Botulinum toxin (BT) treatment adverse events.
\r\n\tThere are a variety of approaches to reversing biodiversity loss, ranging from economic, to ecological and ethical. The utilitarian approach to conservation, bolstered by the concept of ecosystem services, can be utilized to improve the conservation case by supplementing the burgeoning biodiversity rhetoric. To address this issue, a pluralistic approach to biodiversity is required for conservation and sustainability.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-339-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-338-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-340-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"ab014f8ed1669757335225786833e9a9",bookSignature:"Dr. Gopal Shukla, Dr. Jahangeer Bhat and Dr. Sumit Chakravarty",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11460.jpg",keywords:"Ecosystem Services, Intrinsic Value, Global Trends in Biodiversity Loss, Convention on Biological Diversity, Utilitarian Value, Biodiversity Conservation, Perception, In Situ and Ex Situ Conservation, Nature Conservation, Sustainable Development Goals, Drivers of Degradation, Prioritizing Biodiversity",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 17th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 22nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 21st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 9th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 8th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Gopal Shukla, prior to becoming an assistant professor, has worked under NAIP (National Agricultural Innovation Project), NICRA ( National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture), and SERB (Science and Engineering Research Board) projects. 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This fact, as with many other drugs permitted the study, development and use of this tool into another area of medicine, such as cosmetic surgery.
\nThe exponential growth of the technique, due to the medical community and patient’s interests, increased the knowledge surrounding this molecule, and the safety concerns that called attention at the beginning of the century due to the use of a toxin in esthetics. Moreover, it permitted the study of the adverse events related to the applications [2, 3]. Among the former the most common include; hematomas, migraines, palpebral ptosis, ectropion, or lack of response. A complete list is shown in Table 1.
\nBT treatments adverse events | \n
Pain Hematoma, bruising, inflammation Headaches Palpebral ptosis Pseudo ptosis Drug interaction Diplopia Asymmetries Ectropion Allergies Unsatisfied patient Muscular atrophy Dysphagia Resistance | \n
Botulinum toxin (BT) treatment adverse events.
Any physician with some experience in the esthetic field understands the importance of patient satisfaction. Whenever we get a patient complaint after a BTX treatment, such as in cases of none or partial response, we face an immediate judge regarding trust, loyalty and professionalism. For these reasons, it is of prime importance to educate or patients concerning the possible causes of their complaint.
\nThe causes of lack of response include: drug potency, toxin type, injection technique, unexpressive patients, cold chain alteration, toxin condition, dilution, insufficient dose, unreal expectations and resistance [4]. The causes are summarized in Table 2.
\nBT lack of response | \n
Drug potency Toxin type Injection technique Unexpressive patients Cold chain Toxin condition Dilution Insufficient dose Un real expectations | \n
Possible causes of lack of action of botulinum toxin (BT).
With the introduction to the market to new BTX type A, we have found empirically, that even though each toxin claims to have unique and non-interchangeable units, there are toxins that are more powerful than others in clinical response and lasting effect. This has called the attention to the
Clostridium botulinum bacteria produces seven serologically distinct types of botulinum neurotoxin (designated as types A, B, C1, D, E, F, and G). All subtypes of toxin act by preventing the release of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction. The most potent and used
The
To guarantee indemnity storage should be done frozen (−5 to 8°C) until used and after reconstitution refrigerated at 2–8°C. The use of non-thermo-sensitive BTX could be advisable if Cold chain rupture is an issue.
\nPatient with
This condition is defined as the absence of benefic response and muscular atrophy after BTX treatment, due to an antibody response (of neutralizing antibodies) to the protein content within the product that neutralizes the effect.
\nThe antibodies anti-BTX can be:
\nNeutralizing
Non-neutralizing: they do not influence directly on the therapeutic effect, but augment foreign protein charge, increasing potentially the formation of neutralizing antibodies.
All above rank the protein content within a BTX vial as a potential trigger to develop resistance. Although there are areas within the progenitor toxin complex (PTC) that have been identified as more prone to develop neutralizing antibodies, potentially all proteins could develop an immune response that may interfere action and develop resistance. The proteins within a vial are classified in two groups:
\nStructural proteins: they are present within the toxin complex and include peripheral proteins (hemagglutinin and nonhemagglutinin proteins) and core proteins of the neurotoxin itself. The diagram of the toxin is shown in Figure 1.
The role of these peripheral proteins also known as Nontoxic neurotoxin associated proteins (NAPS) is related to the oral ingestion of the toxin. Non-toxic-nonhemagglutinin proteins (NTNHA) protect the progenitor toxin complex against digestive proteases and gastro intestinal acidic ambient, whereas hemagglutinin proteins (HA) enhance intestinal absorption of it [6].
The neurotoxin molecule is a 150 kDa protein structure made up of a 100 kDa heavy chain and 50 kDa light chain held together by a disulfide bond and associated with a zinc atom. The heavy chain has the C-terminus on it and is responsible for the high affinity docking on the presynaptic nerve membrane, being it rapid and irreversible. The light chain is responsible for the intracellular cleavage of proteins required for transmission of acetylcholine across the neuromuscular junction. Regions of the light chain have been recognized by human anti-toxin antibodies from cervical dystonia patient’s immunoresistant to toxin treatment [7–11]. The antigenic structure of the active toxin recognized by human antibodies relies predominantly on three peptides within the light chain named L11, L14 and L18. These three antigenic regions reside in close proximity to the belt of the heavy chain. The regions L11 and L18 are accessible in both the free light chain and the holotoxin forms, while L14 appears to be less accessible in the holotoxin. Antibodies against these regions could prevent delivery of the L-chain into the neurons by inhibition of the translocation.
Excipients proteins: they are present in most commercial products available in the market in the form of serum albumin, the only exception being the Chinese BTX-A, that uses gelatin as protein stabilizer. This plasmatic transport protein is regularly used in hemodynamic treatments as a volume stabilizer. Moreover, it is present in diary and eggs and is susceptible of allergenic response. Nevertheless, most of the allergic reactions or intolerances are due to lacto globulin and not serum albumin. The role of this protein in the vials serves especially as protein stabilizer to prevent the adsorption of the toxin to glass and plastic surfaces and probably to maintain the toxin in the target area after being injected. In this case, according to the author theory, would be the principal responsible of limiting micro diffusion. On the other hand, macro diffusion, associated with the most feared complication such as palpebral ptosis, depends on the solvent quantity (or dilution) for the vial preparation [12].
Diagram of progenitor toxin complex evidencing structural proteins (NTNHA, HA and neurotoxin).
The other excipients are not important regarding resistance to BTX. Details of the principal characteristics of the most common BTX products available in the market is given in Table 3. Excipients within the vials respect a very strict proportion, and when altered could affect lasting effect.
\nProduct | \nToxin type | \nLab | \nFormulation | \nUnits/vial | \nExcipients | \nStorage | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Azzalure | \nA | \nGalderma | \nLyophilisate | \n125 Speywood | \n125 μg SA 2.5 mg Lactose | \n2–8°C | \n
Dysport | \nA | \nIpsen | \nLyophilisate | \n300 Speywood | \n125 μg SA 2.5 mg Lactose | \n2–8°C | \n
Vistabex | \nA | \nAllergan | \nVaccum dried powder | \n50 Allergan | \n500 μg SA 0.9 mg NaCl | \n2–8°C | \n
Botox | \nA | \nAllergan | \nVaccum dried powder | \n100 Allergan | \n500 μg SA 0.9 mg NaCl | \n2–8°C | \n
Bocouture | \nA | \nMerz | \nLyophilisate | \n50 Merz | \n1000 μg SA Cane sugar 5 mg | \nRT | \n
Xeomin | \nA | \nMerz | \nLyophilisate | \n100 Merz | \n1000 μg SA 25 mg Sucrose | \nRT | \n
CBTX-A* | \nA | \nLanzho Institute of Biological Products | \nLyophilisate | \n100 | \n20 mg gelatin 25 mg dextran 25 mg SUCROSE | \n−5/−20°C | \n
Myobloc/Neurobloc | \nB | \nSolstice | \nLiquid | \n5000, 10,000, or 20,000 | \n500 μg/ml SA 10 nM Na succinate 100 nM Na chloride, Na octanoate, pH = 5.6 | \n2–8°C | \n
Principal characteristics of most common BTX products available.
CBTX-A, Chinese BoNT/A complex; SA, serum albumin, RT, room temperature.
The principal aspects recognized are:
\nHigher doses: this characteristic exposes medical patients to a major risk in comparison to esthetic applications, and wrongly induced physicians to believe that resistance was not possible in the esthetic field [13–15]. As recently demonstrated in the author’s publication, resistance in esthetics is not only possible, but more frequent than expected.
Short treatment intervals: according to this feature, treatments should only be done every 6 months if possible and touch ups should be limited within the first week and only once.
Individual predisposition: some patients are more susceptible than others in resistance development. As with many autoimmune disorders, females seem more prone to be affected, although males usually are treated with higher doses of BTX. A correct clinical history may identify allergic or autoimmune disorders, which could put the patient at increased risk of resistance and could constitute a relative contraindication for the treatment. The exact phenotype of this patients have not been fully understood or identified yet, and genetic tests could give some information about it in the future.
BTX resistance is based in 2 pillars: clinical suspicion and laboratory tests.
\nThe former is of vital importance as you can only diagnose what you have been trained to see or suspect. Patients present generally upset, after 2 or more BTX treatments in which they refer that the treatment did not gave the expected result, did not work or the intensity or duration of the clinical response was less than expected or experimented in previous treatments.
\nThe common physician action here is to raise the dose previously used or to change the commercial preparation employed (always staying in BTX-A), increasing both patient anxiety and resistance.
\nLaboratory test can be clinical, in vivo or in vitro [16].
\nClinical tests are intramuscular measurements of compound potential action and are indirect and not specific.
\nIn vivo tests are considered the gold standard for the diagnosis, since they represent the only FDA approved. The most popular is the bioassay or mouse lethality test. They give quantitative results about the presence of Antibodies in the patient’s serum. The test consist in the injection of the suspected patient serum intravenously or intra peritoneal in mouse together with the inoculation of BTX-A. Toxicity or death of the animals is measured and is expected if no or low titers antibodies are present within the patient serum.
\nIt has medium sensibility and specificity, takes 2–4 days, and is rather expensive (140 Euros). Moreover, is complicated (not available in many regions), and has obvious animal rights issues.
\nThe test is available in Hannover Germany in Toxogen Lab (www.toxogen.de). The sample of patient blood (14 ml) or serum (5 ml) not frozen nor heparinized should be sent in a cold plastic container through express mail. The test form is presented in Figure 2.
\nResistance test form.
In vitro tests include the mouse diaphragm assay (MDA), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) or the immunoprecipitation assay (IPA). They are not specific and measure only one part of the reaction.
\nA new in vitro test known as Neuronal Cell-based Botulinum Neurotoxin Assay, based on histological preparations of mouse neural cord is available. It guarantees less animal’s death and sufferance (72 tests/animal) and is highly sensitive, specific and safe. For these reasons, it may be the test of the future [17].
\nA summary of diagnostic tests is given in Table 4.
\nType | \nName | \nCharacteristics | \n
---|---|---|
Clinical | \nCompound Action Potential | \nIntramuscular measurements (Frontalis, Extensor Digitorum Brevis, SCM) Indirect ↓Sp | \n
In vivo | \nMouse Lethality Test | \nGold Std, quantitative, FDA approved Medium Se/Sp, complicated Expensive 2–4 days Animal rights | \n
In vitro | \nMDA ELISA IPA | \n↓Sp Single phase measurements | \n
Neuronal Cell-based Botulinum Neurotoxin Assay | \nHistologic sample of rat neural cord <N° (72 test/animal) & animal suffering ↑Se/Sp Safer, future | \n
Diagnostic test for BTX-A resistance.
SCM, sternocleidomastoid muscle; ↑, high; ↓, low; Se, sensitivity; Sp, specificity; MDA, mouse diaphragm assay; ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays; IPA, immunoprecipitation assay.
The prophylaxis for resistance development includes: adequate treatment intervals, personalized treatments, minimal effective dose, periodical tests execution, patient education, vast therapeutic arsenal, treatment onset >30 years (esthetic) and to avoid patients with strong allergic or autoimmune phenotype.
\nAs previously mention, treatment intervals should be 6 months, with the minimum possible interval around 3 months, and touch should be done within the first week after the treatment and only once.
\nThe treatments should be personalized, escaping from traditional formulas, using the minimal effective dose for the target area and avoiding treating areas with little or no mobility or wrinkles (example: procerus muscle in some patients). It is important to keep track on the individual treatment schema and lasting of the clinical effect, as the duration can be the first indicator that there is some resistance development.
\nIn case of suspicion, serologic test should be promptly indicated.
\nPatients should be informed about this condition and about the other therapeutic alternatives, like bioplasties or laser, which can be combined to avoid the neurotoxin abuse, or “neurotoxin dependent syndrome”. In this way we will obtain natural results and maintain facial mobility without wrinkles. The idea is to make patients to consider both; skin quality and facial wrinkles.
\nSome congress communications in Latin America, have shown the use of BTX in 16 years old patients for wrinkles prevention. In this case, although it may be effective, it would expose the patient to a very long way on toxin treatments, and potential resistance [18]. For this reason, in this group wrinkles prevention is advised through a correct cosmetic skin care, sun protection and nutrition. We recommend cosmetic BTX treatments not to be started before the 3rd decade of life.
\nFinally, within the clinical history attention should focus on the autoimmune and allergic phenotypes. Although it is not quite clear, both groups would have an important tendency to develop resistance and should be considered a partial contraindication for BTX applications.
\nEach case should be discussed and cost benefit decision should be taken with an informed patient.
\nTreatment alternatives include botulinum toxin type B (BTX-B), medical electronic and infiltrative devices, peelings and cosmetic skin care. A special mention should be given to psychological support for the patient with BTX resistance.
\nBTX-B, also known as Myobloc (US) or Neurobloc (EC) (Solstice Laboratories) is a toxin of diverse type and although it has a quicker onset than BTX-A is not as potent and the effects will last less. Even though antibody titers tend to diminish in time, new treatments with BTX-A are not suggested. Other important fact to mention is that the drug is intended in Europe for Cervical Dystonia, and not for esthetic use, so it is very difficult to obtain the product in a private practice setting.
\nMedical electronic devices embrace non-ablative or ablative procedures. Non-ablative methodologies include infrared, radiofrequency and localized ultrasounds, only to name a few. Ablative procedures include lasers, like CO2 or erbium.
\nAll above improve collagen synthesis and skin reorganization and may increase dermic thickness reducing visible wrinkles.
\nInfiltrative devices group bioplasties (to improve skin hydration or metabolism), or needling through derma rollers or dermic pens.
\nPeelings may enhance skin renewal and tone. They may be superficial, intermediate or deep.
\nCosmetic skin care should always be present in our esthetic practice; it will enhance and maintain our results and is considered to be the single most important measure in skin antiaging. The regimen should consider adequate detergent, day and night time topical preparations and should be adjusted according to the skin type and patients’ habits.
\nFinally, it is important to consider the physiological implications of the patient BTX resistant. For many of them, it is considered a major loss, especially if they were used to regular treatments and had experimented its benefits for a long time. It is suggested to listen to the patient fears and to provide alternative options, to avoid helpless or abandon feelings. Psychological support with specialist is advised if during controls, patients is perceived extremely anxious, hesitated or depressed.
\nBotulinum toxin is one of the best therapeutic weapons available for the treatment of facial dynamic wrinkles and we must, if possible, prevent, suspect, diagnose and treat the presence of resistance, to perpetuate a safe and efficient use of the product for our patients in the future.
\nMedical laboratory is a very important component in public health practice and operation especially in case of COVID-19. Medical Laboratory Science practice involves the analysis of human specimen like body fluids, excretion and various body swabs for the purpose of medical laboratory diagnosis, treatment and research [1] of which coronavirus is the one under study. It is important to note that medical laboratory science can also be called Clinical Laboratory Science or Medical Laboratory Technology depending on the nomenclature in the countries of practice [2].
The historical trend of COVID-19 pandemic [3, 4, 5, 6] has adequately placed medical laboratory services in a very critical aspect in containment of the disease across the globe. The medical laboratories play a critical role in the detection, management, disease surveillance and control in provision of accurate health data for national planning and decision making and COVID-19 is not an exception. Timely access and geographical availability of COVID-19 diagnostic testing remains a challenge in the health system and could affect ongoing containment measures [7] for the COVID-19.
The first medical diagnosis made by humans were done by ancient scientists through observation with their physical senses. The ancient Greek attributed all diseases to disorders of bodily fluids called humors, and during late medieval period, then later with the advent of microscope, the microscopy procedure on such specimens have revealed more [8] followed by later technologies, automations, sophistications and molecular testing in the current age.
This chapter shall review the medical laboratory involvement and intervention during COVID-19 era and the ongoing efforts towards supporting laboratory surveillance and response to COVID 19. It will equally show the capacity of medical laboratory perspectives in COVID-19 and provide more information on the medical laboratory testing strategy, towards developing and managing sudden capacities for testing relevant specimens at all levels of health system. Also, the approaches for ensuring laboratory testing sustainability in identifying new and suitable methods consistent with maximizing testing reagents, mobilizing human resources and guide towards implementation of public health measures towards COVID-19 containment, while exploring the recognition and protection policies for medical laboratory professionals during COVID-19 shall be presented.
Obeta et al. [1] highlighted some importance of medical laboratory in public health matters to include rapid, accurate and prompt diagnosis for proper treatment and effective monitoring of patients’ response to treatment. Medical laboratory provides up to 70% informed decisions regarding patients’ hospital admissions and discharge. It guides physicians, nurses and other healthcare workers in choosing the correct laboratory tests and ensure the proper sample collection. Medical laboratory services equally carry out equipment installation, validation and repay in the healthcare laboratories. Medical laboratory component is key in infectious diseases surveillance like Ebola, Tuberculosis, HIV, Malaria and now COVID-19. Quality assurance of a healthcare facility and public health in general is made possible by medical laboratory research towards quality improvement.
Researches [1, 8, 9, 10] have shown the main functions of medical laboratory during the COVID-19 pandemic to include the following:
Establishing appropriate accurate, and sustainable diagnostic testing capacities to respond to COVID-19 needs
Ensuring surge (sudden) capacity to process a large volume of specimens to cope with COVID-19 epidemiological response needs.
Conducting virological monitoring of the pandemic at local, state, national, regional and global levels.
Ensuring timely release of laboratory data and linking data with surveillance data to inform public health decision making and response activities.
Tracking the genetic evolution of COVID-19 and contributing in research and development of vaccines by characterization of viruses
To achieve adequate COVID-19 monitoring and surveillance, there is need for widespread and continuous testing of not only suspected cases or contacts, but even asymptomatic and apparently healthy population in order to achieve adequate COVID-19 trend monitoring in context of rapid human-to-human spread, and prompt identification of cases.
Undoubtedly, there are many benefits of large-scale population testing for COVID-19 as demonstrated in many high-income countries. For countries that have numerous challenges in their health care delivery system in terms of medical laboratory diagnostics, house-to-house case searching and community contact tracing for infectious diseases surveillance is adequate.
Medical Laboratory plays a crucial role in monitoring co-morbidities, diagnosing complications, assessment of treatment responses and assessing the disease prevalence in the community. Advancement of molecular techniques is mainly relying on understanding the genomic and proteomic composition of COVID-19.
WHO [5, 7] emphasizes “detect, protect and treat” to break the chain of transmission of SARS-COV-2 and COVID-19. Early medical laboratory testing and immediate treatment significantly decrease future COVID-19 cases. Medical laboratory assessment reveals diagnoses, confirms or rules out prognosis based on signs and symptoms, determines severity, monitors treatment responses or complications in COVID-19. The role of medical laboratories is more evident globally today as the battle against COVID-19 rages.
On December 31, 2019, China alerted the WHO about the occurrence of several cases of an unusual pneumonia caused by an unknown virus among persons who had either visited or had consumed food from the live animal market in Wuhan city of China, the epicenter of the outbreak. Since then, the infection has spread to other Chinese cities as well as internationally, resulting in the current pandemic. On January 7, 2020, the WHO announced they had identified a new virus. The novel virus was named 2019-COV and was identified as member of the coronaviridae family which also includes SARS and MERS. China announced its first death from the virus on January 23, 2020 as rail and air departure were suspended on January 30, WHO declared the outbreak a global health emergency [4, 5, 7].
The medical laboratory has been duly involved and its involvement ranges from the discovery the pneumonia like virus to the description as SARS and MERS in nature, viral characterization and sequencing and the naming of the viral disease as new coronavirus and COVID-19 [11]. The role of the medical laboratory services from COVID-19 discovery to the management cannot be over emphasized.
There is no doubt that COVID-19 is new and so are the technologies for testing and research. COVID-19 era is filled with operational differences between the medical laboratory developed protocols and new commercial consumables protocols following the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the implementation of those new protocols is challenging and requires continuous training for the laboratory staff [12]. Another challenge is limited access to COVID -19 reagents. This restricted the number of testing of citizens to those that were having symptoms or at risk as there is fear of exhausting the limited COVID-19 reagents and consumables. In the testing proper, there is delayed outbreak detection and reporting of COVID -19 cases maybe due to distance from testing and collection sites and the technicalities involved. Also there is limited access to clinically validated or regulatory approved molecular and serologic tests either through the WHO network, national regulators or through commercial manufacturers [13, 14].
As COVID-19 ravages the world, there are shortages and difficulties in importing large diagnostic kits in the country. There is also poor knowledge and research capacity on COVID-19. Aside from technical difficulties associated with COVID-19 testing, certain seasonal changes might equally affect the number of tests [9]. Table 1 discusses the challenges and way forward towards offering COVID-19 medical laboratory services.
S/N | Challenges | Way forward |
---|---|---|
1 | Misdiagnosis of COVID-19 due to poor training or use of quacks | Adequate training of qualified professionals |
2 | Poor working environment | Construct modern Medical Laboratory working environment |
3 | Poor working tools and equipment | Procure modern tools and equipment |
4 | Unstable power supply | Stabilize power supply and have a standby power supply or an alternative power |
5 | Poor team work among health professionals | Instill team spirit among practitioners |
6 | Lack of political will towards medical laboratory practices | Politicians should learn from COVID-19 lockdown to have the will to update medical laboratory facilities as they could be clients in such facilities |
7 | Corruption | Kill corruption surrounding COVID-19 |
8 | Haphazard quality system | Standardize quality system |
9 | New technologies and technicalities associated with COVID-19 | Imbibe new technologies and technicalities from the producers |
10 | Paucity of fund in COVID-19 laboratory services | Fund the medical laboratory services to the full with regards to COVID-19 and associated services |
11 | Unavailability of local testing kits | Give grant and fund research for production of local testing kits |
12 | Different countries have little no validated rapid kits | Mandate the regulatory bodies to validate more rapid kits to boost testing |
13 | Poor knowledge and research capacity | Encourage more research in laboratories |
14 | Non-involvement of medical laboratory component in COVID-19 vaccination | Involve medical laboratory component to give a basal parameter before vaccination and after some days of vaccination to assist in post vaccine research |
Challenges and way forward for medical laboratory practice in COVID-19 era.
The medical laboratory methods and technologies applied in testing COVID-19 includes: neutralization/virological cell culture test, COVID-19 genomic sequencing, nucleic acid testing (NAT) /amplification testing, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), real time PCR (RT- PCR) and Gene Xpert systems, immunological testing, biosensors, rapid diagnostic techniques (RDTs) [15]. These methods are illustrated in Figure 1.
Diagnostic methods and technologies employed in COVID-19 testing. KEY: CBPB, cell-based potentiometric biose; CLIA, Chemiluminescence immunoassay; ddPCR, droplet digital PCR; E-gene, envelope protein gene; ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; FET, field effect transistor; IFA, Immunoflorescence assay; LAMP, loop mediated isothermal amplification; LFIA, lateral flow immunoassay; LSPR, localized surface plasmon resonance (sensor); MCLIA, magnetic Chemiluminescence enzyme immunoassay; M, membrane protein gene; N-gene, Nucleocapsid protein gene; NAT, nucleic acid testing; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; ORF, open reading frame; OSN-qRT, PCR - one step nested RT-PCR; qRT-PCR, real-time quantification PCR; RDT, rapid diagnostic technique; RdRp, RNA-dependent RNA polymerasegene; S, spike proteins.
Basically, virological cell culture test is the gold standard for virus discovery, pathogenesis research and strategy evaluation but since the emergence of COVID-19, PCR has been adopted as the gold standard and has been in use globally considering the shorter turnaround time. Genomic sequencing uses sophistication to track the pandemic and aids vaccine development [16]. Immunological testing is based on the quantification and detection of antigen and antibody interactions. Biosensors use selectivity features of a bimolecular and sensitivity of physiochemical transducers in COVID-19 testing. Rapid Diagnostic Techniques (RDTs) are new technologies which apply some of the above mentioned techniques to achieve shortest turnaround time and accessibility. Although each method has its advantages and disadvantages, it is advisable to employ at least two methods [15, 17, 18, 19] for quality medical laboratory testing especially when using RDTs as shown in Figure 2.
NCDC medical laboratory testing algorithm in Nigeria while using RDTs.
As part of the global response to the COVID-19 pandemic, medical laboratory diagnosis has remained the corner stone to this intervention. Molecular assays performed on nasopharyngeal swab or other upper respiratory tract specimen are the most commonly used and reliable test for the diagnosis of COVID-19. A variety of RNA gene targets are used by different molecular assays.
The processes from sample collections, sample transport and actual testing for COVID-19 remains very important including all quality system measures put in place to ensure reliability and sensitivity. The medical laboratory research uses samples from nasopharyngeal swabs, oropharyngeal swabs, throat swabs, saliva, sputum, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, conjunctival swabs, rectal swabs, whole blood, serum/plasma, stool, and urine [15].
It is evident that medical laboratory parameters have been adequately employed to access diagnosis like increased neutrophil, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, C-reactive protein, lactate dehydrogenase and urea. There is also decrease in procalcitonin, albumin, and white blood cells like leukocytes, and lymphopenia and eosinopenia have been noted among COVID-19 patients. Also, medical laboratory parameters have been employed in the assessment of the severity of the COVID-19 such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), d-dimer (d-D), glucose, fibrinogen, thrombin time, and C-reactive protein and fibrinogen. Some parameters are predictors during prognosis like IL-6 and D-Dimer, absolute lymphocyte count, lactate dehydrogenase, creatine kinase and absolute monocyte count which can predict whether the patient can be admitted into intensive care unit or not. During treatment, laboratory parameters are used to assess improvement in treatment and complications. For example; reduction in aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, creatine kinase and dehydrogenase shows response to treatment while increased procalcitonin and C-reactive protein indicates liver abnormality, high D-dimer, fibrinogen, prothrombin time predicts thromboembolism and new-onset renal failure [17, 20].
A medical laboratory, irrespective of location, modern, sophisticated or molecular in nature in the aspect of COVID-19 fight, has a huge role to play especially in the local certain where COVID19 testing has not reached. Many in such area may not know their status and no wonder the presence of a knowledgeable Scientist shall corroborate the medical laboratory implications of COVID-19 to be able to approach every client and sample in a safe and professional way.
There is always a manual that help members, states and partners as they set up comprehensive quality assurance measures for COVID-19 testing laboratory network. The guidance emphasizes the use of standardized registration formats as quality tool, Quality control (QC), enrollment of laboratories in external quality assessment (EQA) schemes and issues of external quality assessment performance data for continuous quality improvement of COVID-19 testing laboratories. It is an essential resource for a medical laboratory personnel to be involved in day-to-day testing of COVID-19.
Figures 2 and 3 shows testing Algorithm for Nigeria while using RDTs and approved medical laboratories (75–25 Gene Xpert and 50 PCR Labs) for COVID-19 respectively as released by Nigeria Centre for Disease Control (NCDC).
NCDC approved medical laboratories for COVID-19 as at 23rd February, 2021.
In medical laboratory testing of COVID-19, each country adopts their protocol based on targeted proteins as it suits them based on available testing techniques and methodology and as well the laboratory set ups and environment. For instance, USA protocol for testing targets N (N1, N2, N3) genes and Rp-RNase; China targets ORF 1ab and N-genes, Nigeria targets N-genes and ORF 1ab; Germany RdRp, E and N-genes, Japan and Thailand targets N-genes while Hong Kong targets ORF 1b-nsp-14 and N-genes [15, 17].
The world biomedical day of 2020 awareness was solely dedicated to medical laboratory professionals across the globe because of their unique role in COVID-19.
In Nigeria and other countries, the emphasis on Testing is more of the recognition of the medical laboratories and professionals who toil to discover, test, monitor and research further towards COVID-19 elimination. Usually, medical laboratory professionals are not noticed for their great contribution to healthcare. They are rarely seen by people for their heroic contribution to patients’ healthcare but cannot be underestimated as they perform series of tests that are crucial to ensuring accurate diagnosis and treatments that can help save patients’ lives.
Medical laboratory professionals play a critical role in the diagnostics and testing of COVID-19 which they perform every day. A collaborative committee of 17 medical organizations including American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science (ASCLS), Association of Medical Laboratory Scientists of Nigeria (AMLSN) and American Society of Microbiology (ASM) in the year 2020 helped to coordinate the celebration of annual Biomedical science day in April, 2020 to increase public understanding of and appreciation for clinical laboratory personnel as COVID-19 rages worldwide [21]. Such recognitions usually come from government, organizations or various individuals all over the world.
Laboratory professionals use specialized instruments and techniques to analyze patient samples, such as blood, urine, body fluids, tissues and stool. They may be in a laboratory located in the hospital where the patient may be hundreds of miles away in a reference laboratory, however, no matter their distance to the patient, they produce results that directly affect the patient care. In addition to their day to day activities, laboratory professionals tackle threats to our national security and health such as disease outbreaks. They have played critical roles in fight against COVID-19. These effort have been appreciated by many governments across the globe [22, 23].
“We really need to hail the pathologist, medical technologists, and other laboratory professionals who are becoming unsung heroes of the COVID-19 pandemic” [21].
Now more than ever, is the chance for people all round the world to thank our unseen medical laboratory heroes and heroines. Each year medical laboratory professional’s week celebrates the people who provides critical diagnostic information to help save lives and shows appreciation for the vital work they performed. Across the world, everyday people are applauding the brave health care workers on the front lines of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Protecting Health Care Workers (HCWs) during routine care of suspected or confirmed COVID-19 patients is of paramount importance during the pandemic. The protection ranges from adequate provision of personal protective equipment to provision of temporary accommodation to carter for during testing and treatment of COVID-19 patients outside homes, Life insurance packages, Special Hazard Allowances and other allowances and Commencement of Vaccination among laboratory professionals/healthcare workers. In Nigeria, life insurance to medical laboratory scientists during the COVID-19 was given by the government through the Federal Ministry of Health (FMOH) as seen in Figure 4 as a clarification that the profession is among the front line healthcare workers targeted in the programme.
Medical laboratory scientists clarified as frontline health workers covered for life insurance during COVID-19.
Countries may differ in their approach to laboratory and healthcare workers protection and care during the COVID-19 as documented by several authors [24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30] and analyzed in Table 2. Such support may involve mental health support provided by psychiatrists and psychologists to medical laboratory staff and other healthcare workers working on the frontline which may be in form of counseling or in-house psychologists outreach.
S/N | Countries | Government/employee support programme packages | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mental health | Salary | Childcare | COVID-19 allowance | Insurance | Food | Transport | Accommodation | CPD Units | Online training | Spiritual/prayers | Social/music & dancing | Authors | ||
1 | Australia | A | A | A | A | A | A | A | A | NS | A | NS | A | [28] |
2 | Bulgaria | A | A | NA | A | NS | NS | NS | NA | NS | A | NA | A | [27] |
3 | Canada | A | A | NA | A | NS | NS | NS | NA | NS | A | NA | A | [24] |
4 | China | A | A | NS | A | NS | NS | NS | NS | NS | A | NA | A | [30] |
5 | Denmark | A | A | A | NA | NS | NS | NS | NS | NS | A | NA | A | [27] |
6 | Finland | A | A | NA | NA | NS | NS | NS | NS | NS | A | NS | A | [27] |
7 | France | A | A | A | A | NS | NS | NS | NS | NS | A | NS | A | [27] |
8 | Germany | A | A | A | A | NS | NS | NS | NS | NS | A | NS | A | [27] |
9 | Ghana | A | A | NS | A | A | NS | NS | A | NS | A | A | A | [29] |
10 | Israel | A | A | A | NA | NS | NS | A | A | NS | A | A | A | [27] |
11 | Lithuania | A | A | A | A | A | A | A | A | NS | A | A | A | [27] |
12 | Malta | A | A | A | A | NS | A | A | A | NS | A | A | A | [27] |
13 | Nigeria | A | A | NA | A | A | P | NS | A | NA | A | A | A | |
14 | Romania | A | A | A | A | NS | A | A | A | A | A | A | A | [27] |
15 | UK | A | A | A | A | NS | A | NS | A | NS | A | NS | A | [27] |
16 | USA | A | A | A | A | NS | A | NS | A | NS | A | A | A | [24] |
Employee support (assistance) programmes by some countries for COVID-19.
KEY: A, Available; NA, Not available; NS, Not sure; P, Partial.
Employee support programme (ESP) or employee assistant programme (EAP) cannot be exhausted and depends on the government, private institutions or the healthcare workers involved. The list may include: mental health, salary, childcare, COVID-19 allowance, insurance, food, transport, accommodation, continuous professional development (CPD) units, online training, spiritual support in form of prayers, social lives using music and dancing and others as may be necessary.
Financial support, payment of salaries and job retention for Medical Scientists and other healthcare workers is a sine qua non, so that healthcare workers who were required to stay at home on preventive quarantine or levels of exposure are protected to receive their basic pay and class/grade allowances. Special allowances for COVID-19 are paid to frontline workers in Nigeria and other countries.
No doubt the COVD-19 is now a pandemic and the virus is really testing the resilience of our health delivery system. Medical laboratory science as the bedrock of diagnostic medicine and the role of medical laboratory science in containing any pandemic cannot be relegated to the background, not now or in the future. There is an urgent need to re-strategize in the effort towards fighting COVID-19 especially with regards to medical laboratory diagnosis as well as major component in infectious disease control globally.
All healthcare providers remain in the dark until the release of the medical laboratory test result on any new public health challenge COVID-19 as an example. Quality tools/equipment and conducive working environment provides quality results during public health challenges as noted during this COVID-19 pandemic.
The development of local medical laboratories to international standard are very germane to politicians as COVID-19 discourages medical tourism. Medical laboratories could do better with motivational packages such as recognition, hazard allowances and life insurance policies.
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-COV-2) infection is a global pandemic. Health care workers role in patient management is predisposing and can serve as the means of hospital and community transmission.
Vast majority of health care workers are taking precautionary measures such as avoiding crowded places, washing of hands and the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) against coronavirus infection. This knowledge and attitude of health care workers shows excellent knowledge and possessed a positive attitude and good health practice towards the prevention of COVID-19. It is recommended that health care education of health care workers should continue in order to prevent and control infection.
Medical laboratory testing is very vital in public health emergencies [19] and in COVID-19 in particular thereby encouraging medical laboratory strengthening [31, 32], towards overcoming all laboratory associated challenges in COVID-19 [33, 34, 35, 36].
This chapter hereby recommends the following:
Healthcare providers should always rely on the medical laboratory testing results in all public health issues and not only on COVID-19
There is need to update and quality crosscheck of all COVID-19 testing kits and equipment
Adequate construction and update of medical laboratory facilities in use for COVID-19 and other public health issues
Institutions involved in COVID-19 should sort for scientific and empirical data for all public health issues and vaccination as guide to public health policies
Government should provide and pay good hazard allowances and life insurance to all medical laboratory professionals
Train and retrain all medical laboratory professionals to be at the same pace with any upcoming wave of COVID-19
Adequate policies should be employed to stem out various challenges affecting optimum performance of various medical laboratories across the globe
Knowing fully well that Scientists contributed to the vaccine production research, it should be most appropriate that COVID-19 antibody testing should be carried out on individuals before vaccination to determine status. Not only that, various medical laboratory parameters should be carried out on all that are receiving vaccine before and after vaccine administration to help track changes and monitor health status of individuals who have received the vaccine candidates available currently for COVID-19.
The authors wish to acknowledge MLT Ruth Pam Chuwang for initial assistance in the typing of the manuscript.
The authors declare no competing interests.
Obeta M. Uchejeso conceptualized the Chapter, All authors contributed equally in the chapter manuscript preparation, editing and approved the final manuscript for submission.
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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. 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The cubic equations of state (CEOS) such as Van der Waals, Redlich-Kwong, Soave, and Peng-Robinson are simple models that have been widely used in the oil industry. This chapter expressed literature for EOS that varies from simple expressions to multiple constant and convoluted types of equations. Many attempts have been made to describe the thermodynamic behavior of fluids to predict their physical properties at given conditions. So, several forms of the equation of state have been presented to the oil industry in order to calculate reservoir fluid properties. The heat exchanger is important in wildly fields as in aerospace, petrochemical industry, refrigeration, and other fields. The optimization design of the heat exchanger is a great significance to industry process to reduce production cost, realize energy conservation, and reduce energy consumption.",book:{id:"8679",slug:"inverse-heat-conduction-and-heat-exchangers",title:"Inverse Heat Conduction and Heat Exchangers",fullTitle:"Inverse Heat Conduction and Heat Exchangers"},signatures:"Eman Mohamed Mansour",authors:[{id:"277274",title:"Dr.",name:"Eman M.",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"eman-m.-mansour",fullName:"Eman M. Mansour"}]},{id:"68149",title:"Fouling in Heat Exchangers",slug:"fouling-in-heat-exchangers-1",totalDownloads:1104,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"A major problem in industries that use heat exchanger equipment cooled with water in their industrial processes is biofouling. In the design and operation of heat exchangers cooled with water, a coefficient of biological must be considered, which affects the efficiency of the equipment. For this reason, it is necessary to apply appropriate antifouling treatments to the design of each heat exchanger. In order to minimize the undesirable phenomenon of biofouling, various mitigation methods have been developed over the last 30 years, both online and offline, of a physical, chemical, or biological nature. Most of these methods are well contrasted and are applied in the regular operation of the facilities, although some methodology approaches are in the research and development phase. However, the application of most of these methods requires interrupting the production, periodically, in order to clean the biofouling, seriously damaging the performance and operation of the installation. The “online” methods to biofouling control are chemical (oxidizing, and non-oxidants), biological and physical treatments. Nowadays, other methodologies of biofouling mitigation that do not affect the environment are being investigated, although, until now, none have been found that are substitutes for chemical agents and that have the same or with higher efficiency.",book:{id:"8679",slug:"inverse-heat-conduction-and-heat-exchangers",title:"Inverse Heat Conduction and Heat Exchangers",fullTitle:"Inverse Heat Conduction and Heat Exchangers"},signatures:"Sergio García and Alfredo Trueba",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"223",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:17,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:8,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. 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The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",slug:"jose-navarro-pedreno",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",biography:"Full professor at University Miguel Hernández of Elche, Spain, previously working at the University of Alicante, Autonomous University of Madrid and Polytechnic University of Valencia. Graduate in Sciences (Chemist), graduate in Geography and History (Geography), master in Water Management, Treatment, master in Fertilizers and Environment and master in Environmental Management; Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences. His research is focused on soil-water and waste-environment relations, mainly on soil-water and soil-waste interactions under different management and waste reuse. His work is reflected in more than 230 communications presented in national and international conferences and congresses, 29 invited lectures from universities, associations and government agencies. 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He has developed his research activity in the fields of fauna and soil ecology, and in the treatment of organic waste, having been the founder and principal investigator of the Environmental Biotechnology Group of the University of Vigo.\r\nHis research activity in the field of Environmental Biotechnology has been focused on the development of novel organic waste treatment systems through composting. 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His research activity is linked to the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of marine benthic invertebrates and especially the Cnidarian group. Since 2004, he has been part of the EcoAfrik project, aimed at the study, protection and conservation of biodiversity and benthic habitats in West Africa. He also participated in the study of vulnerable marine ecosystems associated with seamounts in the South Atlantic and is involved in training young African researchers in the field of marine research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",slug:"yizi-shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yizi Shang is a pioneering researcher in hydrology and water resources who has devoted his research career to promoting the conservation and protection of water resources for sustainable development. He is presently associate editor of Water International (official journal of the International Water Resources Association). He was also invited to serve as an associate editor for special issues of the Journal of the American Water Resources Association. He has served as an editorial member for international journals such as Hydrology, Journal of Ecology & Natural Resources, and Hydro Science & Marine Engineering, among others. He has chaired or acted as a technical committee member for twenty-five international forums (conferences). Dr. Shang graduated from Tsinghua University, China, in 2010 with a Ph.D. in Engineering. Prior to that, he worked as a research fellow at Harvard University from 2008 to 2009. 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Pelser and Rujeko Samanthia Chimukuche",slug:"climate-change-rural-livelihoods-and-human-well-being-experiences-from-kenya",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg",subseries:{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10843",title:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)",subtitle:"Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10843.jpg",slug:"persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-monitoring-impact-and-treatment",publishedDate:"April 13th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",hash:"f5b1589f0a990b6114fef2dadc735dd9",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) - Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",biography:"Prof. Mohamed Nageeb Rashed is Professor of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry and former vice-dean for environmental affairs, Faculty of Science, Aswan University, Egypt. He received his Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Assiut University, Egypt, in 1989. His research interest is in analytical and environmental chemistry with special emphasis on: (1) monitoring and assessing biological trace elements and toxic metals in human blood, urine, water, crops, vegetables, and medicinal plants; (2) relationships between environmental heavy metals and human diseases; (3) uses of biological indicators for monitoring water pollution; (4) environmental chemistry of lakes, rivers, and well water; (5) water and wastewater treatment by adsorption and photocatalysis techniques; (6) soil and water pollution monitoring, control, and treatment; and (7) advanced oxidation treatment. Prof. Rashed has supervised several MSc and Ph.D. theses in the field of analytical and environmental chemistry. He served as an examiner for several Ph.D. theses in analytical chemistry in India, Kazakhstan, and Botswana. He has published about ninety scientific papers in peer-reviewed international journals and several papers in national and international conferences. He participated as an invited speaker at thirty international conferences. Prof. Rashed is the editor-in-chief and an editorial board member for several international journals in the fields of chemistry and environment. He is a member of several national and international societies. He received the Egyptian State Award for Environmental Research in 2001 and the Aswan University Merit Award for Basic Science in 2020. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. 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Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. 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He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"24",type:"subseries",title:"Computer Vision",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. 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His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:"J. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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