguide to 10 GHz using SIW design equations.
For designing the proposed S-shaped metamaterial, a double S-shaped structure was placed one above the another in an antisymmetrical manner over a dielectric layer forming a shape of 8 [16]. S on both sides of the dielectric forms metamaterial that simultaneously provides negative permeability and permittivity. The side length of the S shape is kept equal to λg/4 (A = 2.25 mm), and thickness T is kept equal to 0.35 mm, as shown in Figure 22.
Geometry of S structure.
Figure 23 depicts the setup to get S parameters of complementary S-shaped metamaterial using HFSS. For this, two-layered dielectric substrates (alumina) having relative permittivity 9.8 of thickness 0.508 mm are stacked over each other. The S-shaped structure is placed on the opposite side of the top dielectric substrate one above the other (in a complementary manner) to form Figure 8. A 50 Ω microstrip line is provided at the bottom of the lower substrate.
Geometry of double “S”-shaped structure with microstrip line at the bottom.
In HFSS, first, simulate the metamaterial structure by providing the solution frequency. Then get S-parameters (S11, S21) in tabular form as follows:
Result- > Create Modal Simulation Data Report - > Data Table.
Create a data table for S(1,1) containing magnitude and angle in rad (phase).
Similarly, create a data table for S (2,1). These files have extension .csv (comma-separated values).
Export these .csv files to the same folder where MATLAB code is kept. Now, call these files S(1,1).csv and S(2,1).csv in parameter extraction MATLAB code [17] in function referred as DATA_READ specifying the path locations of files.
Successful execution of MATLAB code [17] for the parameter extraction results led to permittivity and permeability, as shown in Figure 24. The graph indicates that the permeability and permittivity are negative simultaneously for the frequency range between 7.25 GHz and 9.15 GHz. It illustrates that the structure has metamaterial characteristics for the frequency range between 7.25 GHz and 9.15 GHz.
Graph of real values of μ and ε.
Figure 25 shows single-stage BC-CSRR BPF, which has a pair of identical “S”-shaped etched on the SIW top and broad bottom walls but at 180° to each other. A tapered microstrip feed line has been used for exciting the SIW. The design parameters are taken as: WSIW = 5.4 mm, LSIW = 4.2 mm, P = 1.6 mm, D = 0.8 mm, LT = 4 mm, WT = 2 mm, LM = 2 mm, WM = 0.50 mm, A = 2.25 mm, and T = 0.35 mm.
Schematics of single-stage SIW BC-CSRR BPF.
Figure 26 shows the equivalent circuit of the single-stage BC-CSRR BPF. The equivalent circuit of the S-shaped SRR structure is given by [18], in which S-SRR is modeled by a series L-C circuit in each half ring of the eight-shaped structure through a common capacitor. Since CSRR is complementary to the SRR structure, the equivalent circuit of single unit BC-CSRR will be dual of S-SRR. The metallic vias of the SIW are modeled as Lv.
Equivalent circuit of BC-CSRR BPF.
Figure 27 shows the simulated result of the equivalent lumped circuit using ADS.
Frequency response (S11) of an equivalent lumped circuit of single-stage BC-CSRR SIW filter.
Figure 28 shows the frequency response of single-stage BC-CSRR incorporated SIW filter. The figure shows that by etching the S structure in SIW, a passband is obtained with a center frequency of 8.2 GHz and 3-dB bandwidth of 0.15 GHz. The maximum return loss is 21.55 dB, and insertion loss is 0.32 dB at the center frequency. It can be seen that the resonant frequency of the SIW BC-CSRR element is well below the cutoff frequency of the original SIW, causing its miniaturization.
Frequency response of single-stage BC-CSRR SIW filter.
In order to improve roll-off factor and order of filter, cascaded connection [19] of two identical BC-CSRR structures is used to form two-stage BPF. Figure 29 shows the structure of two-stage BC-CSRR BPF with design parameters taken as: WSIW = 5.4 mm, LSIW = 4.2 mm P = 1.6 mm, diameter of via D = 0.8 mm, LT = 4 mm, WT = 2 mm, LM = 2 mm, WM = 0.50 mm, A = 2.25 mm, T = 0.35 mm, and L = 4.25 mm.
Schematics of two-stage SIW BC-CSRR BPF.
The distance (L) between two BC-CSRRs has a vital influence on the performance of the proposed two-stage filter. Figure 30 shows the parametric analysis of return loss with varying values of L (for L = 3.25, 3.75, 4.25, 4.75, 5.25 mm). It is clear from Figure 30 that the filter shows optimum performance for L = 4.25 mm. For other small or big values of L, its response becomes undesirable.
Parametric analysis of return loss for varying side length “a.”
Figure 31a and b depicts the current distribution in passband and stopband, respectively. As seen from the current distribution, it is clear that when the filter is passing the signal, the center resonator is resonant and has a large current that couples the signal through to the output.
Current distribution in (a) passband and (b) stopband.
Figure 32 shows the frequency response of two-stage BS-CSRR. From the response, it can be observed that a passband with 3-dB bandwidth of 0.385 GHz is obtained. The simulated insertion loss is 0.32 dB, and the simulated roll-off rate at the lower and upper edge of the passband is calculated to be 78.26 dB/GHz and 65.5 dB/GHz, respectively. The maximum return loss value is 24.85 dB at the center frequency of 8.4 GHz with a 3-dB bandwidth of 0.38 GHz.
Frequency response of single-stage BC-CSRR SIW filter.
The proposed filter is fabricated using substrate material alumina with a relative dielectric constant of 9.8, tan δ = 0.001, and thickness of 0.508 mm to validate the result. Figure 33a and b shows the photograph of the top and bottom layer of the assembled filter with overall dimensions as 10 mm (length excluding transition) × 8.5 mm (width).
(a) Top and (b) bottom view of the fabricated bandpass filter.
The scattering parameters of the fabricated filter are measured by a vector network analyzer Anritsu S 820E. A two-port SOLT (short- open- load and thru) calibration has been done to consider cable losses between the VNA and the DUT. The measured and HFSS simulated results are compared and depicted in Figure 34a. It can be seen that the measured passband of the filter is from 8.20 GHz to 8.74 GHz with 3-dB bandwidth of 0.54 GHz. The maximum return loss value is 17.2 dB with an insertion loss of 0.92 dB in almost the entire passband. It achieves good attenuation (>20 dB) in the upper stopband. The measured roll-off rate is 58.5 dB/GHz and 60.2 dB/GHz at the lower and upper edge of the passband, respectively. Figure 34b depicts the simulated and measured VSWR plot for the entire range.
Comparison of (a) the simulated and measured result S parameters and (b) VSWR.
The metamaterials can be applied to enhance bandwidth, create a compact structure or multifrequency bands, etc. In this chapter, various compact and selective CSRR integrated SIW bandpass filters have been analyzed, demonstrating their performance. To apply metamaterials, the first step is to design their unit cells, creating special metamaterial properties at the desired frequency. The size of the unit cells is calculated, simulated, and optimized using the HFSS software. First, three edge-coupled CSRR (EC-CSRR) BPFs have been analyzed for the design and performance. Then two broadside-coupled CSRR (BC-CSRR) BPFs have been analyzed elaborately and evaluated for performance.
This work was carried out during the tenure of ‘The European Research Consortium for Informatics and Mathematics (ERCIM) Alain Bensoussan’ Fellowship’ programme.
IntechOpen aims to ensure that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. To that end we maintain a flexible Copyright Policy guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Journals",metaDescription:"IntechOpen aims to ensure that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-journals",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Journal Article:
\\n\\n1. DEFINITIONS
\\n\\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Article who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author. Co-Author: All other Authors of the Article besides the Corresponding Author. IntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Journal.
\\n\\nJournal: The publication as a collection of Articles compiled by IntechOpen .
\\n\\nArticle: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\\n\\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\\n\\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\\n\\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to publish, communicate to the public, reproduce, republish, transmit, sell, distribute and otherwise use and make available the Article in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works, in electronic and print editions of the Publication and in derivative works and on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen, throughout the world, in all languages, and in all media and formats now known or later developed.
\\n\\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to create and store electronic archival copies of the Article, including the right to deposit the Article in open access digital repositories.
\\n\\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to license others to reproduce, translate, republish, transmit and distribute the Article in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works under the condition that the Corresponding Author and each Co-Author is attributed (currently this is carried out by publishing the Article under a Creative Commons 4.0 International Licence).
\\n\\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\\n\\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Article but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Article as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world. The Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Article and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Article.
\\n\\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\\n\\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Article as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Article arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\\n\\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\\n\\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Article, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Journal in which the Article has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Journal in which the Article has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re publishing the Article.
\\n\\n3.2 When submitting the Article, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\\n\\n• Comply with all instructions and guidelines provided by IntechOpen;
\\n\\n• Produce the Article with all due skill, care and diligence, and in accordance with good scientific practice;
\\n\\n• Submit all the corrections in due time as defined during the publishing process schedule.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Article Processing Charge.
\\n\\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\\n\\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Article worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\\n\\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\\n\\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\\n\\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Article does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Article contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Article is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Article has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a Journal or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication
\\n\\nAgreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Article to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Article was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Article on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\n5. TERMINATION
\\n\\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\\n\\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Article attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Article and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Article is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Article,
\\n\\nIntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\\n\\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\\n\\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\\n\\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\\n\\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Journal Article:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Article who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author. Co-Author: All other Authors of the Article besides the Corresponding Author. IntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Journal.
\n\nJournal: The publication as a collection of Articles compiled by IntechOpen .
\n\nArticle: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to publish, communicate to the public, reproduce, republish, transmit, sell, distribute and otherwise use and make available the Article in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works, in electronic and print editions of the Publication and in derivative works and on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen, throughout the world, in all languages, and in all media and formats now known or later developed.
\n\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to create and store electronic archival copies of the Article, including the right to deposit the Article in open access digital repositories.
\n\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to license others to reproduce, translate, republish, transmit and distribute the Article in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works under the condition that the Corresponding Author and each Co-Author is attributed (currently this is carried out by publishing the Article under a Creative Commons 4.0 International Licence).
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Article but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Article as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world. The Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Article and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Article.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Article as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Article arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Article, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Journal in which the Article has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Journal in which the Article has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re publishing the Article.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Article, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\n• Comply with all instructions and guidelines provided by IntechOpen;
\n\n• Produce the Article with all due skill, care and diligence, and in accordance with good scientific practice;
\n\n• Submit all the corrections in due time as defined during the publishing process schedule.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Article Processing Charge.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Article worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Article does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Article contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Article is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Article has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a Journal or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication
\n\nAgreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Article to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Article was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Article on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Article attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Article and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Article is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Article,
\n\nIntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. 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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"24",type:"subseries",title:"Computer Vision",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. 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