Techno-Economy Analysis of Wedge Casting/Ton
How do γ-rays compare with other types of radiation? “Radiation” in common language describes “energy packages” that travel on straight paths. “Electromagnetic radiation” is characterized by variations of electric and magnetic fields in space and time. Another type of “radiation” is “cosmic rays,” very energetic particles discovered early in the twentieth century in the upper atmosphere of the Earth and known to pervade interstellar space. These particles are called “cosmic radiation” because with their high energies they propagate at the speed of light and in certain aspects behave like photons of similar energies [1].
\nGamma radiation represents the most energetic part of the electromagnetic spectrum (\nFigure 1\n). Therefore, it is natural that it provides information about the liveliest procedures and wonders in the universe [2].
\nThe electromagnetic spectrum from radio to γ-ray energies. The electromagnetic radiation can be characterized by its photon energy (measured in eV), by its frequency (measured in Hz) or by its wavelength (measured in m) [2].
In general, there are three noteworthy sources: earthly radiation, grandiose radiation, and interior radiation due to the admission of regular radionuclides through inward breath (for the most part radon) and ingestion. Additionally, the most three radionuclide components are thorium (232Th), potassium (40K), and uranium (238U). Natural radiation sources consolidate the ground, rocks, air, building materials, and drinking water supplies. Big amount of radiation rises up out of sun situated, galactic and extragalactic transmissions and contains decidedly charged particles, muons, neutrons, and gamma radiation.
\nInward radiation is in our body because of what we eat and drink and the air we unwind. Common radiation in a general sense relies upon topographical and geological conditions. In this way, the portion ratios of both enormous and earthbound gamma radiation will be found to vary depending upon where the estimations are made [3, 4, 5].
\nAs the research shows the relationship between the gamma-ray and living beings and all gamma radiation in the earth, it will explain in detail the mechanisms (according to the user of the detector) to calculate gamma background radiation and the measurements depending on the international standard values.
\nThis section explains the most common detectors used in the measurement of gamma background radiation and equipped with the international practical recent researches, to let the researchers who have worked in this field have the basic knowledge on these devices by knowing the mechanism of how they work and how to calculate gamma background radiation.
\nA radiation dosimeter is a gadget, instrument, or framework that measures or assesses specifically or in a roundabout way, the amounts presentation, KERMA, proportional portion, or when they again their time auxiliaries (rates), or related amounts of ionizing radiation. A dosimeter close by its scrutinize is insinuated as a dosimetry structure.
\nEstimation of a dosimetric aggregate is the course toward finding the respect of the total likely utilizing dosimetry frameworks. The delayed consequence of estimation is the estimation of a dosimetric aggregate imparted as the aftereffect of a numerical regard and a reasonable unit. To fill in as a radiation dosimeter, the dosimeter must have no short of what one physical property that is a component of the intentional dosimetric sum and that can be used for radiation dosimetry with the real arrangement. With the ultimate objective to be significant, radiation dosimeters must show a couple of appealing characteristics.
\nFor instance, in radiotherapy, correct information of both the consumed portion of water at a predefined point and its spatial appropriation are of significance, also the likelihood of determining the portion to an organ of enthusiasm for the patient [6]. In radiation, preparing dosimetry is utilized to evaluate the vitality kept in a material or consumed by a human from radiation sources.
\nDiverse dosimetry frameworks are utilized for various purposes in industry and research light offices, which have distinctive prerequisites for portion conclusions. Radiation wellbeing norms and issues including the radiation safety of people against radiation presentation have their very own dosimetry metrology.
\nRadiation dosimeters and dosimetry frameworks come in numerous shapes and structures and they depend on various physical impacts for capacity and readout of the dosimetric flag. The below table demonstrates the most regularly utilized of dosimetric frameworks, and the qualities and shortcomings of these four dosimeters are outlined. The four most commonly used radiation dosimeters are [6]:
Ionization chambers
Radiographic films
TLDs
Diodes
Dosimetry type | \nAdvantage | \nDisadvantage | \n
---|---|---|
Ionization chambers | \nAccurate and precise. Recommended for beam calibration. Necessary corrections well understood. Instant readout. | \nConnecting cables required. High voltage supply required. Many corrections required for high energy beam dosimetry. | \n
Radiographic films | \n(2-D) spatial goals. Thin: does not irritate the pillar. | \nDarkroom and preparing offices required. Preparing hard to control variety among movies and clumps. Needs legitimate alignment against ionization chamber estimations. Energy reliance issues can’t be utilized for pillar alignment. | \n
TLDs | \nSmall in size: point portion estimations conceivable. Numerous TLDs can be uncovered in a solitary presentation. Accessible in different structures such as some similar tissue identical. Not costly. | \nFlag deleted amid readout. Simple to lose perusing. No moment readout. Precise outcomes require care readout and alignment tedious. Not suggested for shaft calibration. | \n
Diodes | \nLittle size. High affectability. Moment readout. No outer inclination voltage basic instrumentation. | \nRequires partner joins Variability of alteration with temperature. Change in affectability with the aggregated portion. Uncommon consideration expected to guarantee consistency of reaction. Can’t be utilized for pillar adjustment. | \n
Radiation dosimetry is a part of physical science investigating diverse strategies for the quantitative assurance of vitality, which is stored in a given material by ionizing radiation, either through an immediate or aberrant presentation. Dosimetry manages conclusions and computations of amounts (portion) that depict the vitality ingested in a material and to some degree its rate of the statement (portion rate). Dosimetry conclusions that are performed by presenting a dosimeter to a radiation source help in assessing the radiation-prompted impacts, physical, substance, and additionally organic, on a lighted material [7]. \nFigure 2\n shows a Science Photo Library/Getty Images [8].
\nScience Photo Library/Getty Images [8].
Know the most recent research to calculate gamma background radiation is measurements of gamma background radiation in Lorestan, Iran.
\nThe researcher used a G.M. detector (RDS-110) “Inspector Alert model RAP RS1, S.E. international, Inc, USA”. The outcome demonstrates the normal yearly powerful portion for gamma base radiation in Lorestan area has been 0.72 mSv, with the scope of 0.3–0.6 mSv which was more than the worldwide esteem (0.48 mSv). A poor coefficient relationship in-between was noticed elevating and retaining portion rates [9].
\nAnother research study used the same device and the same properties. Indoor and outdoor absorbed dose rates were measured in the select region of AL-Qizweenia Najaf in Iraq [10]. Many studies in the gamma field of background radiation were conducted in different cities of Iraq [11, 12, 13]. All values of these studies compared with limitation of world average values.
\nThere was an expansive glitter phenomenon in 1948 which was accounted for. It caused by including a follow amount of thallium (Tl) into a precious stone of sodium iodide (NaI). This identifier, in which sodium iodide (NaI) was utilized for radiation estimations, was based on the fact that recently it had been produced by HORIBA. They had the advancement of the NaI(Tl) plate for gamma cameras began during the 1970s.
\nIn the first place, gems with breadths of 1–3 inches were utilized as indicators for atomic material science tests, natural radiation estimations at atomic power plants, or radioimmunoassay. Furthermore, mosaic-type precious stones were likewise created to relate to vast estimated gems notwithstanding the gems with a distance across of around 5 inches. After the expansive estimated gamma camera was created, bigger and bigger precious stones have been requested each year, and researchers have been making a decent attempt to get ever bigger measured NaI(Tl) gems as of late, and \nFigure 3\n shows atypical scintillation detector [14].
\nAtypical scintillation detector [14].
An elective strategy for assurance of exercises of regular, techno genic, and aftermath radionuclide in natural examples was proposed. The strategy utilized a broadly accessible shine spectrometer and depended on the disintegration of tests’ γ-spectra into ghastly segments of discrete radionuclide bunches with the assistance of standard sources. The technique was tested on water, soil, and coal which could be effectively utilized in field (endeavor) conditions (without fluid nitrogen for the indicator cooling) [15].
\nThere were many local and international studies used NaI(Tl) detector to evaluate natural or terrestrial of radionuclide or gamma background radiation with a difference of accuracy and efficiency of the device and sometimes equipped with a software program of the trace elements.
\nIn 2013, a nearby report discusses uranium (238U), thorium (232Th), and potassium (40K) with the explicit movement (10) in a few types of vegetables that is accessible at the market in Iraq. Tests had been estimated, and inner risk file, radium identical, and the yearly compelling portion of (40K) in all examples were resolved. The gamma spectrometry methodology with a NaI(Tl) pointer was used for radiometric estimations, outcomes were contrasted and worldwide prescribed qualities and were observed to be inside the global dimension [16].
\nAn investigation was conducted on radionuclides (226Ra, 232Th, and 40K) of natural radioactivity estimations and assessment of radiological hazards in the silt of Oguta Lake, South East Nigeria. NaI(Tl) indicator “(show: Bicron, Pre-intensifier model:2001, Amplifier model:2020, ADC model:8075, HVPS model:3105)” was utilized for the gamma-beam spectrometry estimations. The identifier has a goal of 8% at 0.665 MeV line of 137Cs, which is equipped for recognizing the gamma-beam energies of the radionuclides of enthusiasm for this examination. The investigation could fill in as critical radiometric pattern information whereupon future epidemiological examinations and ecological observing activities could be based [17].
\nAnother examination enduring gamma producers in biscuit samples expired in Iraq, estimated the common radioactivity couple to seemingly perpetual gamma producers in children roll by gamma spectroscopy and appraisal radiation risk records which are the radium comparable action, the delegate of gamma level file, the interior danger file, and yearly powerful portion in kids. The gamma spectrum from each sample was recorded using detector NaI(Tl), and the volume of the crystal is (“3 × 3”), a PC-based multichannel analyzer (4096 channel) and processed using the MAESTRO-32 software. The estimations of eexpress activity, radiation risk records, and a yearly viable portion in all examples in this investigation are discovered lower than the overall middle incentive for all gatherings. Along these lines, these qualities are observed to be protected [18].
\nThree types of research are in the same field (used NaI detector). First one is in Kütahya, Turkey. The examination of common radioactivity from 238U, 232Th, and 40K in 357 soil tests gathered from territory of Kütahya was completed utilizing a NaI(Tl) gamma-beam spectroscopy. Explicit exercises of 238U, 232Th, and 40K in the dirt examples were assessed. The locator was coupled to a full-featured 16 K channel fused multichannel analyzer “(Canberra DSA-1000).” It is joined with a PC for getting an examination and with reasonable programming “(Genie 2000).”
\nThe identifier was covered in a 0.5 cm thickness lead shield, giving a disguise of the establishment gamma-bar radiation present in the exploration office. The NaI(Tl) gamma-bar spectrometer has high efficiency, and in a similar manner, it might be used for the customary radioactivity. The outcomes acquired in this examination were analyzed inside the cutoff points of values gotten in different urban areas of Turkey, those in different nations [19].
\nSecond research estimated normal radioactivity in chosen tests of therapeutic plants in Iraq, where characteristic dimensions of radiation in some chosen therapeutic plants existing in the Iraqi stores were assessed to decide any action fixation, radium comparable, and inner risk file due to the radionuclide, of 238U, 232Th, and in addition 40K, which happens normally. The movement fixation is recognized by gamma-beam spectroscopy and NaI(Tl). Estimations are done by embracing frameworks of gamma spectrometry from ORTEC, furnished with a high productivity sparkle indicator, a NaI(Tl) locator of (3″ × 3″) precious stone measurement, with goals 9.2% for 137Cs (661.7 keV). A lead shield with a thickness of (10 cm) was put around the finder to decrease the foundation, with a 0.3 cm layer of copper to debilitate X-rays discharged by the lead shield. The spectra were seen disconnected utilizing the ORTEC Maestro-32 information obtaining and examination framework. Regular radionuclides and development of the radium similar to the remedial plant tests were far underneath the world for the ingestion of typically happening radionuclide, as given in UNSCEAR 2000 report [20].
\nThird research in some vegetables and fruits commonly used in Najaf Governorate, Iraq, determined the natural radioactivity levels. The points of the present work were to gauge the explicit action and yearly compelling portion because of the admission of vegetables and organic products gathered from the nearby market in Najaf governorate. Characteristic radioactivity was estimated in tests utilizing gamma beam spectrometer. Gamma-ray spectroscopy with scintillation detector NaI(TI) from ORTEC had an active area of “3 × 3” inches, the efficiency of 4.6% at the 662 KeV, and energy resolution 7.9%. The qualities found for explicit action and the yearly powerful portion in all examples in this investigation were lower than overall middle qualities for all gatherings as indicated by UNSCEAR (2000) and ICRP (1996) individually; subsequently, these qualities are observed to be sheltered [21].
\nAlso, a study in Turkey for the three radionuclide elements (226Ra, 232 Th, and 40K) had been made in some granite samples. The action grouping of primordial radionuclides in rock tests was assessed by utilizing (3 × 3) NaI(Tl) indicator-based gamma-beam spectrometry. This gamma spectrometer has vitality goals 8% for 662 keV and the relative checking productivity about 20%. It was critical that the productivity adjustment of the framework ought to be made before estimation for the right outcome. Estimation of radioactivity for, 14 various types of stone examples have been breaking down for their regular radioactivity content. The end was: the 40K action focus levels in stone examples in these investigations were lower than fixation estimations of various examinations on the planet. A few examples and other stone examples were not observed to be reasonable for utilizing in the human life regions due to every single radiological incentive in these examples are higher than CLV [22].
\nRoentgen in 1928 was held onto as a unit to describe radiation introduction. Roentgen evaluates the number of electrons made in air, yet not the genuine damage following in a man.
\nIn 1953, a unit known as a rad (100 ergs g−1) was grasped to portray the proportion of essentialness spared in a material. Clearly, it was found that different sorts of radiation affected the tissue in the body all of a sudden. Another unit was made to address this, known as a rem. A rem is proportionate to a rad duplicated by a factor known as a “Quality Factor” (Q) which numerically portrays the relative trademark impact of the express kind of radiation. As these new units of measure were made and executed, new radiation materials and exposure instruments were delivered with the objective that contradictory exposures and doses could be accurately evaluated [23].
\nAlthough extremely accurate active radiation detectors are now available, TLDs are small, inexpensive, and if the correct material is chosen, tissue equivalent. They can be used to detect photons, beta particles, and slow neutrons, and with appropriate filters, they can be used to determine the shallow and deep dose. Their biggest advantage is long-term deplorability, possible due to a power source being unnecessary until readout. This allows time-efficient monitoring of typically uninhabited areas. In order to ensure accurate results from long deployments in diverse interior and exterior environments, various aspects of their performance must be examined. This work serves to improve the effectiveness of TLD systems by analyzing several factors which may affect the sensitivity and precision of TLD measurements, as well as determining a practical minimum detectable dose incorporating those factors.
\nTLDs must be individually calibrated, meaning that the amount of signal response to a known dose must be measured before use. The light response to doses generally between 0.1 mGy and 10 Gy, but varying by material, has a two linear relationship with dose. This makes calibration at only one dose necessary if staying within the linear range [24]. \nFigure 4\n below shows the thermoluminescence detector (model THERMO SCIENTIFIC 4500 TLD READER) in the laboratory at Ankara University, Institute of nuclear sciences [25].
\nTHERMO SCIENTIFIC 4500 TLD READER [25].
Some examples of modern researches will be taken. Researches of detector will show it had much application with different branches in physical science. First one in network communication in which the point is to seek after an ordinary free quality review in Czech radiotherapy focuses and to help state supervision. The results appears to be that there are 34 radiotherapy focuses in the Czech Republic. They experience the essential method of the TLD review routinely at regular intervals.
\nOn the off chance that an inside demonstrates a deviation outside the acknowledgment level, it is evaluated more frequently. Step by step, a large portion of the checked shafts conform to the acknowledgment level.
\nResults were for the most part inside as far as possible for the estimations on-hub, though for off-hub focuses they fell past the limit all the more oftentimes, particularly for set-ups with in-homogeneities, diagonal occurrence, and wedges.
\nThe outcomes demonstrate the significance of the national TLD quality affirmation arrange. It has added to the enhancement of clinical dosimetry in the Czech Republic. What’s more, it causes administrative specialist to screen successfully and consistently radiotherapy focuses [26].
\nAn exploration in therapeutic material science including patients and apparition dosimetry in the two cases, thermoluminescence dosimetry (TLD) is the most suitable strategy for estimating the assimilated portion. In this chapter, thermoluminescence wonder and in addition the utilization of TLD in radiodiagnosis and radiotherapy for in vivo or in apparition estimations is talked about. A few aftereffects of estimations made in radiotherapy and radio diagnosis utilizing natively constructed LiF: Mg, Cu, P + PTFE TLD are exhibited [27].
\nIn nuclear atomic material science, an examination in the robust assurance of successful nuclear numbers for electron together with “TLD-100 and TLD-100H thermoluminescent dosimeters,” lithium fluoride thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD) are frequently not completed for clinical dosimetry. The little physical enormity of TLDs makes them applicable, for instance, little field estimation, in vivo dosimetry, and estimation of out-of-field bits of essential structures. The most exhaustively used TLD can’t avoid being “TLD-100 (LiF: Mg, Ti),” and for applications requiring higher affectability to low-parcels, TLD-100H (LiF: Mg, Cu, P) is consistently used. The radiological properties of these TLDs are along these lines of significant interest. All of a sudden, in this examination, convincing atomic numbers for radiative, collisional, and mean electron association frames is resolved for “TLD-100 and TLD-100H” dosimeters over the essential expansion of 1 keV–100 MeV. This is applied by using a solid, essentialness subordinate system for calculation instead of normal power-law approximations. The effect of dopant obsessions and unwanted impacts is further analyzed. The two TLDs show relative convincing atomic numbers, generally ranging from 5.77 to 6.51. Differentiations rising up out of the particular dopants are most enunciated in low-imperativeness radiative effects. The TLDs have atomic numbers around (1.48–2.06) events than that of water [28].
\nMeasurement of computed tomography dose profile with pitch variation uses Gafchromic XR-QA2 and thermoluminescence dosimeter (TLD). This examination was meant to point the examples of portion profile on a grown-up and pediatric head filter. They thought about estimation depended on portion profile along the z-hub turn at peripheries and focus apparition with an assortment of the pitch, that is, 0.75, 1, and 1.5 for grown-up and pediatric head convention, keeping whatever is left of the sweep parameters steady.
\nEstimations were performed on homogeneous, round, and void PMMA ghost with widths of 16 and 10 cm utilizing XR-QA2 Gafchromic film and TLD as dosimeters. The estimation result showed a diminishing in the part about half and 47% for grown-up and pediatric head check with the advancement of pitch. Part profile for adult and pediatric head channel traditions has configuration twist with the most outrageous bit in the inside and inclination of symmetry near the edges, with difference in the dimension length along z-center point bearing incomprehension to the estimation position in the nebulous vision [29].
\nA research related with nuclear physics was unfolding neutron spectra from the simulated response of thermoluminescence dosimeters, and neutron spectrometry utilizing a solitary circle containing dosimeters has been produced as of late, as a powerful swap for Bonner circle spectrometry. The purpose of the examination is spreading out the neutron essentialness spectra using the GRNN fake neural framework, from the response of thermoluminescence dosimeters, TLDs, arranged inside a polyethylene circle. The spectrometer was reproduced using MCNP5.
\nTLD-600 and TLD-700 dosimeters were replicated in different positions all over. By then, the GRNN was used for neutron spectrum gauge, using the TLDs’ readings. Examination of spectra foreseen by the framework with real spectra shows that the single-circle dosimeter is an incredible instrument in spreading out neutron spectra [30].
\nSolid state physic took apart with thermoluminescence detector, preliminary studies of thermoluminescence dosimeter “(TLD) CaSO4: Dy Synthesis. thermoluminescence dosimeter (TLD) CaSO4: Dy” was orchestrated by coprecipitation.
\nThe TLD was seen after radiation introduction to Strontium-90. The thermoluminescence drive was scrutinized using a TLD Reader Harshaw 3500. The thermoluminescent response obtained was 59.29 nC. By then, refortifying was driven with the temperature vacillated at 700, 800, and 900°C. The thermoluminescent control got at temperatures of 700–900°C was 66.12, 169.45, and 552.37 nC independently. The affectability of the TLD extended in light of the retoughening temperature rise. Despite viewing the thermoluminescence properties, a relationship was made between the TLD got from this attempt distinctive things with a current TLD in the market. At long last, likewise, the gleam bend attributes of the TLD were watched [31].
\nThe U.S. Naval force utilizes the “Harshaw 8840/8841 dosimetric (DT-702/PD)” framework, which utilizes LiF: Mg, Cu, P thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs), created and delivered by Thermo Fisher Scientific (TFS). The dosimeter comprises four LiF: Mg, Cu, P components, mounted in Teflon on an aluminum card and put in a possessor made from plastic. The possessor consists of an interesting channel for each chip made of copper.
\nThe Naval Dosimetry Center (NDC) has created and tried another nondamaging method, which empowers the check and the assessment of installed channels in the possessors. Testing depends on weakening estimations of low-vitality radiation transmitted through each channel in an agent test gathering of possessors to confirm that right channel type and thickness are available. The deliberate reaction proportions are then contrasted and the normal reaction proportions. Moreover, every component’s deliberate reaction is contrasted with the mean reaction of the gathering. The test was organized and endeavored to recognize basic singularities, for instance, missing copper or tin channels, twofold copper or twofold tin channels, or diverse discords that may influence TLD response extents. In the midst of the execution of the made strategy, testing revealed a possessor with a twofold copper channel. To finish the assessment, the effect of the qualifications on limit testing was destitute down. The examination uncovered disappointments in capacity testing orders III and IV when these dosimeters were edified to high-significance betas [32].
\nThe diode indicator is the least difficult and most essential type of abundancy tweak, AM locator, and it distinguishes the envelope of the AM flag as shown in \nFigure 5\n. The AM diode locator could be worked only on a diode with couple of different segments, and therefore it is a minimal effort circuit hinder inside a general recipient. Because of its expense and comfort, the AM diode envelope identifier has been broadly utilized for a long time in transistor compact radios.
\nCircuit of an envelope locator as utilized in an AM radio collector [33].
In changing the RF hail, the AM diode discoverer gives a yield proportionate to the envelope of one part of the banner, and this implies an envelope locator. In context of the errand of the diode marker, it may every so often be implied as an envelope discoverer. The moving toward abundancy changed RF hail includes a waveform of both positive and negative going voltages as shown in \nFigure 6\n. Any stable transducer would not respond to that.
\nAM diode envelop detection process [33].
The diode envelope discoverer changes the waveform leaving only the positive or negative segment of the waveform. The high repeat part of this is filtered through, normally using a capacitor that outlines the low pass channel and suitable “fills” in the high repeat segments, leaving a waveform to which a transducer like two or three earphones or an enhancer could respond to and convert into sound waves.
\nThe AM diode envelope discoverer had been viably used to quite a while. The most envelope pointer purposes of intrigue are: ease that means the diode indicator just requires the utilization of a couple of ease parts. This means it is perfect for use in transistor (and valve/vacuum tube) radios utilizing discrete segments, effortlessness means utilizing not a lot of parts, and the diode AM identifier was definitely not hard to complete. It was dependable and did not need any setup, while an envelope identifier inconveniences are:
\nAs the diode indicator is nondirect, it presents mutilation onto the identified sound flag.
\nOne of the issues a significant part of the time experienced on the short and medium wavebands where the AM transmissions are found is that of express darkening. The diode envelope identifier cannot battle the impacts of this on how some different locators are capable, and therefore, contortion happens when specific blurring happens.
\nThe diode locator is not as precarious as some remarkable sorts. On the off chance that silicon diodes are utilized, these have a turn-on voltage of around 0.6 volts, and therefore, germanium or Schottky diodes are utilized which have a lower turn-on voltage of around 0.2–0.3 volts. Without a doubt, even with the utilization of the Schottky diode, the diode envelope identifier still experiences a pore estimation of affectability.
\nThe AM diode envelope indicator has been accessible for a long time. Despite the fact that abundancy balance is utilized less nowadays, and different types of AM finder can be effortlessly consolidated into coordinated circuits, the basic diode identifier still has a few points of interest [33].
\nAfter a brief explanation about diode detector, some recent applications of diode detector will be discussed.
\nIn remedial material science, in light of the way is that the skin diode is made on a thin epitaxial layer and bundled utilizing the “drop-in” advancement. It was portrayed comparably as rate hugeness isolate, segment linearity, and section rate reliance and benchmarked against the Attix ionization chamber. The reaction of the skin diode in the enhancement zone of the rate importance divide touch of a 6 MV clinical photon bar was explored. The radiation hardness of the skin diode up to an amassed bit of 80 kGy using photons from a Co-60 gamma source was surveyed [34].
\nAnother application in the same field is evaluation of the dosimetric properties of a diode detector for small field proton radiosurgery; the little fields and sharp angles regularly experienced in proton radiosurgery require high spatial goal dosimetric estimations, particularly underneath 1–2 cm measurements. The radiochromic film gives high goals; however, it requires postprocessing and unique taking care of. Promising choices are diode identifiers with little delicate volumes (SV) that are able to do high goals and continuous portion obtaining.
\nIn this investigation, the analyst assessed the PTW PR60020 proton dosimetry diode utilizing radiation fields and shaft energies pertinent to radiosurgery applications [35].
\nSchottky diode is well know; therefore, we have given examples. The first one is calculating the diode junction resistance variations with RF power of a series Schottky diode detector. Based on the Ritz-Galerkin method, this research provides a simple formula that can be used to calculate the differential input impedance and frequency response of a diode detector. Calculated results are presented for several circuit configurations that are confirmed by ADS [36].
\nThe second example is high-resolution Schottky CdTe diode detector, with a Schottky intersection created on the Te face of a top-notch CdTe semiconductor by dissipating indium, and they have possessed the capacity to accomplish a CdTe diode including high vitality goals. The identifiers demonstrate the best execution when they utilize a moderately thin locator of 1 mm. The high vitality goals of the CdTe diode are exceptionally alluring for hard X-beam and gamma-beam recognition. Particularly, an extensive CdTe diode with measurements bigger than 20 × 20 mm can possibly supplant shine locators because of its high ceasing force and vitality goals of 3 keV at 100 keV. Numerous ideas dependent on high goal CdTe diodes are currently being examined, and model indicators are being created [37].
\nSemiconductor identifiers are basically strong state analogs of gas-filled ionization chambers. Since the strong indicator materials utilized in semiconductor identifiers are 2000 to multiple times more than gases, they have the much better halting force and are considerably more productive finders for X-rays and γ-rays.
\nSemiconductor indicators regularly are poor electrical transmitters; when they were ionized by an ionizing radiation event, the electrical charge delivered could be gathered by an outer connected voltage, for what its worth with gas-filled locators. This guideline could not be connected utilizing a leading material for the locator (e.g., a square of metal) on the grounds that such a material would direct a lot of current even without ionizing occasions. Protectors (e.g., glass) are not appropriate identifier materials either on the grounds that they don’t lead even within the sight of ionizing radiation. Subsequently, just semiconductor materials can work as “strong ionization chambers.”
\nThe most by and large used semiconductor locator materials are silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge). Even more starting late, cadmium telluride (CdTe) or cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) has been utilized as the major material in insignificant atomic medicine checking and imaging gadgets. One ionization is made per 3–5 eV of radiation importance consumed. By examination, this propelling power for gases (air) is around 34 eV for each ionization. Subsequently, a semiconductor locator not exclusively is more fruitful shield of radiation, in any case, passes on an electrical standard that is around various events more prominent (per unit of radiation centrality ingested) than a gas-filled pioneer. The flag is sufficiently enormous to allow recognizing verification and checking of individual radiation occasions. Also, the proportion of the electrical banner is relating to the proportion of radiation imperativeness acclimatized. Thusly, semiconductor discoverers can be used for essentialness explicit radiation counting [38].
\nThe most advantage of HPGe high purity germanium detectors (HPGe) is the best energy resolution among all detector types. In principle, they work like reverse biased diodes; energy deposition by nuclear radiation causes the flow of a current, which is processed by front-end electronics [39]. \nFigure 7\n shows a geometrical dimension of the investigated detector (mm).
\nA geometrical dimension of the investigated detector (mm) [39].
In 2018, many international studies are about gamma background radiation and using HPGe detector. One of these studies is treating illnesses for many years all over the world. The aim of this study is to determine the radioactivity levels in some anti-carcinogenic medicinal plants that are often used to treat illnesses in Turkey.
\nThe analysis of 226Ra, 232Th, 40K, and 137Cs activity concentration of medicinal plants was performed using a high-resolution gamma-ray spectrometer with HpGe detector. Total committed effective dose value due to ingestion was determined as 55.04 μSv y−1 for these medicinal plants and has no risk to public health [40].
\nA study to analyze natural radioactivity level contents in Nigeria and China and a typical radioactive substance in tiles manufactured in Nigeria and tiles imported from China were evaluated using gamma-shaft spectroscopy. High purity germanium identifier was used to check the combinations of a couple of radioisotopes present in 17 trial of various tiles from Nigeria and China. The mean estimation of annual viable gamma dosages and the lifetime dangers to procure in this examination is not as much as that of the worldwide reference estimation of 370 Bq/kg for the two sorts of tiles [41].
\nAnother place in Nigeria studied building material purpose, which evaluated the activity concentration of natural radionuclides (226Ra, 232Th, and 40K) for fifteen (15) different brands of tile samples, is used for building purposes in Nigeria. The tile samples were analyzed using high purity germanium gamma detector. The deliberate centralizations of these radioactive materials were related with different past outcomes got from comparable tile materials utilized in different nations and observed to be in great concurrence with the global standard, and be that as it may, the tiles are suggested for adornment purposes in Nigeria [42].
\nA research in Amman calculated hazard indices and annual effective dose due to terrestrial radioactivity in the urban areas of south Amman. The extricated qualities are, by and large, tantamount to the relating ones acquired from different locales in Jordan and different nations and they all fall inside the normal overall reaches. Consequently, the foundation in these regions is actually equivalent to the esteem run of the mill of the upper piece of the Earth’s outside layer. Hence, all the samples investigated can be considered as safe materials for use in building constructions [43].
\nThe radioactivity groupings of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K in 24 tests of normal and made building materials ordinarily utilized in Bangladesh were estimated utilizing HPGe gamma-beam spectrometer. Outcomes were contrasted and the world normal and furthermore with the detailed information. The radium equal action, the assimilated portion rate, yearly successful portion, outer and inside peril records, gamma file, alpha file, yearly gonadal portion equal, and overabundance lifetime malignancy chance were additionally assessed to assess the potential radiation dangers related with these building materials.
\nAll models under investigation were seen to be inside the recommended prosperity limit and don’t speak to any essential radiation risks. This examination can be used as a sort of viewpoint for more expansive examinations of a comparable subject in future [44].
\nThe radiological risk from building stone interfaces in Jordanian houses was determined depending on gamma-ray spectrometric techniques. Building stone samples collected from seven types mostly used in Jordanian houses have been analyzed for the naturally occurring radioactive radionuclides. Moreover, different radiological hazardous parameters (absorbed dose, annual effective dose equivalent, AGDE, ELCR, and AUI) were calculated. The results were lower than those of published world average values. Also, the obtained values were comparable with the presented data of other building materials used in Jordan [45].
\nTwo researches in 2017, first one is Evaluation of Natural Radioactivity and its Radiation Hazards in Some Building and Decorative Materials in Iraq, 29 examples of various kinds of building materials, for example, blocks, bond, earthenware, rock, marble, paint, mortar, sand, and soil were examined by a gamma spectrometer dependent on HPGe locator. The outcomes demonstrated that all the building materials in Iraq are sheltered with the exception of the materials that utilized as improving materials that must be directed [46].
\nThe second one is in north focal of Nigeria; measurement of the radiation portion dispersion is critical in surveying the wellbeing hazard a populace and fill in as a kind of perspective in archiving changes to ecological radioactivity in soil because of man-made exercises. The mean assimilated portion rate, yearly successful portion, and gamma radiation record assessed were 66.2 nGyh−1, 81.2 μSvy−1, and 1.05 individually which are higher than as far as possible for ordinary foundation radiation. In this manner, it is argued that individuals living in these areas might be presented to higher radiation [47].
\nThere are numerous examinations in Turkey about radioactivity levels and malignancy hazard. Turkey, particularly its northern piece, was one of the nations which were defiled by the Chernobyl mishap. In the Northeastern area of Turkey, there was a city named Rize, which was intensely affected by the Chernobyl atomic mishap.
\nThe action convergences of characteristic (226Ra, 232Th, and 40K) and artificial (137Cs) were estimations in soil tests gathered from 132 distinct focuses in Rize territory of Turkey utilizing gamma spectrometry with HPGe identifier. The open-air assimilated portion rates (D) because of earthbound gamma rays for soil have been determined due to agrarian zone and lived in the encompassing. It is essential to decide foundation radiation level with the end goal to assess the wellbeing dangers.
\nYearly viable gamma dosages and the presence dangers of disease were higher than the world’s normal. Besides contrast with the World’s normal, the existence time danger of malignancy is multiplied for a large portion of the territories [48].
\nIn Egypt, south Sinai granite is generally utilized in the development of homes as a building material. It contains the common radionuclides, 238U and 232Th, and their descendants together with 40K. This guarantees the significance of the evaluation of radiation levels and the related radiological dangers to which the populace may be uncovered. Gamma shaft spectra of standard radioactivity from the 238U and 232Th game-plan and from 40K of eight (tending to 40 gathered models) shake tests collected from Saint Katherine district, South Sinai, Egypt, had been assessed utilizing a gamma-column spectrometer with HPGe identifier. From the exploratory and computational work on normal radioactivity of Egyptian shake tests, we can complete the going with:
\nFirst, the region from where they collected the granite samples, South Sinai Governorate, Egypt contains 238U, 232Th, and 40K radionuclides with obsessions higher, comparable and lower than beyond what many would consider possible. Second, the radium tantamount activity is not actually beyond what many would consider possible. Thirdly, the danger lists, the dimension lists, and the actors use lists that are not exactly the world set criteria. Fourth, the Clark esteem is equivalent to around five which implies that district from where they took the rock tests isn’t financial for uranium mining and extraction [49].
\nSouthwestern of Nigeria (226Ra, 232Th, and 40K) and artificial (137Cs) were measured using (HPGe) detector (Canberra Industries Inc.). The outdoor absorbed dose rates in the air at about 1.0 m height were estimated from the activity concentrations and dose rate conversion factors for the radionuclides. The annual outdoor effective dose equivalent rates were also estimated for urban and rural areas of the state using the calculated absorbed dose rates in air. The results showed that area named (Igbeti and Eruwa) soils contain the highest level of natural radioactivity, while Egbeda soil contains the lowest level. The study showed that healthy burden caused by natural background radiation from soils on inhabitant area of study is generally low and carried insignificant radiation hazard except for two locations (Igbeti and Eruwa) [50].
\nA second study in Malaysia 2013, the radiation survey of the ambient environment was conducted using two gamma detectors, and the measurement results were used in the computation of the mean external radiation dose rate, mean-weighted dose rate, and annual effective dose, and also, the mean lifetime dose and lifetime cancer risk for each person living in the area with an average lifetime (70 years). Two strategies have been utilized to assess outer exposures in this examination. The first was a provoke estimation of outside gamma segment rates.
\nThe observation was taken at 497 zones in the Kluang District at 1 m above the ground utilizing two NaI-based gamma locators. The second system depended upon surveyed action revolves around soil tests and the gamma divide (Dc) from the gatherings of 238U, 232Th, and 40K. The advancement groupings of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K in soil were acquired by utilizing the HPGe gamma spectrometer. The advancement fixations decided for 57 soil tests. The rationale for affirmation of the gamma segment rates from the fixations was gotten a handle on from United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) 2000 [51].
\nThe fundamental goal of this examination is to decide the action centralizations of primordial radionuclides in soil tests gathered from various of studying locale areas in India such as Ramanagara, Tumkur, and Karnataka districts, using gamma bar spectrometry and besides the radiological dangers records identified with based on soil tests. The radiological hazard files of the common radioactivity have been determined and contrasted and the globally affirmed qualities. The convergence of these radionuclides with various sizes and depth of the dirt examples was contemplated. They were found to pursue [52]:
\nThe 232Th and 40K action focus was seen to be marginally higher than the world normal values reported by UNSCEAR (2000). The normal 226Ra fixation in soil tests of the contemplated zone was observed to be like the world normal.
\nThe assessed normal action grouping of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K in soil tests of those contemplated zones observed to be higher than the Indian normal.
\nResults acquired had demonstrated radiological dangers, for example, gamma list, radium equal movement, external peril record, and indoor risk list are well inside the world normal esteem. At last, it is presumed that the radiation discharged from the radionuclides present in the dirt of the examination zone doesn’t represent any radiological wellbeing risk to the general population of the zone.
\nThe normal indoor and open-air ingested portion rate for the dirt examples of investigation zone were marginally higher than the world normal estimations of 75 nGy h−1 for indoor what’s more, 59 nGy h−1 for open air.
\nResults show that ordinary indoor, outdoors amazing part, and a total yearly convincing bit in view of trademark radioactivity of soil tests is lower than the typical national and world endorsed estimation of 1 mSv y−1.
\nMovement assembly of primordial radionuclides increases with an addition in grain gauge.
\nInformation procured in this examination will fill in as a benchmark for looking over the radiation presentation of the inhabitants.
\nThis section manages gamma foundation radiation which uncovered with two noteworthy normal sources; earthly gamma rays and astronomical rays.
\nRecent studies in building materials, medical plants, building purposes, some vegetables and fruits commonly used in markets, and different soil samples in various countries in the world. The measurements of gamma background radiation differ according to the purpose. Each type of detectors is explained which are: radiographic films (scintillation detector), TLD detector (thermoluminescence detector), diode detector, and HPGe detector. The mechanism for each detector is provided with recently applied researches for the past 10 years, focusing on used gamma background radiations measurements.
\nThe author expresses a deep sense of gratitude to Kufa University, Faculty of Science, for providing the scientific support to do this work. The author is grateful to Dr. Basim Almayahi, University of Kufa (basimnajaf@yahoo.com), for assisting throughout conducting the present chapter.
\nThe author declares that she has no conflicts of interest.
Simulation imitates a real phenomenon by the use of certain mathematical equations. Metal casting is a manufacturing process where molten metal is poured into a mould cavity of required shape and size and allowed to solidify. Naturally, metal casting simulation is a very complex phenomenon which involves flow of fluid, heat transfer between mould and molten metal etc. It is often said that the development of accurate simulation software is a ‘rocket science for rocket scientists’. Actually, metal casting is a process which has numerous associated controlling factors. Therefore, the key to develop a practical useful casting simulation software is to figure out the related most important parameters. Several researchers have worked hard for several decades to find out the same. Geometry, material, and process are three major influencing factors related to metal casting [1].
The casting simulation software producing farms always keep target to accurately simulate the physical phenomena as far as possible like the mould filling, associated heat-transfer, solidification pattern of the metal/alloy, and the involved phase transformation of castings [2]. It is ubiquitous that a set of governing equations are required to model these phenomenon in a computer program. Now a days, these modeling methodologies are so strong that they can accurately predict the microstructure and mechanical properties of the castings. It can also pin point the position of internal defects like shrinkage porosity, sand inclusions and cold shuts etc. The simulation software can be used for the development of any new castings or it can be used for standardize any existing casting for any design change to improve yield of the casting without shop floor trial. For these reasons, casting simulation has become an indispensable tool in modern foundries. No foundry can produce high-quality castings particularly integrated castings without simulation for the first time. The present dynamic market demands fast response to customer needs at the right cost and also within stipulated time.
Some popular casting simulation softwares which are available to foundry engineers are AutoCAST, MAGMASoft, ProCAST, SOLIDCast, CAP/WRAFTS, CastCAE, Castflow, Castherm, JSCast, MAVIS, Nova-Solid/Flow, PAM-CAST, RAPID/CAST, and SIMTEC etc. These simulation software generally follow any one the following numerical technique to solve the related differential equations, Finite Differences Method (FDM), Finite Volumes Method (FVM), Finite Element Method (FEM) and Vector Element Method (VEM) etc. ProCAST, SOLID Cast, OPTI Cast and FLOW Cast are based on the FEM technique while QuikCAST is based on FDM technique and AutoCAST is based on VEM technique.
It is easily understandable that the simulation software will perform well if and only if the input parametrs are close to the real world values. Most critical input values for such simulation software are the thermo-physical properties of cast metal and mold, as well as interface boundary conditions. But these values are temperature dependent. Therefore, the values are difficult to acquire for different metal-mold-process combinations. As a result, the outcome of simulation software may deviate from reality.
In this chapter, advantages of casting simulation software, limitations, and some best practices are illustrated. In addition, some live examples have been cited to understand the process logically and scientifically.
Casting troubleshooting, method optimization and part design improvement are the main three applications of casting simulation software. Therefore, these are described here in brief.
As the title suggests, trouble in existing casting like high or varying level of internal defects (shrinkage porosity, sand inclusions, cold shuts, etc.), or poor yield of castings can be eliminated by using the simulation software. To address such problems, casting engineers’ first use to calibrate the software by making the exact platform in the virtual world. Now the simulation defect and real world defects are compared for calibration. Once achieved, the engineer can change the inadequate size or location of feeder or gate. It is also a fact that the simulation software reveals the defect positions where otherwise in general engineer don’t look for. Regarding the improvement of yield, the foundry engineer can play with the simulation software in a hope to reduce the oversized feeders or risers (if any). If no defect is observed in simulation software by reducing the feeder dimensions then the engineer can go for shop floor trial. If the result agrees then definitely, the yield will improve.
In methoding of castings, solidification simulation executes an essential role in acquiring the best possible quality of castings. Simulation software is beneficial for both under development as well as existing castings, and reduces number of shop-floor trials. The methodings for example, casting orientation, mould layout, feeders, feed-aids, and gating etc. are altered on a computer, and pretended to review for defects, if any. Numerous iterations are performed until the coveted quality and yield are obtained. It is noteworthy to mention that even trivial, insignificant advancements in existing castings that are being manufactured in huge numbers, can direct to notable enhancements in the utilization of matter, energy, machinery and labour resources. Likewise, simulation is decisive for large, heavy castings under development since the cost of trials or repair is limited. Several programs have been included in the algorithms for automated (user-guided) optimization of feeders and gating channels [3]. Many researchers have proclaimed that approximately 90% of the defects in parts are due to errors in design and hardly 10% are due to production difficulties. The casting simulation software can also be used for calculating the cost of the job in an indirect manner. In the very initial step of design of a to be cast part should be simulated, otherwise it may so happen that the proposed part is not at all castable. A thumb rule says that the cost to change in design increases ten times in every step of the design and manufacturing process. Therefore, method optimization should be done using the casting simulation software as early as possible in a designing process and this practice can save a lot of money both in foundry and machine shop.
Thick junction and long thin section in a casting may result in shrinkage porosity and cold shut. Therefore, if a part designer encounters such situations then he should immediately consult the foundry engineer to check the castability of the part using casting simulation software. Early detection of castability may also insist the part designer to do minor change without affecting the functionality of the part.
This section has been discussed in following three subsections.
Maximum commercially available casting simulation software are Finite Element Method based [4]. So this discussion is applicable for FEM based simulation software.
3D CAD model is the main input for any casting simulation software. The CAD model can be created using a solid modeling program. Model of the part can be obtained from OEM customer.
Various allowances like draft, machining, shrinkage, distortion etc. are to be provided on the CAD model if not given earlier.
Now, the model has to mesh. Meshing means that the model is to be split into several simple elements. A tinier mesh size returns more delayed but more stable outcomes. Adaptive meshing (finer in decisive domains and coarse elsewhere) provides quicker outcomes without compromising on the precision.
Following meshing, material characteristics like density, thermal conductivity, specific heat, latent heat etc. are to be provided as input to the software.
Next, the boundary conditions have to be defined.
Simulation software furnishes reliable and precise outcomes if the CAD model, FEM mesh, material characteristics and boundary conditions are exact.
The principal outputs of simulation applications incorporate animated visualization of mould filling, casting solidification, and further cooling to room temperature.
Mould filling simulation assists in forecasting the total filling time as well as help in predicting following casting defects like mould erosion (heading to sand inclusions), incomplete filling (cold shuts and misruns), and air entrapment. Blowholes, produced by entrapment of gases, are yet difficult to predict.
The outcomes of solidification simulation incorporate colour-coded freezing profiles with respect to time. These temperatures profiles help in predicting the position of shrinkage porosity based on Niyama criteria.
The casting simulation software can also predict the microstructure, mechanical properties, residual stresses etc.
Casting simulation software can only help foundry engineers to analyze the effect of a particular method design on the yield and quality. The software enables us to ‘look through’ the virtual mould. However, it can not perform better by itself. The outcomes should be analyzed by a knowledgeable foundry engineer. Application of casting simulation software can improve the productivity of a company and also it is a tool for the foundrymen to succeed but it cannot substitute him.
As stated earlier, Simulation software furnishes reliable and precise outcomes if the CAD model, FEM mesh, material characteristics and boundary conditions are exact (otherwise: garbage in, garbage out). Material characteristic and boundary conditions data usually have to be ascertained and fine-tuned by experimentation. This exercise may take numerous weeks, which is beyond the scope of average organizations. Simulation programs demand engineers with higher educational qualifications, CAD/CAM experiences and casting design knowledge to conduct the simulation and interpret the outcomes correctly. The programs are computation-intensive and need robust engineering workstations. Even then, any particular iteration of CAD model making, mesh creation, boundary condition stipulation, simulation and visualization can consume 2–5 days for an intricate component. Thus it may demand many days to reach an optimal casting scheme.
To address these issues now a days, some simulation software provides a single integrated environment for casting design, modeling, simulation, analysis and project data management. Advanced geometric reasoning and knowledge-based functions have been incorporated in the software, making it work like an intelligent assistant to casting engineers [5]. The methodology for casting design (mainly feeding and gating systems), process simulation, castability analysis and optimization is performed by intelligent simulation software is explained below.
The CAD model of the part is exported in standard. STL format and imported into the simulation software.
The program automatically recommends the mould size and subsequently upon the approval from the user, generates the mould model encompassing the part model.
Now, an initial casting solidification simulation was performed.
The program automatically produces the mesh, fixes the boundary conditions, measures the advancement of solidification, post-processes the results and demonstrates the position and degree of shrinkage porosity. All the events, as mentioned above, take less than 15 minutes on a Pentium computer.
Now if any porosity is observed in the simulation results then a chill is modeled automatically in that zone to increase the heat transfer rate. Modified simulation reveals that there is reduction in porosity.
Likewise, the simulation software automatically calculates modulus (ratio of volume of the casting to the surface area of the casting) in the hot spot zone of the casting and properly designs the feeder dimensions in such a way that its solidification time is more than the hot spot. After user approval, the feeder model is built automatically.
Additionally, the gating plan is designed by this program semi-automatically. The user exclusively defines the ingate joining points on the part surface. The program automatically proposes the sprue location and the runner path, which can be altered by the user if needed. Then the dimensions of all gating parts are automatically calculated, and a solid model of the gating system is built.
The solid models of the feeder, chill and gating system, are represented for visual feedback. The size of feeder and chill are optimized through several iterations of design-model-simulate-analyze until simulation prognosticates zero porosity defects even for the highest quality requirements.
Finally, casting is designed on a scale of 0-100. A value of zero implies impossible to cast and 100 indicates ideal castability. The actual values usually lie in-between.
The Z-CAST is Finite Difference Method (FDM) based simulation software. To create a new project following steps are to be followed.
The 3D model in. STL format is required to be imported
Virtual mould is to be created
Meshing is done. It is dependent on three parameters, Geometry complexity, Minimum wall thickness and Weight of the component.
Material and initial temperature are to be provided
Ingate of the casting is to be designed
To obtain the graphcal representation of simulation behavior, some virtual thermo-couples are to be set on some strategic locations
Next, the solver environment is to be declared. Here some typical inputs are required from users. For example, the analysis terminate conditions are flow rate and time are to be declared. Input wall condition is to be provided. For this, there may be two situations like slip condition and no-slip condition and hence the input value will vary between 0-1 respectively. For sand casting input wall value is between 0.4 to 0.6 whereas for die casting the value is 1. Next, the riser material type, whether it is exothermic or not is to be given as input. Heat transfer coefficient is to be provided thereafter.
Once done, the software will provide the results with flow temperature, solid time, solid temperature, details on shrinkage condition etc.
For preparing some wedge blocks, a scheme of preparation mechanism used by a manufacturing company is shown in Figure 1. The product being manufactured with the existing method design contains shrinkage defect. The simulation result also confirms the same. The shrinkage defect and its associated simulation result are shown in Figure 2. Therefore to eliminate the defect and also improve overall process associated with the production stack moulding is adopted as shown in Figure 3. Due to this modification various related parameters also improve as shown in Table 1. The techno-economy analysis of wedge casting per ton shows that cost per piece reduces and productivity increases with stack moulding approach.
Scheme of wedge block preparation
Product with shrinkage defect and linked simulation
Scheme to indicate the modification done
Factors Considered | Conventional | Stack Moulding |
---|---|---|
Bunch Weight | 42.96 kg | 75.19 kg |
Weight/piece | 5.80 kg | 5.80 kg |
No. of pieces/bunch | 4 nos | 7 nos |
Net Casting weight/bunch | 23.20 kg | 40.60 kg |
Bunch Yield % | 54% | 54% |
Metal Cost | 22644.93.(INR) | 22644.93 (INR) |
Ferro Alloy Cost | 2485.40 (INR) | 2336.27 (INR) |
Electricity Cost | 15395.74 (INR) | 14472.00 (INR) |
Core cost/Molding cost | 1640.24 + 6481.00 (INR) | 16223.82 (INR) |
Store Cost | 7408.04 (INR) | 6768.32 (INR) |
Heat Treatment Cost | 3500.00 (INR) | 3500.00 (INR) |
Shot Blasting Cost | 227.00 (INR) | 227.00 (INR) |
Labor Cost (Production) | 4887.45 (INR) | 2625.26 (INR) |
Labor Cost (Fettling) | 2930.00 (INR) | 2758.00(INR) |
Maintenance Cost | 1300.00 (INR) | 1300.00 (INR) |
Total Variable Cost | 68899.80 (INR) | 72855.60 (INR) |
Fixed Cost | 4200.00 (INR) | 4200.00 (INR) |
Rework | 7000.00 (INR) | 500.00 (INR) |
Total Cost | 80,099.80 (INR) | 77,555.60 (INR) |
Cost per piece | 570.57 (INR) | 561.55 (INR) |
Quality of the casting Rejection | Good 30% | Very Good (ASTM 2) 5% |
Aesthetic Look | Standard | World class |
Processing time | 1 Unit | 1/3 Unit |
Consistency | Not up to the mark | Very Consistent |
Techno-Economy Analysis of Wedge Casting/Ton
The interconnection of coaches by a coupling makes a train. In earlier days screw coupling was used. Screw coupling has certain inherent limitations like haulage of longer train is not possible in freight, climbing of coaches in collisions and derailment, life of shunting staff at risk and higher maintenance staff requirement. On the other hand, central buffer coupling (CBC) has advantages like the coupling is safe for shunting staff, less time is required since quick detachment is possible, less staff for uncoupling, the coaches do not climb on each other during accident and hence prevent damage to life and property during accident. The CBC has three major components, knuckle, coupler body and yoke. The CBC is a cast product. In this present case study the use of casting simulation software on a CBC product is demonstrated. The simulation software is capable of indicating the loop-holes of the existing design and the caveats can be ironed out by proper methoding. Final simulation results show that there is hardly any detrimental defect in the cast part and thus a huge cost for trial and error is saved. To demonstrate the role of methoding and solidification criterion on casting defects, one crucial industrial case study is discussed here.
The foundry is producing three major components of CBC i.e. coupler body, knuckle and yoke in a single mould. Cast Steel (ASTM M-211 GRADE-E) was used as the casting material and green sand under high pressure moulding system was used. The 3D CAD model is created in solid modeling software and converted to .STL format. The .STL file imported into the Z-CAST simulation software. Here, pouring temperature is taken as 1610 °C, and pouring time is 30 seconds. Exothermic sleeves are used in this case and the mould temperature is considered as 30°C before the pouring of molten metal. The shrinkage allowance of the material is also considered as 3.5%.
The flow simulation of the product shows filling percentage with respective temperature scales as shown in Figure 4. The flow temperature analysis can test fluidity of the molten material and assist to locate the un-filling regions by analyzing temperature plots in thin sections of the cavity. The white colour in the temperature scale corresponds to the highest temperature of the melt i.e. the pouring temperature. Yellow, red, dark blue and finally light blue are indicating temperatures of gradual decreasing order. Filling condition of this product at different filled position (2, 10, 40, 60, 80 and 100%) is shown in the figure. Figure 4a shows that the molten metal is entering in the mould cavity through sprue. Mould filling is an essential matter since the melt temperature will commence decreasing when it comes in contact with the cooler mould surface. Figure 4a shows that molten metal will flow according the slope of mould cavity. Figure 4b shows that 10% volume of the mould cavity is filled by the molten metal. Figure 4(c-e) indicate that 40, 60 and 80% space of the mould cavity is filled by the melt and the liquid metal has started solidification process. Figure 4f shows that at 100% filled condition the components at the farthest point from the sprue have blue colour which indicate that the temperature at those points are sufficient lower than the pouring temperature. At the end of 30 seconds i.e. the complete pouring of metal, temperature drops from 1610°C to 1490°C
Simulated filling conditions at different filled positions
The air entrapment simulation is shown in Figure 5. This flow un-filling simulation shows when molten material enters into the mould cavity, how the entrapped air escapes and thus this simulation can predict the unfilled locations of the cavity. Here, the red colour indicates cavity yet to be filled and transparent area shows metal is filled. Small dots indicate the amount of entrapped air in the cavity. Figure 5(a) shows the level of entrapped air at a level of 20% filled mould cavity while Figure 5(b) shows when the metal pouring has been completed. The final picture depicts that no air particles have been entrapped observed in cavity during filling.
Air entrapment simulation
Solidification temperature pattern shows rate of solidification and time taken to solidify. It is evident from left top corner of Figure 6(a) shows after elapse of 123 seconds the solidification is 1%. Similarly Figure 6(b) indicates that it takes 2910.558 seconds to solidify 100%. The temperature scale shows that some portion of the product has been delinked with the riser and contains higher heat. This will cause shrinkage defect in those locations. The yellow arrows of Figure 7 indicates the major shrinkage cavities produced after solid simulation and these hot spots are needed to be taken care of.
Solid simulation of product
Indicating shrinkage cavities after solid simulation
Now, the detail component wise defect analyses of the knuckle, coupler body and yoke have been shown in Figures 8, 9 and 10 respectively. Figure 8 shows that the knuckle is free from shrinkage, blow holes and air entrapment issues. As per Research Designs and Standards Organization (RDSO) standard, there is no porosity in critical location of the knuckle component. But in other non-critical locations some porosity can be observed but those would be passed through the radiography NDT testing of level 2.
Defect analysis of the knuckle and real cross section of critical location indicating zero defect
Defect analysis of the coupler body
Defect analysis of the yoke
Figure 9 indicates that major shrinkage defects have formed in the coupler body and these are to be removed by adopting proper casting methodology. The figure also indicates some major porosity formation which are crossing the level 2 of radiography testing, therefore, these porosities are also needed to be eliminated from the cavity. In some non-critical locations, some minor porosity has formed but these are under level 2.
While analyzing Figure 10, it is found that the yoke is free from major shrinkage defect but some minor shrinkage defects have been observed (indicated by yellow arrows) along with some minor porosity below the riser, which needs to be eliminated from casting. The porosities crosses the radiography level 2 and therefore, needs to be eliminated from the cavity.
By analyzing Figures 4-10, it can be concluded that knuckle has no major issues to be solved but the coupler body mouth and one end of yoke are prone to shrinkage defect and porosity respectively. Cross-section of critical section before modified methoding is shown in Figure 11. To solve the issues, two sprue with existing gating system is used with following minor modifications.
Minor modification in riser sizes: If a close comparison is done between Figure 6(a) and Figure 12(a), it can be found that the dimensions of the risers are different. It is needless to mention that the authors are unable to share such data in detail.
In mouth area of coupler body, chromite sand core (shown as the red arrow in Figure 13(a) and the schematic of the core shape is shown in detail in Figure 13(b)) is to be used to have effect of chill in order to minimize the major hot spot in the critical location. Figure 9 indicates that the mouth of the coupler body is most prone to shrinkage defect and to eliminate that use of chromite sand core is necessary since it has high thermal conductivity and good chilling effect.
The yoke is also prone to shrinkage and porosity defect as discussed in Figure 10. To eliminate this defect, a riser should be used as shown by a brown arrow in Figure 13(a).
Additional three more chills are required and suggested to be placed in the mouth core of the coupler body else a small riser should be incorporated. The use of chills or a riser is technically equivalent but both chill and riser have certain pros and cons. The use of extra riser is associated with some extra cost related to material, energy to melt, cutting, re-melting etc. Whereas use of chills does not have such extra cost, they are to be purchased or fabricated once. But in practical shop floor, it is seen that after several production runs, the labours forgot to collect all the chills while breaking the sand mould and eventually the chills are misplaced. Therefore, it becomes a decision of the proprietor of the company, whether he will go for chill or a riser. In this case a riser is used which is marked as a deep blue arrow inFigure 13(a).
Some ventings (shown by black arrow in Figure 13(a)) are suggested to increase permeability. In this case the mould is made using high pressure moulding so the permeability of the mould is very low, and making of manual conventional vent just before metal pouring is very tough in such cases. So while, making the mould cavity, some rods f small diameter are attached with the pattern strategically.
Exothermic powder is also advised to be used immediately after pouring the metal to minimize heat loss.
Cross-section of Critical Section before modified methoding
Defect analysis of the product after modifications
Modifications done in the existing design to obtain sound casting
Figure 12(a) clearly indicates that the total solidification time is 3869 seconds i.e. 958seconds (Approximate 16 minutes) more time than the solidification time consumed before modification. Liquid state simulation of Figure 12(b) shows that a smooth directional solidification has been achieved and all major hot spots have been eliminated from the cast components. Figure 12(c-d) indicates occurrence of minor shrinkage defect in the casting but these are not detrimental to the component.
In this study, the advantages of casting simulation software, limitations, and some best practices have been observed along with some case studies to understand the process logically and scientifically. Simulation technology has appeared as a blessing to foundry engineers to implement virtual experimentations, forecast casting defects and enhance the existing casting design without melting metal in furnace. This not only reduces the expense of die modification and material/energy costs but also contributes a more beneficial insight into the process. On the other hand, with the advancement of technology, to produce zero defect castings with improved yield, it is very much required to optimize the casting design (feeding and gating). This goal can be accomplished by coupling intelligent design assistant module of simulation software. This will enable us to complete the design-simulate-analyze cycle within a time less than one hour. This tool enables us to optimize complex castings in a single day. This also assures more acceptable casting design, quicker than ever before.
Authors wish to convey their heartfelt thanks to Mr. Prashant K, Senior Ex-Application Manager, DHIO research and engineering private limited for his support in while making the Z-Cast simulations for this case study. The authors are also indebted to D N Ganesh Babu, General Manager, Product Sales & Services, DHIO Research & Engineering Pvt. Ltd. for his continuous support for giving the Z-Cast software. Author also thankfully acknowledge the contribution of Mr. Abresh Ranjan Das for his continuous support & help for sharing his profound experiences to complete this work unless otherwise this work could not get the present shape.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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