Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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In 2010, she defended her doctoral thesis, and in 2019 she obtained habilitation and she was granted a Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions (MSCA) to participate in the Postgraduate School of Industrial Ecology (PSIE) - IndEcol at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim. She has published over 77 papers, including 69 papers in world-known peer-reviewed scientific journals from the JCR list. Her works have been cited more than 300 times and she has an h-index: 15. She is the author of 5 patents. She cooperates with many universities in the field of multidisciplinary projects. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Ovarian cancer is a heterogeneous disease and the most important cause of gynecological cancer-induced deaths [1]. It is the fifth most important cause of cancer-related deaths among women in the world [2]. Different types of tumors may develop from each cell type. These tumors are epithelial tumors, germ cell tumors (originating from the ovary cell and follicular), and stromal tumors [3].
\n
Molecular and cellular analyses of these tumor types may lead to earlier diagnosis of ovarian cancer and it is hoped better survival rates. Many factors play a role in the development of cancer, while genomic mutations and epigenetic changes are very important. For this reason, studies on mutations and epigenetic alterations may provide information about features such as early diagnosis, surveillance, and response to treatment.
\n
\n
\n
2. Biomarkers used in the diagnosis of ovarian cancer
\n
Tumor biomarkers are molecules that are produced by cancer cells or cells around them, which can be measured in body fluids or in the blood during the diagnosis, screening or treatment of cancer. Molecules that can be used as tumor biomarkers can be counted as cytoplasmic proteins, enzymes, hormones, surface antigens, receptors, oncofetal antigens (re-emerging proteins in cancer that is normally lost after birth), oncogenes or their products. An ideal tumor biomarker should be sensitive enough for early detection of small tumors while retaining the specificity of the identified cancer type. Unfortunately, however, today there is no known tumor biomarker carrying these features [4].
\n
The features that should be found in an ideal tumor biomarker are given below [5]:
It should have high specificity; it should be specific to only one type of tumor.
Must have high sensitivity, should not be detected in cases of physiological or benign tumors.
Levels should be proportional to tumor characteristics and size.
The predictive and prognostic benefit of tumor biomarkers should be known.
Half-life should be short, frequent and serial monitoring is possible.
It should be cheap and easy to apply.
Can be used as a screening test.
Sample taking should be easy.
\n
Potential biomarkers used in ovarian cancer are grouped as gene, protein, metabolite, and miRNA-based biomarkers according to their type [5].
\n
The vast majority of ovarian tumors arise from the accumulation of genetic damage, but the specific genetic pathways that are involved in the development of epithelial, borderline, and malignant tumors are largely unknown. Considering the important relationship between genetic alterations and ovarian tumors, potential ovarian-cancer biomarkers can be found at gene-level (hereditary gene mutations, epigenetic changes, and gene expression) studies. The most common genes associated with epithelial ovarian cancer are shown in Table 1 [6].
The most common genes associated with epithelial ovarian cancer.
Gene-Disease Score.
Total Number of PubMed ID (PMIDs) Supporting the Association.
The Number of Associated Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNPs).
\n
BRCA1, BRCA2, and Lynch syndrome genes show high penetrance and offer lifetime risks of 7–40% for ovarian cancer. Nowadays, the multigene panels used for clinical genetic testing include the mild-penetrance genes (lifetime risks of 6–13%) such as BRIP1, RAD51C, and RAD51D. The common low-penetrance susceptibility genes make up the rest of the genetic risk. Besides, SNPs have approximately 1% risk which is shown by population-based genome-wide association studies (GWASs) [7]. Expression analyses of quantitative or semi-quantitatively specific genes in serum or tumor tissue can potentially contribute to tumor recognition. In the last decade, analysis of gene expression has gained momentum due to improvements in microarray technology. This is because microarray technology enables analysis of tens or hundreds of gene expressions in a single piece of tissue. Gene expression profiling has focused on three main topics: the separation of tumor tissue by normal ovarian tissue, the identification of different subtypes of ovarian cancer, and the determination of cancer according to possible responses to treatment.
\n
DNA methylation and histone modification are epigenetic mechanisms that play important roles in gene regulation, tumor formation, and progression. Measuring the rate of methylation in specific genes in the promoter region helps early detection of cancer, detection of disease progression, and prediction of therapeutic response. Identification of specific genes that change with epigenetic regulation is one of the areas that are actively studied in ovarian cancer. In this chapter, we want to focus on circulating biomarkers and other types of biomarkers will not be discussed.
\n
\n
\n
3. Tumor materials in circulation: liquid biopsy and their biomarker potentials
\n
Non-invasive tumor diagnosis and screening has become an important area of study. Contrary to tissue biopsy, through detection of circulating tumor cells (CTCs), tumor nucleic acids (“circulating tumor DNA/RNA”), and exosomes, predictive and prognostic markers may potentially be developed which is far less invasive. Hence early and multiple evaluations of the disease can be made, including retrospective follow-up, identification of treatment effects and investigation of clonal development. Isolation and characterization of CTCs, exosomes, and circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) will improve cancer diagnosis, treatment, and imaging. Liquid biopsy can be performed “real-time” and at every stage of cancer. Although, it has some potential disadvantages such as; still is not certain to use in cancer diagnosis, difficulties in analysis of data obtaining from high-throughput screening and lack of data verification through clinical trials; it has significant potential for clinical cancer diagnosis in future [8].
\n
\n
3.1. Circulating tumor cells (CTCs)
\n
Some cancer derived cells are detected in peripheral blood, and appear as solid tumor cells that have broken away into the circulation [9]. There are two main types of CTCs to explain this phenomenon. The majority are “Accidental CTCs”, and these are CTCs that are passively pushed by external forces, such as tumor growth, mechanical forces during surgical operation or friction. The rest are CTCs which gain more plasticity and metastatic potential via the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process [8]. These CTCs can stay in the non-divided form in the vein, can spread together, or settle into a new tissue to compose the metastatic deposit. Regardless of the CTC pathway, these cells carry important information about tumor composition, metastasis, drug sensitivity, and treatment.
\n
CTCs have been demonstrated to have prognostic value among patients with breast, colorectal, gastric, lung, and pancreatic cancers in previous meta-analyses. However, the value of CTCs in ovarian cancer still remains controversial. Some studies did not observe any correlation between CTC status and prognosis. In contrast, other studies demonstrated an association Zhou et al. has shown that the prognostic value of CTCs was not associated with disease stage but with an elevated CA-125, both of which are known to correlate with prognosis either directly or indirectly. It has also been known that the CTC status was significant in respect to the overall survival (OS), progression-free survival (PFS), and disease-free survival (DFS) in ovarian cancer [10].
\n
CTCs can be detected in both metastatic patients and patients with early, localized tumors. There is a significant potential for CTCs in the clinical management of cancers such as ovarian cancer. CTCs may enable real-time monitoring of treatment efficacy, identification of new therapy targets, and detecting and understanding drug resistance mechanisms [11]. CTC imaging and separation from leukocytes is dependent on reliable cell-surface markers. Based on the precipitation of CTCs in the low-speed centrifuge, the leukocyte fractions can be distinguished via physical features as well. Lee et al. used a nanoroughened microfluidic platform and detected CTCs in the sera of nearly all female participants (53/54, 98.1%) with ovarian cancer [12]. They also showed that although there is no relationship between CTC count and PFS in patients with newly diagnosed epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC), in patients with recurrent disease and chemoresistance; a relationship was found between CTC-cluster positivity and diminished OS [12]. It has been postulated that CTCs could result in metastatic progression and recurrence by way of epithelial-mesenchymal-transition (EMT) or development of stem-like features and hence a reduced OS. Therefore, researchers have tried to identify therapy-resistant tumor cells and to overcome treatment failure by analyzing CTCs transcriptional profiles [13]. In this study, the authors analyzed 15 single CTCs from 3 ovarian cancer patients and found them to be positive for stem cell (CD44, ALDH1A1, Nanog, Oct4) and EMT markers (N-cadherin, vimentin, Snai2, CD117, CD146) [13].
\n
\n
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3.2. Circulating cell-free tumor DNA
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Chang et al. were the first to examine the amount of cell-free DNA (cfDNA) in a patient’s serum as a marker of disease presence in gynecologic malignancies [14, 15]. Cell free tumor DNAs (ctDNAs) circulate in the bloodstream and are derived from tumor cells. The presence of ctDNAs has been proven by detection of tumor-specific anomalies such as the presence of mutation in circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA), loss of heterozygosity of microsatellite, and methylation of CpG islands [16, 17, 18]. Similar to CTCs source; ctDNAs are released into the bloodstream in two ways: passively whereby ctDNAs from dead tumor cells and actively whereby ctDNAs are derived from live tumor cells spontaneously [8, 19]. ctDNA and apoptotic cell levels are lower in healthy individuals compared to cancer patients because chronic inflammation and excessive cell death cause accumulation of cell residues. cfDNA (cell-free DNA) is believed to originate from apoptotic cells content and found in elevated levels in cancer patients and related to higher tumor stage [20, 21].
\n
The level of ctDNA is higher in the bloodstream of patients with solid tumors and metastatic disease compared to those without metastases [20, 21]. In patients with metastatic disease, the serum ctDNA level is higher (prevalence 86–100%) when compared to early-staged cancer types and patients with no radiographic evidence of disease (prevalence 49–78%) [20, 22]. Olsen et al. showed that in 86% of patients, ctDNA can be detected approximately 1 year before metastases while they are not observed in those clear of recurrence [23, 24] The anticipated short half-life of ctDNA of around 2 hours allows for an almost continuous analysis of tumor features including development, metastatic progression, and treatment efficacy. Thus, the identification of ctDNA has extraordinary potential as a potential biomarker for observing tumor load in the patient both prior and during treatment and in follow up [23].
\n
Earlier studies in gynecological malignancies evaluated the presence of ctDNA at one time point using pelvic washings, ascites, serum, and plasma. Pereira et al. has demonstrated that serial estimation of ctDNA is a surveillance biomarker in gynecologic malignancies that is as sensitive and specific as the FDA-approved serum biomarker CA-125 [25]. Additionally, disease recurrence can be detected months earlier with ctDNA than CT checking [25]. Furthermore, the survival profiles of patients can be predicted with ctDNA level during the start of primary treatment, debulking surgery, and combined platinum/taxane doublet chemotherapy [25]. Both improved progression free and overall survival appear to be associated with undetectable levels of ctDNA [25] Additionally, ctDNA level maybe a stronger predictor than CA-125 of tumor size because of the longer half-life of CA-125 (9–44 days). It is also shown that in some patients, relapse of disease can be detected with ctDNA approximately 7 months before any CT scan changes [25]. Pereira et al. detected occult ovarian cancer cases by continuously monitoring the ctDNA even during apparent clinical remission [25]. These studies demonstrate that ctDNA could be used in early detection, it can act as a marker of disease stage as well as disease progression for gynecological cancers especially ovarian cancer.
\n
Early diagnosis seems to be the best solution to reduce rates of ovarian cancer deaths unless highly effective drugs are developed with fewer side effects. Bettegowda et al. showed that for ctDNA detection in solid tumors, patients are treated at an earlier stage resulting in improved survival [21]. Moreover, even in stage I patients (usually curable with surgery alone), detection of ctDNA level can be observed in around 47% of all patients [21]. Using ctDNA-level analysis, ovarian cancer can be detected in around 70% of all stage III patients [21].
\n
\n
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3.3. Circulating cell-free tumor RNA (ctRNA)
\n
Cancer cells have a very specific gene expression profile which differs from normal tissues. These tumor-specific gene transcripts can be detected in the circulation of cancer patients [26]. Despite the high amount of RNase present in the blood, circulating RNAs have been found to be surprisingly stable. This can be explained by the possibility that RNA is destructively protected by exosomes (such as microparticles, microvesicles, multivesiculas) that pass through the cell membrane into the bloodstream [26]. In addition, these mRNAs that are present in blood can be used as prognostic and predictive biomarkers [27]. Similar to ctDNA, ctRNA requires further study to assess the exact value as a biomarker in ovarian cancer.
\n
\n
3.3.1. Circulating microRNAs
\n
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are RNAs that do not encode proteins, at about 22 nucleotides in length, but they are involved with translation suppression, mRNA degradation, or sequencing specific gene regulation. Thus these molecules regulate various biological processes such as development, cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis [28]. Approximately 3% of human genes encode miRNAs, while about 30% of genes encoding protein are regulated by miRNAs. These miRNAs vary according to the type of each cell, the stage of development, and differentiation of the cell. The release and biological functions of extracellular miRNAs are still not fully understood [29].
\n
It has been shown that blood miRNAs in cancer patients have the similar importance as the miRNAs in tissues, and the relationship between solid tumors and miRNA expression profiles in the blood have been investigated [30, 31]. Circulating miRNAs are not bonded to the cell but are protected against endogenous RNase breakdown by binding to microvesicles, exosomes, microparticles, apoptotic bodies, and protein-miRNA complexes [32]. MiRNAs are resistant to severe conditions such as high temperature, low/high pH, long-term storage, and over-applied freezing/thawing [29]. Measurement of circulating miRNA level is difficult because it can be contaminated with cellular miRNAs of different hematopoietic origin [29]. The isolation and stabilization protocols of circulating miRNAs should be standardized and the cancer patient’s plasma should be selectively distinguishable at the single molecule level [33]. MiRNA expression varies in tumor tissue with respect to normal tissue, and these changes can be detected in serum/plasma samples of cancer patients when compared to healthy individuals [34]. Further work is needed because of the low level of difference detected [29]; however miRNA has been shown to play an important role in cancer development as a new oncogene or tumor-suppressor gene class that varies according to the target gene [35].
\n
In eukaryotic cells, there are several stages in miRNA biogenesis stages (transcription, pri-miRNA clipping, pre-miRNA transport, and pre-miRNA cloning) [36, 37]. MiRNA expression levels vary from normal to ovarian cancer, with epigenetic changes, genetic changes (such as copy number changes), or differentiated expression of transcriptional factors, targeting miRNA genes. Transcriptional gene silencing in cancer cells is often associated with epigenetic defects [38, 39]. Studies have suggested that dysfunction or irregularity may occur in key proteins that are effective in miRNA biogenesis and may lead to tumor formation [39].
\n
In recent years, many studies have been performed on the miRNA expression profile in EOC and it has been shown that there are significant differences in the miRNA expression profile compared to normal [35]. Iorio et al. compared 59 EOC operation samples with 15 normal ovarian species using a “custom” microarray and found 29 differently expressed miRNAs [35]. In EOC patients, miRNA expression profiles obtained from circulating tumor exosomes were compared with benign tumors and normal individuals and separated by different expression profiles. In this study, exosomes were separated by magnetic beads and anti-EPCAM antibodies, and miRNAs were analyzed by isolated microarray. As a result, there are several differentially expressed miRNAs in ovarian cancer samples [40]. In a study by Resnick et al., real-time PCR analysis of miRNA expression was performed on the serum collected from ovarian cancer patients and normal subjects, with different miRNAs expression found [41]. Patients with the three up-regulated miRNAs (miR-21, miR-92, and miR-93) were found to have a normal level of CA-125. Therefore, miRNA analysis may be complementary to other diagnostic methods [41].
\n
It is clear that miRNAs play a crucial role in both normal and pathological processes due to their ability to regulate the expression of specific genes. However, no consensus has been reached as to the exact role/potential in diagnosis, metastasis, and prediction of response to treatment in EOC [28]. In addition, ovarian cancer is a heterogeneous disease, treatment and diagnostic options may vary from individual to individual; in this context, the tissue and origin specificity of miRNAs may be exploited and individualized treatment methods may be applied [42].
\n
\n
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3.3.2. Circulating long non-coding RNAs
\n
The Long Non-Coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are defined as >200 nucleotides in length and divided into five subclasses, which are intergenic, intronic, sense overlapping, anti-sense, and bidirectional lncRNAs [43]. LncRNAs are involved in various regulation processes which include protein-coding genes, functions at the level of splicing, chromatin remodeling, transcriptional control, and post-transcriptional processing after binding to DNA, RNA, or proteins [44]. These differ from tissue to tissue [45, 46] and lncRNAs play a role in growth, metabolism, and cancer metastasis [20, 47]. In several human cancer types, differentially expressed lncRNAs have been identified [48] which can be related to cancer metastasis and prognosis [49, 50, 51]. In addition, lncRNAs are specific for certain tumor origins such as the lymphatics, the cardiovascular or nervous system, circulating peripheral blood cells, or hematologic stem cells. Therefore, circulating lncRNAs may be informative about the tumor microenvironment [20, 52].
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In ovarian cancer, lncRNAs have been shown to regulate several cancer processes such as development, metastasis, and relapse. Gao et al. [53] showed that a lncRNA named HOST1(human ovarian cancer-specific transcript 1) plays a role in key biological pathways of EOC through the stimulation of tumor cell migration, invasion, and proliferation by inhibiting let-7b which is one of the most important miRNA involved in EOC [54]. In another study, Tong et al. showed that a lncRNA named RP11-190D6.2 regulates the WW domain-containing oxidoreductase (WWOX) expression by acting like an antisense transcript of this gene [55]. WWOX is linked with poor prognosis in several cancers, including EOC [56]. In addition, RP11-190D6.2 appears to play a role in the regulation of tumor metastasis, thus it can be counted as a potential biomarker and therapeutic target for EOC [55]. Zhou et al. compared several lncRNA expression profiles in a large number of OvCa patients from TCGA and found an eight-lncRNA signature predictive of overall survival [57]. Moreover, using lncRNA expression profiles, they could separate similarly aged patient into high-risk and low-risk groups, identify good or poor survival potential of patients, the eight-lncRNA signature maintained independent prognostic value, and was significantly correlated with the response to chemotherapy [57]. In a separate study [51], examining the expression profiles of lncRNAs and mRNAs in the high-throughput molecular profiles of OV patients; they found a correlation between lncRNA and malignant OV progression. Therefore; they suggest that two specific lncRNAs (RP11-284 N8.3.1 and AC104699.1.1) as may be candidate biomarkers for prognosis [51]. Clearly further study is required to understand their clinical application as a biomarker in EOC.
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3.3.3. Circulating Piwi RNAs(piRNA)
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Piwi RNAs (PiRNAs) are single-stranded, 26–31 nucleotide long RNAs which may inhibit transposons and target mRNAs through the formation of the miRNA silencer complex (RISC). Post-transcriptional regulation of piRNA (piRISC) happens in the cytoplasm [58]. The piRISC protects the integrity of the genome from alterations made by transposable elements (TE)—by silencing them; mRNA and lncRNA are other targets of piRNA complexes [58, 59]. piRNAs pathways play an important role to regulate some cancer-related pathways such as DNA hypomethylation and transposable element (TE) derepression. L1 is a piRNA pathway gene that regulates these pathways, also overexpression of these genes (PIWIL1 and 2), have been shown in several tumor tissues [60]. Lim et al. showed that overexpression piRNA pathway genes and L1 elements may have a role in EOC [60]. They compared the EOC tissues and cell lines to benign and normal ovaries and found overexpression of PIWIL1 and MAEL, known as a cancer/testis gene [61] which are two genes of piRNA pathway which is a germ-line-specific RNA silencing mechanism. In situ analysis indicated that L1, PIWIL1, PIWIL2, and MAEL are up-regulated in cancerous cells, while MAEL and PIWIL2 genes are expressed in the stromal cells lining tumor tissues as well. PIWI, MAEL genes are essential for Drosophila and other vertebrates’ germ-line stem-cell differentiation [60, 62]. These gene changes may promote a change in cell composition or identity in the tissue surrounding the cancer cells [60]. Also cancer stem cells may have potential as a biomarker for stem-cell definition [60, 63].
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In addition, synthetic piRNAs may offer a new therapeutic approach through their use in silencing the expression of cancer-related genes. This approach has an advantage over other miRNA-based blocking methods because it does not require extra components for processing such as Dicer [59].
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3.4. Exosomes and circulating microvesicles
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Exosomes are multivesicular endosomal-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) which are 30–120 nm size [64, 65, 66, 67]. Exosomes can be distinguished from microvesicles which are heterogeneous in size (50–1500 nm) and result from the plasma membrane directly via a budding mechanism [68, 69]. Exosomes include several molecules such as proteins, metabolites, RNAs (mRNA, miRNA, long non-coding RNA), DNAs (mtDNA, ssDNA, dsDNA), and lipids and are used in cell communication [64, 70, 71]. Similar to circulating microvesicles, exosomes have also been shown to have specific functions and play an important role in coagulation, intercellular signaling, and the management of debris. Both circulating parts of the cell are found in different body and interstitial fluids [72, 73].
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Tumor-derived exosomes are different from circulating healthy exosomes in terms of number of exosomes, content, and also cell-surface proteins [74]. Exosomes can be detected and isolated with several markers especially cell-surface proteins including those found only in the primary tissue. TGF β1, MAGE 3/6 proteins have a cell-surface biomarker feature special for ovarian cancer. These markers can be detected by filtration and ultracentrifugation methods in ovarian cancer plasma samples and can be used for prognosis/therapy monitoring of disease [74, 77]. Exosome contents are variable for cancer types as well. Taylor et al. indicated that several ovarian cancer specific exosomal miRNAs, (miR-21, miR-141, miR-200a, miR-200c, miR-200b, miR-203, miR-205, miR-214), have been differentiated in serum samples by magnetic-activated cell-sorting (MACs) using anti-EpCAM array for diagnosis and screening of stage [40]. Exosomes are informative about tumor-specific features such as metastatic or benign form, stage, response to chemotherapies, and other drugs at that point in time via a possible blood sample [64].
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Microvesicles have several common features with the primary cell such as membrane lipids, receptors, and diverse types of nucleic acids and proteins [75]. As in exosomes, microvesicles also have a potential to be biomarkers in several malignancies. Galindo-Hernandez et al. demonstrated that there were an increased number of microvesicles in breast cancer serum compared to healthy control samples [76]. It is also revealed that microvesicles derived from renal cancer stem cells include different miRNAs and mRNAs and these appear to play a function in tumor vascularization [75, 77, 78]. Microvesicles originated from tumor cells have been found in biological fluids in ovarian cancer. It has been shown that the number of microvesicles in malignant ovarian tumors is higher when compared to benign and nonmalignant pathologies (e.g., ovarian serous cysts, mucinous cystoadenomas, and fibromas) [79]. Ovarian cancer-induced ascites contains high levels of proteolytic enzymes such as matrix metalloproteinase (MMP-2, MMP-9) and urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA), which are the enzymes carried inside microvesicles [80, 81, 82]. Microvesicles may represent an ideal biomarker for ovarian cancer diagnosis and prognosis.
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4. Biomarker detection technologies for ovarian cancer
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High-throughput techniques of cellular transcriptome analysis mean that gene expression can be correlated with various aspects of disease in a variety of cancer types. This technology used today in ovarian cancer research, such as expression microarrays and CGH, Real-time PCR, and Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) allow genome-wide scanning and the discovery of altered genes involved in cancer.
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4.1. Real-time PCR
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Cell-free nucleic acids reflect both normal and tumor-derived nucleic acids released into the circulation through cellular necrosis and apoptosis. Stroun et al. have demonstrated with Reverse Transcription Quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) that there is a consistent correlation between tumor load and quantity of cell-free DNA detected in a wide range of malignancies including ovarian cancer [83]. Several studies in OC with free DNA have also shown that miRNAs are abnormally expressed. Initial studies identifying tumor-derived miRNAs in the circulation of OC patients was published by Taylor et al. [40]. Zou et al. identified nine differentially expressed microRNAs (microRNA199a-5p, microRNA199a-3p, microRNA199-b3p, microRNA-645, microRNA-335, microR-NA-18b, and microRNA-141) through qRT-PCR expression analysis in SKOV3/DDP and A2780/DDP cells and these agreed with microRNA chip results [84].
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4.2. Microarray
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Microarrays together with clustering analysis have allowed genome-wide expression patterns in a lot of cancer types to be deciphered and compared. Wong et al. studied a group of genes (CLDN7, EPHA1, FOXM1, and FGF7), for the validation of the microarray findings; these were selected as these genes were associated with the alteration of crucial pathways involved in the regulation of cell cycle and cell proliferation [85]. Liu et al. [86] using the bioinformatics analyses of mRNA expression profiles retrieved from the Oncomine and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) Profiles online databases, they enriched two biological processes (cell cycle- and microtubule-related) and identified six genes (ALDH1A2, ADH1B, NELL2, HBB, ABCA8, and HBA1) that all were associated with ovarian cancer progression.
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4.3. Next-generation sequencing
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Clinical cancer next-generation sequencing (NGS) assays are dependent on many software subsystems and databases to deliver their results. The building of software systems for clinical use is a mandatory requirement of reliability and reproducibility imposed by diagnostic laboratory accreditation bodies such as Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA), National Association of Testing Authorities (NATA), and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO 15189).
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Pinto et al. [87] validated the use of next-generation sequencing (NGS) for the detection of BRCA1/BRCA2 point mutations in a diagnostic setting and also investigated the role of other genes associated with hereditary breast and ovarian cancer in Portuguese families. They obtained 100% sensitivity and specificity (total of 506 variants) for the detection of BRCA1/BRCA2 point mutations with their bioinformatics pipeline using a targeted enrichment approach when compared to the gold standard Sanger sequencing.
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5. Conclusion
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Ovarian cancer is one of the most significant and fatal gynecological cancer types worldwide. The earlier this disease can be detected, the better the success of treating it. There are several detection methods for ovarian cancer, but molecular diagnosis methods are more accurate, faster, and suitable for early detection. Recent developments have focused on identifying biological material with newer technological devices and these have become more precise, reliable, and more widely available over a short period of time. Although molecular markers, which are specific for ovarian cancer, have been extensively studied, they are still not used in a clinical setting. Clearly a greater understanding of their mechanisms and specificities are needed before they can be applied to early detection of OC.
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Liquid biopsy using body fluids (e.g. blood, urine, saliva, and ascites) to isolate and characterize CTCs, exosomes, circulating tumor DNA, RNAs, and circulating free small RNAs is a new technique used in the detection and treatment of several diseases. Clearly further investigation is required but it is hoped that this may become a very important tool for early detection of ovarian cancer. In addition, these biomarkers may become an important part of the clinical strategies used in cancer diagnosis, treatment, and imaging. In this chapter, their roles in the early detection and management of ovarian cancer have been discussed. It is hoped that as our understanding of these markers increases, we will see an improvement in the rate of early cancer detection and ultimately increased survival.
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\n\n',keywords:"ovarian cancer, biomarker, cell-free nucleic acids, early diagnosis, miRNA",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/60255.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/60255.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60255",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60255",totalDownloads:1227,totalViews:480,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:4,impactScorePercentile:88,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 23rd 2016",dateReviewed:"February 15th 2018",datePrePublished:"April 4th 2018",datePublished:"October 24th 2018",dateFinished:"March 28th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Ovarian cancer is the leading cause of gynecologic-related cancer death and epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is the most lethal sub-type. EOC is usually asymptomatic, and few screening tests are available. Diagnosis of ovarian cancer can be difficult because of the nonspecific symptoms. Despite the various diagnostic methods used, there is no reliable early diagnostic test and it needs to be developed. Specific biomarkers may have potential with the least possible invasive procedure. Biomarkers with a high sensitivity to ovarian cancer should be identified. Circulating biomarkers that are significant tools for non-invasive early diagnosis can be analyzed using circulating tumor cells, exosomes, and circulating nucleic acids. Protein, gene, metabolite, and miRNA-based biomarkers can be used for ovarian cancer diagnosis. As non-coding RNAs, MiRNAs may have an important role in ovarian cancer diagnosis due to their effects on mRNA expression levels. The most recent developments regarding the potential of circulating biomarkers to detect early ovarian cancer is presented in this chapter.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/60255",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/60255",book:{id:"5997",slug:"ovarian-cancer-from-pathogenesis-to-treatment"},signatures:"Ece Gumusoglu and Tuba Gunel",authors:[{id:"68399",title:"Dr.",name:"Tuba",middleName:null,surname:"Gunel",fullName:"Tuba Gunel",slug:"tuba-gunel",email:"gunel@istanbul.edu.tr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/68399/images/system/68399.jpeg",institution:{name:"Istanbul University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"202504",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ece",middleName:null,surname:"Gumusoglu",fullName:"Ece Gumusoglu",slug:"ece-gumusoglu",email:"ece.gumusoglu@istanbul.edu.tr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202504/images/system/202504.jpeg",institution:{name:"Istanbul University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Biomarkers used in the diagnosis of ovarian cancer",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Tumor materials in circulation: liquid biopsy and their biomarker potentials",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Circulating tumor cells (CTCs)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Circulating cell-free tumor DNA",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3. Circulating cell-free tumor RNA (ctRNA)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.3.1. Circulating microRNAs",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.3.2. Circulating long non-coding RNAs",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.3.3. Circulating Piwi RNAs(piRNA)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.4. Exosomes and circulating microvesicles",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Biomarker detection technologies for ovarian cancer",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.1. Real-time PCR",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.2. Microarray",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.3. Next-generation sequencing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. 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Cancer Letters. 2013;338(1):147-157\n'},{id:"B64",body:'Soung YH, Ford S, Zhang V, Chung J. Exosomes in cancer diagnostics. Cancers (Basel). 2017;9(1):1-11\n'},{id:"B65",body:'Tkach M, Thery C. Communication by extracellular vesicles: Where we are and where we need to go. Cell. 2016;164(6):1226-1232\n'},{id:"B66",body:'Théry C, Zitvogel L, Amigorena S. Exosomes: Composition, biogenesis and function. Nature Reviews Immunology. 2002;2:569\n'},{id:"B67",body:'Keller S, Sanderson MP, Stoeck A, Altevogt P. Exosomes: From biogenesis and secretion to biological function. Immunology Letters. 2006;107(2):102-108\n'},{id:"B68",body:'Colombo M, Raposo G, Thery C. Biogenesis, secretion, and intercellular interactions of exosomes and other extracellular vesicles. Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology. 2014;30:255-289\n'},{id:"B69",body:'Raposo G, Stoorvogel W. Extracellular vesicles: Exosomes, microvesicles, and friends. The Journal of Cell Biology. 2013;200(4):373-383\n'},{id:"B70",body:'El Andaloussi S, Mäger I, Breakefield XO, Wood MJA. Extracellular vesicles: Biology and emerging therapeutic opportunities. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery. 2013;12:347\n'},{id:"B71",body:'De Toro J, Herschlik L, Waldner C, Mongini C. Emerging roles of exosomes in normal and pathological conditions: New insights for diagnosis and therapeutic applications. Frontiers in Immunology. 2015;6:203\n'},{id:"B72",body:'Muralidharan-Chari V, Clancy JW, Sedgwick A, D\'Souza-Schorey C. Microvesicles: Mediators of extracellular communication during cancer progression. Journal of Cell Science. 2010;123(10):1603-1611\n'},{id:"B73",body:'Camussi G, Deregibus MC, Bruno S, Cantaluppi V, Biancone L. Exosomes/microvesicles as a mechanism of cell-to-cell communication. Kidney International. 2010;78(9):838-848\n'},{id:"B74",body:'Szajnik M, Derbis M, Lach M, Patalas P, Michalak M, Drzewiecka H, et al. Exosomes in plasma of patients with ovarian carcinoma: Potential biomarkers of tumor progression and response to therapy. Gynecology & Obstetrics (Sunnyvale). 2013;(Suppl 4):3\n'},{id:"B75",body:'Verma M, Lam TK, Hebert E, Divi RL. Extracellular vesicles: Potential applications in cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and epidemiology. BMC Clinical Pathology. 2015;15:6\n'},{id:"B76",body:'Galindo-Hernandez O, Villegas-Comonfort S, Candanedo F, Gonzalez-Vazquez MC, Chavez-Ocana S, Jimenez-Villanueva X, et al. Elevated concentration of microvesicles isolated from peripheral blood in breast cancer patients. Archives of Medical Research. 2013;44(3):208-214\n'},{id:"B77",body:'Atala A. Re: Microvesicles released from human renal cancer stem cells stimulate angiogenesis and formation of lung premetastatic niche. The Journal of Urology. 2012;187(4):1506-1507\n'},{id:"B78",body:'Grange C, Tapparo M, Collino F, Vitillo L, Damasco C, Deregibus MC, et al. Microvesicles released from human renal cancer stem cells stimulate angiogenesis and formation of lung premetastatic niche. Cancer Research. 2011;71(15):5346-5356\n'},{id:"B79",body:'Ginestra A, Miceli D, Dolo V, Romano FM, Vittorelli ML. Membrane vesicles in ovarian cancer fluids: A new potential marker. Anticancer Research. 1999;19(4C):3439-3445\n'},{id:"B80",body:'Young TN, Rodriguez GC, Rinehart AR, Bast JRC, Pizzo SV, Stack MS. Characterization of gelatinases linked to extracellular matrix invasion in ovarian adenocarcinoma: Purification of matrix metalloproteinase 2. Gynecologic Oncology. 1996;62(1):89-99\n'},{id:"B81",body:'Dolo V, D’Ascenzo S, Violini S, Pompucci L, Festuccia C, Ginestra A, Vittorelli ML, Canevari S, Pavan A. Matrix-degrading proteinases are shed in membrane vesicles by ovarian cancer cells in vivo and in vitro. Clinical & Experimental Metastasis. 1999;17:131-140\n'},{id:"B82",body:'Graves LE, Ariztia EV, Navari JR, Matzel HJ, Stack MS, Fishman DA. Proinvasive properties of ovarian cancer ascites-derived membrane vesicles. Cancer Research. 2004;64(19):7045-7049\n'},{id:"B83",body:'Stroun M, Maurice P, Vasioukhin V, Lyautey J, Lederrey C, Lefort F, et al. The origin and mechanism of circulating DNA. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2000;906(1):161-168\n'},{id:"B84",body:'Zou J, Yin F, Wang Q, Zhang W, Li L. Analysis of microarray-identified genes and microRNAs associated with drug resistance in ovarian cancer. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Pathology. 2015;8(6):6847-6858\n'},{id:"B85",body:'Wong YL, Dali AZ, Mohamed Rose I, Jamal R, Mokhtar NM. Potential molecular signatures in epithelial ovarian cancer by genome wide expression profiling. Asia-Pacific Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2016;12(2):e259-e268\n'},{id:"B86",body:'Liu S, Goldstein RH, Scepansky EM, Rosenblatt M. Inhibition of rho-associated kinase signaling prevents breast cancer metastasis to human bone. Cancer Research. 2009;69(22):8742-8751\n'},{id:"B87",body:'Pinto P, Paulo P, Santos C, Rocha P, Pinto C, Veiga I, et al. Implementation of next-generation sequencing for molecular diagnosis of hereditary breast and ovarian cancer highlights its genetic heterogeneity. Breast Cancer Research and Treatment. 2016;159(2):245-256\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ece Gumusoglu",address:"ece.gumusoglu@istanbul.edu.tr",affiliation:'
Faculty of Science, Molecular Biology and Genetics, Istanbul University, Turkey
Faculty of Science, Molecular Biology and Genetics, Istanbul University, Turkey
Center for Research and Practice in Bio-technology and Genetic Engineering, Turkey
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1. Introduction
History indicates that modern project management (PM) developed in the Second World War and have developed in some engineering industries. Later year’s PM has been adapted in research and development and pharmaceutical industries. Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1] found that “industries of origin” have developed more advanced in PM than disciplines that have started later. Knowledge and processes are important contributors to PM capability but are not the only important elements to assess an organisations project management maturity (PMM) [2]. A total approach of what organisational PMM needs to be applied in organisations. Research conducted by Skulmoski [3] affirm there is a lack of research on the competencies most important for certain types of projects. Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1] study confirms that the maturity of PM across different industries indicates that a single model cannot be applied in all cases. Jugdev and Thomas [4] states that maturity models are not difficult to imitate and do not lead to sustained competitive advantage; however, they do lead to temporary competitive advantage for some firms and competitive parity for most. Jugdev and Thomas [4] also comment that most maturity models are not firm specific and can be duplicated. Competitors can replicate maturity models because they lack some of the durability characteristics. Killen and Hunt [5] suggest that project and portfolio capabilities must be tailored to the environment and implemented and adjusted over time and that best practice studies indicate correlations between practices and outcomes.
One way the effectiveness of the PM capability in the power sector can be assessed is through the PMM models. This paper presents the key factors that contribute to PMM in the SA power sector. While generic models are available, this paper aims to bridge this gap that exists in literature and develop a conceptual model for the SA’s power sector.
The following is a summary of gaps that exist on PMM in current literature review:
Organisational culture was largely under examined in PM research [6].
Further empirical studies should build for the mechanisms by which superior PM practices can be developed over time [1]. The authors focused on how PM have developed differently when it was fostered and formed in different environments.
Barber [7] indicate that the internally generated risks seem to relate inversely to PMM and that an opportunity exists of internally generated risks would be used to drive organisational development.
Crawford [8] studies on the relationship between PM standards and effective workplace performance find that there is no empirical research that supports or indeed questions the assumptions which is inherent in the way standards have been developed by expert practitioner.
Studies by De Bruin et al. [9] and Hulya [6] suggest that further research in PMM and how the relation to project performance need to be investigated.
Killen and Hunt [5] suggest that project and portfolio capabilities must be tailored to the environment and implemented and adjusted over time and that best practice studies indicate correlations between practices and outcomes.
A single model cannot be applied in all cases across different industries [1].
Viana et al. [10] indicate in their research that organizational project management maturity models (PMMMs) have been criticized as being ineffective as firms continue to face difficulties in improving their PM practices.
Alam et al. [11] indicate that there was a lack of organisational factors in PMMM, and the social-cultural skills required by project managers managing projects successfully are under examined.
The authors Mahasneh and Thabet [12] in their study indicate that there is a social cultural skills gap among construction school graduates indicating that the gap is a result of various factors such as lack of consensus, clear vision, standardization and common language on the social cultural skills gap between industry and academia.
Marando [13] suggest in their studies that many project managers are not able to successfully lead projects due to a deficiency of the necessary social cultural skills, interpersonal skills include leadership, communication, negotiation, expectations management, influencing, problem-solving, and decision-making.
Considering the following gaps that exist in PMMM it is therefore relevant to form a conceptual model for SA’s power sector. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to perform an extensive literature review to determine the key parameters that contribute to PMM in the SA power sector. The research objectives include the following:
Determine the gaps that is existing in current literature on PMM.
Determine the key parameters important for PMM.
Propose a conceptual model for PMM in the SA power sector.
This paper is divided into five sections. Section one provided the gaps that exist on PMM in current literature and section two provides the literature review. The research methodology is provided in section three. The analysis and discussion are provided in section four and the conclusion is provided in section five.
2. Literature review: parameters that affect PMM
To understand the concept of project maturity further, several definitions of the concept will be investigated as followers:
Hartman and Skulmoski [14] discuss that the maturity of PM tackles the following issues: The competence of the practitioner tries to measure it on a generalised scale and to understand the working environment of the practitioner assesses the business for which the project is being done.
Schlichter [15] use the word maturity to imply that capabilities must be grown to produce repeatable success in PM.
According to Andersen and Jessen [16] project maturity indicate that the organisation is perfectly conditioned to deal with its projects and can be used as an indication of or a measurement of the organisation’s ability to use projects for different purposes.
Ibbs and Kwak [17] define PM maturity as a level of sophistication that indicates organisation’s current PM practices, processes, and performances.
There are also links in literature that suggest maturity models also reflect and increasing desire to link PM competence to corporate achievement [4].
Gareeb and Rwelamila [18] paper reveals that most of the models assess PM capability against bodies of knowledge and indicates that there was no model that could be used for the SA power sector. A total approach of what organisational PM maturity will be applied in this research.
Improving the maturity of an organisation was found to be extremely correlated with project success [19]. Earlier research focuses narrowly on the definition of project success as project cost, time, and quality but current literature has adapted this definition to include other factors. There is limited research on the strength of the relationship between the critical factors and success criteria, and even less analysis of the causal effect between these factors and the performance of projects [20]. Han et al. [21] address the distinction between success factors and success criteria and state the following: “Success factors are factors that influence, constitute as well as determine the success of a project.” Earlier authors suggest that the success factors (critical success factors/project success factors) are defined as those few key factors necessary to reach goals [22]. Whereas success criteria are more related to the perceived performance based on the formal iron triangle such as time, cost, quality. Although the success criteria are difficult to define because many authors add other dimensions to the success criteria which include customer satisfaction as a success dimension or other dimensions. Two important aspects of project success are related to the technical side of the project and the second aspect relates to the “soft skill “henceforth referred to as social-cultural skills. Crawford and Pollack [23] comment that defining the technical and the social-cultural factors is not always clear. The social-cultural issues have been identified as the key success factors in PM and can have a high impact on the project [24]. Azim et al. [25] focus on the cause(s) of complexity in projects which lists three factors and includes process, product, and people. The author’s results indicate the underline importance of “people” not only as factor attributing to project complexity, but also as a key element to project success, thus also highlighting the benefits of social-cultural skills in effective PM. Mishra et al. [26] confirm that despite large work in this area no definite set of factors have been agreed upon that may be due to the organisational or cultural differences through-out the world. Ofori [27] state that generally, critical success factors are a set of project variables or factors that strongly correlate to project success, and whose maximisation or minimisation, depending on whether they are favourable or unfavourable, will lead to project success. Ofori [27] reveals that there is no consensus on what social-cultural factors contribute to project success and indicate that organisational and social-cultural aspects do influence project success because in different project environments different factors are more critical.
The need for developing a conceptual model for the PMMM can have the following benefits:
Langston and Ghanbaripour [28] indicate that any PM environment needs to support the business for successful project, program and/or portfolio delivery. The author indicates that the basis for achieving consistent excellence in PM is assisted by mature organisational systems and processes.
Viana et al. [10] point out that PMMMs have significantly contributed to the field of PM as they heighten awareness of competence to assess organizational PM maturity and that an essential input to support organizational development.
Jugdev and Thomas [4] indicate that PMMM capture the codified knowledge but does not include the intangible assets and if they were included could lead to the competitive advantage of a firm or organisation. Thus, incorporating the correct social cultural factors could add to the competitive advantage of a PMMM.
Zuo et al. [29] results indicated that social cultural skills of project managers significantly contributed to project success factors and hence the project success. Therefore, if these factors are not included in the PMMM a significant aspect is not included in PMMM assessments and measurement.
Studies by Campana [30] indicates there is a large shift to recognize the importance of social cultural skills and indicates the critical importance of social cultural skills in PM.
Assists to spot business or personal opportunities, and it gives advanced warning of significant threats [31].
It aids in the investigation of the barriers and opportunities in sector and provides several obstacles to effective and efficient commerce [32].
It reveals the direction of change within the business environment and thus assists shape change rather than work against it [31].
It provides a framework for the correlation with the production technologies to determine the strengths and weakness of different production pathways. [33]
Aids in avoidance of starting projects that are likely to fail [31].
Assistance with assumptions when one enters a new country, region, or market, because it helps develop an objective view of this new environment [31].
2.1 Technical parameter required for success
The most traditional way to establish project success is measured by the technically which include time, cost, and quality [34]. Portny [35] define a project has been successful when it has produced the desired results within the established timeframe with the allotted resources and state that the following three factors are essential to create the greatest chances for successfully completing a project: a clear and specific agreed-upon statement of the desired outcomes, comprehensive lists of all people who are interested in (needed to support, and/or effected by your project) and a complete and detailed listing of all required project work. Browne and O’Donnabhain [36] identifies key issues and concepts relevant to client-project manager relationship using customer service, service quality and customer satisfaction. Hartman and Skulmoski [37] suggest that there are parallels between business and PM research and topics such as leadership, communication, teamwork, success and examining risks alignment. Although the focus of this section is to find technical factors affecting PM the social-cultural factors based on different studies are ranked high. Studies by Nguyen et al. [38] depict the ranking of twenty success factors and the critical success factors indicate that competent project manager, adequate funding throughout the project, multidisciplinary/competent project team commitment to the project, and the availability of resources are ranked extremely high. Again, the social-cultural aspects of the projects are also indicated in the study reveals that commitment to the project, top management support and continuous involvement of stakeholder do rank high as well. Research conducted by Yong and Mustaffa [39] indicates that two of the four factors identify category namely, effective allocation of manpower; urgency in meeting project deadline are of higher importance. The research indicates that financial problem such as delayed payments and financial difficulties are seen to be a major factor that causes delay in the construction project. Table 1 represents the summary of the literature review that identifies the technical factors required for project success. With a list of several factors of understanding PM standards, risk methodology, documentation control management, understanding how to take make changes in the schedule as well considering the impact of the changes, performance and quality management, contract, legal aspects, top management support and financial management are important for a project manager from a technical side.
Technical factors
Reference
Project management standards and methodology *Technical specifications and performance **Tools and technique
Scope and schedule management. Change control aspects and management *Control of contractor Schedule **Project progress and plans in place ***Project planning
Chen [41] Yong and Mustaffa [39]* Yong and Mustaffa [39]** Griffith [43]*** Zwikael and Globerson [44]*** Lam et al. [40] Mishra et al. [26]
Performance and quality requirements **Quality **Adequacy of design specification
Zwikael and Globerson [44] Schein [45] Yong and Mustaffa [39]** Lam et al. [40]* Roberts et al. [46] Chen [41]* Browne and O’Donnabhain [36] Leveson et al. [47]
Contract and legal management must be in place by the organisation
Top management support *Aligned with the business/project objects thus obtaining top management support
Albu and Panzar [49]; Selders and Ma¨rkle [50]*; Mishra et al. [26] Ofori’s [27]
Financial implications/funding and profitability for the organisation *Adequate Funding throughout the project **Financial capability of the client profitability
Nguyen et al. [38]* Yong and Mustaffa [39]** Lam et al. [40]
Table 1.
Summary of the technical parameter for project success.
The *, **, *** on each factor/theme corresponds to the reference for each.
2.2 Social-cultural parameter required for success
Social-cultural issues include factors such as benefits, stakeholders, value management, and communications [51]. Studies by Mishra et al. [26] indicate that proper communication has been found a critical success factor in the success of a team. Vance’s [52] study consisting of 1800+ system integrators list in Control Engineering’s Automation Integrator Guide were asked to share their top tips for ensuring success of an automation project. This study indicated as much as 80% of the project’s problems were due to lack of proper communication between the client and the integrator. Mishra et al. [26] study indicates that clearly goals and objectives were the number one ranking in their empirical study on project performance. Ofori [27] study indicate experience and competence of project personnel as ranked number four in their top factors for critical success. Kadefors [53] highlights the importance of trust and project success. Karlsen et al. [54] argue that trust is being particularly important in both organisations and projects, since it is viewed as an essential for stable relationships, vital for the maintenance of cooperation, fundamental for any exchange and necessary for even the most routine of everyday interactions. Pinto and Slevin [55] study also indicate that understanding the mission and goals to measure the outcome as an important success factor. Hartman and Skulmoski [37] depict that multi PM must include inter-project communication, priority setting, planning that align projects with and support corporate strategy. Thus, ensuring outcomes to be understood by the project team members and the criteria for measurement.
Table 2 represents the literature review that identifies the social-cultural factors related to project success. Within a list of several factors for project success are communication and understanding outcomes. Studies on project success identifies success factors, which include communication, clearly defined roles and responsibilities, project team competency and availability of resources, trust and understanding outcomes.
Social-cultural factors
Reference
Communication *Clear Communication between client and contractor **Effective team members play a role in communication. ***Strong project commitment ****Communicating effectively on multicultural projects*
Mishra et al. [26]; Vance [52]*; Michalski [56]*; den Otter and Emmitt [57]**; Johannessen and Olsen [58]; Adenfelt [59]; Andersen et al. [60]***; Ochieng and Price [61]****; Zwikael and Globerson [44] Chen [41] Yong and Mustaffa [39]
Project team Competencies and availability of resources *Availability of resources
Cooke-Davies [62] Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1] Ofori [27] Thia and Swierczek [20] Nguyen et al. [38]* Yong and Mustaffa [39]*
Trust *Between the client and contractor **Stable pool of project team members
Webber and Klimoski [63]* Pinto et al. [64]; Kadefors [53]; Maurer [65]*; Karlsen [54]
Understanding outcomes: of the project and each team member *Statement of outcomes and deliverables with key measurable criteria **Clear goals and objectives
Portny [35]*; Pinto and Slevin [55]; Hartman and Skulmoski [37] Mishra et al. [26]**
Table 2.
Summary of the social-cultural parameter for project success.
2.3 Organisational competencies
Zwikael [66] comments that different industries face different challenges while managing projects. The author refers to some examples like the software development organisations that must deal with high-technology uncertainty, while construction organisations that are usually more troubled with engineering and financial problems. Crawford [8] indicate that the competence of project personnel is important as they are having major impact on project performances and ultimately also impact the business performance. De Oliveria et al. [67] indicates that agility and flexibility represent the way to achieve organisational performance and that maximum project performance is accomplished when efforts are tied together to improve leadership factors and organisational factors. An important organisational success measure is the respondents perceived rate of project success of their organisations compared with competitors organisations in the same sector of activity [68]. Gareis and Huemann [69] indicates that PM competencies must describe, assess, and further develop for the organisation, teams, and individuals in the organisation. Brush et al. [70] describe the resource pyramid of value creation and indicate that firms can have a unique advantage when assets become valuable, rare, inimitable, and non-substitutable. Hartman and Skulmoski [14] state that elements that affect maturity will include technical, business, and social issues.
2.3.1 Strategic organisational PM
Albu and Panzar [49] state that maturity alignment is a concept referring to the extent to which the organisational components (strategy, structure, systems, processes, etc.) reflect similar or close maturity levels, acting in synergy towards the achievement of organisational objectives. Christenson and Walker [71] study concludes that project vision is a critical project success factor. The more immediate contribution remains demonstrating a protocol for getting project teams to focus on the project vision and the likely impact upon that for PM success. Fitsilis et al. [72] suggests that programmes and projects are recognised as one of the most important means of achieving organisations strategic plans. To become durably successful, an organisation should realise its maturity alignment [73]. PMM level cannot be attained or sustained if a certain level of organisational maturity is not reached [74]. Cooke-Davies et al. [75] argue that strategic drivers influence the nature of value expected from PM, and a PM system should be adapted to the specific strategic positioning of each organisation to deliver maximum value. Studies by Andersen et al. [76] found support for the proposition that there is a relationship between project perspectives applied in PM and formal organisational rationality. Table 3 summaries the Strategic organisational factors.
Strategic Organisational PM
References
Aligning project objective with business objective *Scorecards **Project vision
Albu and Panzar [49]; Selders and Ma¨rkle [50]*; Christenson and Walker [71]**; Fitsilis et al. [72]; Meyer [73]; Andersen et al. [76]
Sustainability of the organisation and best practices *Strategic drivers
[74]; Gareis and Huemann [69]; Cooke-Davies et al. [75] Crawford [8]
Table 3.
Summary of strategic organisational PM.
2.3.2 Organisational culture
Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1] definition of organisational culture as: “Refers to the underlying beliefs, values and principles that serve as a foundation for an organisations management practices and behaviour that both exemplify and reinforce those basic principles.” Based on the literature review by Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1] two important factors on organisational culture is if the culture is unhelpful then it is important to change it and secondly, that irrespective of whether culture helps or hinders the effects of culture must be considered throughout the project. Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1] also suggest that the leadership style of a project manager needs to be adapted to the organisational culture and confirm through their literature review that there is a clear correlation between high trust and low cost, and between low trust and high cost. Thamhain [77] results shows that despite cultural differences among organisations a general agreement exists on the factors that drive team performance, one of the most striking finding is the large number of performance factors that is derived from the human side where organisational components that satisfy personal and professional needs seem to have a strong effect on cooperation, commitment, risk management, and ultimately drive overall team performance. Diallo and Thuillier [78] mentions that project success and success dimensions depend on project type and sector. Performance problems on technology-intensive projects involve largely management, behavioural and organisational issues, rather than technical complications [79, 80]. Dvir et al. [81] suggest that project success factors are not common for all projects; different types of projects are affected by different sets of success factors. Therefore, a project-specific approach is appropriate for following studies into the practice and theory of PM [82]. Table 4 summaries the themes from literature for organisational culture.
Organisational Culture
References
Organisational culture that supports project management process
Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1]; Diallo and Thuillier [78]; Killen and Hunt [5]; Mishra et al. [26]; Roberts et al. [46]; Crawford [8]
Support employees to understand cultural diversity
Thamhain [77]; *Belassi and Tukel [79]; *Hartman and Ashrafi [80]; **Branson [83]; Andersen et al. [76]; Deal and Kennedy [84]; Diallo and Thuillier [78]
Organisational structures that support project
*Dvir et al. [81]; **Hyväri [82]; Mishra et al. [26]
Top management support for organisational project culture
Killen and Hunt [5]; Zwikael [66]; *Simons [85] **Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1];
Table 4.
Summary of organisational culture.
2.4 Country specific factors
A PESTLE is a tool used for macro environmental scanning [86]. Environmental scanning can be defined as the study and interpretation of the political, economic, social, technological, legal, and environ-mental events and trends which influence a business, an industry or even the total market [86]. A PESTLE analysis was conducted by Gareeb and Rwelamila [18] on the SA’s macro environment and the full analysis is present in Gareeb and Rwelamila [18]. Table 5 summarizes the SA specific issues that should be considered when entering the SA environment which is an extraction from the PESTLE analysis. This analysis will be used in this paper to build the PMMM.
PESTLE
Analysis of SA’s macro environment
Political
Baker [87] suggests that institutionally, the 2006 Electricity Regulation Act should govern the main activities of the electricity sector. However, influence on energy policy and planning is also exerted by SA’s Power Sector Parastatal, Treasury, SA’s Department of Public Enterprises, metropolitan and municipal governments, and the Inter Ministerial Committee on energy [87]. Besides these entities reducing the effect of the SA’s Department of Energy and its regulator (NERSA), the influence of heavy private users (Energy Intensive User’s Group) and coal suppliers cannot be ignored [87]. This describes a mix of highly influential political landscape in favour of specific entities that reduce the effect of proper regulation and create numerous policy uncertainties and delays remain. This does not allow for progress, including from energy independent power producers (IPPs) waiting to construct and connect their projects to the country’s electric grid. Specific interference by political organisations to suppliers of energy have also been documented [87] and [88].
Economic
The economic policy on supply and demand of electricity falls within the ambit of the SA’s Department of Energy and is well documented to be a major driver of growth, reducing poverty, and ensuring social well-being, even of industry [89]. However, lack of cohesive ownership and policy seems to be detracting from the major objectives of various stakeholders, resulting in lack of commitment [87].
Social
Skills remains a critical downfall of the planning, design, supply, and distribution of electricity, as cited by Baker [87] and the SA’s Department of Energy [90]. Further, social development along empowerment of independent suppliers can only be addressed through policy.
Technological
SA’s Power Sector Parastatal currently generates 95% of the country’s electricity [87]. SA’s Department of Energy [89] suggests that up to 30% of the country’s generation is to come from IPPs, but Baker [87] suggests that the appropriate legislation was never enacted, and no private generation was incorporated to the grid. Most of the country’s electricity originates from coal fired power plants in the northeast, many immediately adjacent to privately owned coal mines. The remaining generation comes from pumped storage and imported hydroelectricity, the Koeberg nuclear power station, four gas fuelled turbine stations, and one wind energy power station [87]. In 2005 SA’s Electricity Parastatal initiated its expansion programme which includes the construction of two major power plants, the return to service of mothballed coal fired power stations and energy efficiency investments [87].
Legal/regulatory
The Energy Regulator defined by the Electricity Regulation Act 4 of 2006 mandated to ensure adequate supply, distribution, and electrification of all users in a fair and equitable manner. This includes empowering entities to get access to specific sectors and population groups, ensure clarity in policy to operate and integrate to the grid and stipulate environmental and social targets. The cohesiveness of such policy is questioned by policy makers and industry commentators [87]. This together with a lack of governance on managing progress creates a vacuum between planning parties and those organisations charged with delivery. Finally, the scope of legislation for local empowerment and public accountability extends to the regulated energy market and plays a key role to ensure governance and accountability.
Environmental
South Africa pledged to reduce the country’s greenhouse gas emissions by 34% by 2020 and 42% by 2025 [91]. Baker [87] suggests that despite the absence of national expertise, South Africa also has an enormous potential for several different renewable energy technologies including: wind, solar water heaters, concentrated solar power, solar photovoltaics, and biomass. SA’s Power Sector Parastatal has thus far secured investment in a renewable component consisting only of the 100 MW wind farm now funded by the World Bank [87]. Lack of policy on carbon emission and empowerment of local suppliers to augment the grid is hampering progress.
Table 5.
PESTLE analysis based on South African macro environment.
The sector specific by Gareeb and Rwelamila [18], include: high-risk environment, organisational safety culture, sustainability, environmental impact, compliance with SA’s governing regulations and reliable technologies. Table 6 summarizes the characteristics of the power sector from Gareeb and Rwelamila [18] been important consideration for the SA’s power sector. This analysis will be used in this paper to build the PMMM.
McCaffrey [94]; Taylor [95]; Fitsilis et al. [72] OSHA [92]; NERSA [96]; Li and Poon [97]; Weil [98]; Taylor [95];
P.S.3
Sustainability
Oricha and Taiwo [99]; Chambers et al. [100] Goodland [101]; Suberu et al. [102]; Silvius and Schipper [103]; Alzahrani [104]; Păunescu and Acatrinei [105]
P.S.4
Environment impact
Chen et al. [106]; Blaabjerg et al. [107]; Massetti et al. [108]; Silvius and Schipper [103]; Alzahrani [104]; Bai et al. [109]
P.S.5
Compliant with SA’s regulations
SA’s Department of Energy [90]; NERSA [96]; Karekezi and Kimani [110]; Li et al. [111]
P.S.6
Process capability effectives//high end technology—reliable, sustainable, and environmental effectiveness
Panda and Ramanathan [112]; Oseni [113]; Oseni [114]; Pauschert [115]; Dabre et al. [116]
Table 6.
Summary of factors related to the power sector industry.
This study is classified as a literature review [117]. The literature search in Gareeb and Rwelamila [18] categorised over a 19-year period and using 28 databases indicate that the current models are not completely suitable for SA’s power sector (the models tend to be generalizable, and some models are developed for specific countries and areas that are not suitable to the SA environment).
This study proposes a conceptual model for measuring PMM in the SA’s power sector. To achieve the goals of this paper a grounded approach was used to develop a conceptual model. First, past and current studies relating to PM success factors for PMM were studied to get a comprehensive understanding of the topic. The next steps included studies that entailed gaps that existed in current PMM literature so that this could be addressed in this study. The literature search continued until saturation of the data occurred. A literature review was used to find the key success factors for PMM as well as gaps that exist in current PMM literature. The data source was the analysis of books, published papers, conference papers, white papers, and specialized material from the relevant institutions.
Finally, the findings and analysis are provided together with the concluding remarks showing the contributions of this study in the PM field. The proposed model will be tested with the relevant case study organisations to determine the validity of the proposed conceptual model.
4. The conceptual model for PMM in the SA power sector
This paper presents a conceptual model for projects taking place in SA’s power sector. Section two provided the gaps that existed in current literature on PMM. Organisations are complex environments. It is impossible for researchers to put forward a full detailed picture of these phenomena therefore, a way of representing a simplified version is through a model [118].
To understand the concept of a model, Team [119] defines “model” as: “A model is a simplified representation of the world.” KPMG [120] state that models have benefits such as: set process improvement objectives and priorities; improve processes and provide guidance; acts as a guide for improvement of organisational processes and define a starting point; enable the benefits of a community’s prior experiences to be shared; create a common language and share a vision. A concept is a bundle of meanings or characteristics associated with certain events, objects, or conditions and used for representation, identification, communication, or understanding [121].
Lilien [122] lists the characteristics of conceptual model as:
Often a flowchart or simple relationship (graph to indicate the nature of the relationship).
Generally, of more use to the model builder than the model user (if the user and the builder are not the same).
Helpful in thinking about reality than in actual decision—making.
This paper presents a conceptual model for projects taking place in SA’s power sector.
Section two provided the gaps that existed in current literature on PMM. The proposed PMM model addresses the requirements and complexities identified within the PM environment in a more holistic way (represented in Figure 1) for the SA power sector.
Figure 1.
Conceptual model for PMM for SA’s power sector.
Figure 1 indicates the content that exists in literature and highlighted in red indicates what was lacking in current PMM. Figure 1 presents the requirements of what the key factors for PMM in the SA Power
Sector should entail. The concept PM maturity was discussed. Diallo and Thuillier [78] mentions that project success and success dimensions depend on project type and sector. Dvir et al. [81] suggests that project success factors are not common for all projects and different types of projects are affected by different sets of success factors. Therefore, a project specific approach is appropriate for following studies into the practice and theory of PM [82].
Studies reveal that project performance is linked to project maturity. Therefore, extensive literature review has been conducted on what constitutes project performance/project success. Empirical correlations of all the factors that affect project success were reviewed. Two important factors were identified that affect project success, namely the technical and the social-cultural factors. This study identifies the critical success factors for successful projects that have an impact on the project maturity
Not only does project performance has links to project maturity but the organisational play a part. There is extensive literature available on the concepts that exist between PM maturity and organisational maturity. Without some degree of organisational maturity, PM maturity would not last or continue.
Therefore, organisations need to have an alignment between the organisational and PM maturity. The project objectives need to be linked into the overall business objects and organisational strategy. This model from a broader perspective takes into account sector specific and country specific factors that have not been established yet.
The proposed PMM model addresses the requirements and complexities identified within the PM environment in a more holistic way (represented in Figure 1) for the SA power sector. Figure 1 indicates the content that exists in literature and highlighted in red indicates what was lacking in current PMM. The framework takes into account what was lacking in current literature on PMM for the SA power sector. Figure 1 presents the requirements of what the key factors for PMM in the SA power sector should entail.
The conceptual model introduces country specific factors for the SA’s environment and sector specific factor for the power sector. If the country specific factors are relaxed and a PESTLE analysis is carried out in the country where projects is taking place, therefore this framework can be adapted to different countries. The success components address the requirements and complexities identified with PM in the more holistic way to the SA power sector.
The proposed conceptual model addresses issues encountered as followers:
Hulya [6] claims that organisational culture was largely under examined in PM research. This paper considers the organisational culture and the need for the organisational culture to support PM therefore an enabler for PMM eventually. This can be found in Table 4.
Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1] state that further empirical studies need to be built for superior PM practices. This study focused on the latest empirical literature.
Özturan et al. [123] comment that earlier models are a relatively a new proposal and therefore lacks empirical support for determining which competencies contribute most success. Figure 1 was linked to empirical data. This can be found in the literature review Section 2 of this paper.
This paper focuses on the country specific factors, sector specific factors and the project specific factors that affect PMM therefore provides a holistic approach for the context of this study. This can be found in Table 5 where a summarized PESTLE analysis was conducted to determine these components.
Ibbs and Kwak [124] comment that as new PM knowledge and practice becomes available the models need to be continuously developed and adapted. This study focused on the latest research and Figure 1 address the gaps that is lacking in current literature on considering the PMM requirements for the SA’s power sector.
Organisational development for PMM have been identified in this paper and have addressed the challenges.
5. Conclusion
The crucial factors that underpin the success of the projects are due to social-cultural factors [125]. This paper presents the key factors that contribute to PMM in the SA pwer sector. Section 4 presents the framework for developing a PMM model for the SA power sector. Diallo and Thuillier [78] mentions that project success and success dimensions depend on project type and sector. Dvir et al. [81] suggests that project success factors are not common for all projects and different types of projects are affected by different sets of success factors. Therefore, a project specific approach is appropriate for following studies into the practice and theory of PM [82]. Studies reveal that project performance is linked to project maturity. Therefore, extensive literature review has been conducted on what constitutes project performance/project success. Empirical correlations of all the factors that affect project success were reviewed. Two important factors were identified that effect project success, namely the technical and the social-cultural factors. This study identifies the critical success factors for successful projects that have an impact on the project maturity. Not only the project performance has links to project maturity but the organisational plays a role. There is extensive literature available on the concepts that exist between PMM and organisational maturity. Without some degree of organisational maturity, PMM would not last or continue. Therefore, organisations need to have an alignment between the organisational and PMM. The project objectives need to be linked into the overall business objects and organisational strategy. The contribution for this study provides the conceptual framework from a broader perspective for the SA power sector.
The following was achieved during the research and the following objectives met:
Firstly, gaps that existed in current PMM were identified and are listed in section two as the starting point of the study.
Secondly the gaps were addressed through an extensive literature review on PMM and is listed in section four.
The key parameters that contribute to SA PMM were determined and consist of social-cultural, technical, organisational, sector and country specific and is listed in section two. Figure 1 provides the conceptual framework for PMM in the SA power sector.
Research limitations—The focus of this paper was limited to the peer reviewed articles and journals on PMM.
Future research—The current research provides the conceptual model for the SA power sector. The next steps are to test the conceptual model with the relevant organisations.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to acknowledge that this paper is part of a doctoral thesis. The author of the thesis is Dr Natisha Gareeb (2018) and is entitled “An Appropriate Project Management Maturity Model for the Power Sector – the Case of South Africa”, UNISA, South Africa, Pretoria. The authors would also like to thank our statistician, Juliana van Staden from the University of Witwatersrand.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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Software Quality Journal. 2007;15(4):365-381'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Natisha Gareeb",address:"natisha.gareeb@gmail.com",affiliation:'
, UNISA – University of South Africa, Carlswald, Gauteng, South Africa
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The model parameters deciphered here are the amplitude coefficient (k), horizontal location (x0), depth of the body (z), and shape (q). Inversion of the model parameter suggests that constraining the horizontal location and the shape factor offers the most reliable results. Investigation of convergence rate, histogram, and cross-plot examination suggest that the interpretation method developed for the self-potential anomalies is stable and the model parameters are within the estimated ambiguity. Inversion of synthetic noise-free and noise-corrupted data for single structures and multiple structures in addition to real field information exhibits the viability of the method. The model parameters estimated by the present technique were in good agreement with the real parameters. The method has been used to invert two field examples (Sulleymonkoy anomaly, Ergani, Turkey, Senneterre area of Quebec, Canada) with application of subsurface mineralized bodies. This technique can be very much helpful for mineral or ore bodies investigation of idealized geobodies buried within the shallow and deeper subsurface.",book:{id:"7315",slug:"minerals",title:"Minerals",fullTitle:"Minerals"},signatures:"Arkoprovo Biswas",authors:[{id:"250390",title:"Dr.",name:"Arkoprovo",middleName:null,surname:"Biswas",slug:"arkoprovo-biswas",fullName:"Arkoprovo Biswas"}]},{id:"71052",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90880",title:"Enhanced Humidity Sensing Response in Eu3+-Doped Iron-Rich CuFe2O4: A Detailed Study of Structural, Microstructural, Sensing, and Dielectric Properties",slug:"enhanced-humidity-sensing-response-in-eu-sup-3-sup-doped-iron-rich-cufe-sub-2-sub-o-sub-4-sub-a-deta",totalDownloads:596,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The CuFe(2−x)EuxO4 (where x = 0.00, 0.01, 0.02, 0.03) nanoparticles are synthesized by solution combustion method. The influence of Eu3+ on the structural, morphological, dielectrical, and humidity sensing study is recorded. The XRD pattern peaks of the as-prepared CuFe(2−x)EuxO4 (where x = 0.00, 0.01, 0.02, 0.03) nanoparticle confirm the polycrystalline spinel cubic structure with a small amount of CuO impurity phase at 38.87° and 48.96°. Surface morphology of the samples was studied by scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the nanoparticles, and their respective average grain size was estimated using Image software. Chemical composition of all prepared samples was analyzed by EDS spectra. The dielectric parameters of AC conductivity, electric modulus, and impedance of the samples were measured over a range of frequencies from 0.1 KHz to 1 MHz at room temperature. Europium-doped copper ferrite samples showed good humidity sensing response, response and recover times, and stability over a %RH range of 11–91%. 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In fact, under some specific conditions the NCMs could be used either as effective adsorbent material or alternative source of minerals. This chapter presents an outline of a general review of factors that affect the application ability of NCMs and a descriptive analysis of NH4+ and REE adsorption behavior and extraction of rare earth elements (REE) by an ion-exchange with NH4+ ions onto NCMs. Clays and NCMs both effectively remove various contaminants from aqueous solution and serve as alternative sources of minerals, as extensively discussed in this chapter. This review compiles thorough literature of current research and highlights the key findings of adsorption (NH4+ and REE) that use different NCMs as adsorbents or alternative sources of minerals (i.e., REE). The review confirmed that NCMs excellently remove different cations pollutants and have significant potential as alternative source of REE. However, modification and further development of NCMs applications for getting the best adsorption and the best extraction of REE onto NCMs, which would enhance pollution control and leaching system is still needed.",book:{id:"7315",slug:"minerals",title:"Minerals",fullTitle:"Minerals"},signatures:"Aref Alshameri, Xinghu Wei, Hailong Wang, Yang Fuguo, Xin Chen, Hongping He, Chunjie Yan and Feng Xu",authors:[{id:"172947",title:"Prof.",name:"Xin",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"xin-chen",fullName:"Xin Chen"},{id:"250327",title:"Dr.",name:"Aref",middleName:null,surname:"Alshameri",slug:"aref-alshameri",fullName:"Aref Alshameri"},{id:"306625",title:"Dr.",name:"Aref",middleName:null,surname:"Alshameri",slug:"aref-alshameri",fullName:"Aref Alshameri"},{id:"306656",title:"Prof.",name:"Fuguo",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"fuguo-yang",fullName:"Fuguo Yang"},{id:"306658",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",middleName:null,surname:"Xinghu",slug:"wei-xinghu",fullName:"Wei Xinghu"},{id:"306660",title:"Prof.",name:"Wang",middleName:null,surname:"Hailong",slug:"wang-hailong",fullName:"Wang Hailong"},{id:"306664",title:"Prof.",name:"Yan",middleName:null,surname:"Chunjie",slug:"yan-chunjie",fullName:"Yan Chunjie"},{id:"306665",title:"Dr.",name:"Xu",middleName:null,surname:"Feng",slug:"xu-feng",fullName:"Xu Feng"},{id:"306671",title:"Prof.",name:"He",middleName:null,surname:"Hongping",slug:"he-hongping",fullName:"He Hongping"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71052",title:"Enhanced Humidity Sensing Response in Eu3+-Doped Iron-Rich CuFe2O4: A Detailed Study of Structural, Microstructural, Sensing, and Dielectric Properties",slug:"enhanced-humidity-sensing-response-in-eu-sup-3-sup-doped-iron-rich-cufe-sub-2-sub-o-sub-4-sub-a-deta",totalDownloads:596,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The CuFe(2−x)EuxO4 (where x = 0.00, 0.01, 0.02, 0.03) nanoparticles are synthesized by solution combustion method. The influence of Eu3+ on the structural, morphological, dielectrical, and humidity sensing study is recorded. The XRD pattern peaks of the as-prepared CuFe(2−x)EuxO4 (where x = 0.00, 0.01, 0.02, 0.03) nanoparticle confirm the polycrystalline spinel cubic structure with a small amount of CuO impurity phase at 38.87° and 48.96°. Surface morphology of the samples was studied by scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the nanoparticles, and their respective average grain size was estimated using Image software. Chemical composition of all prepared samples was analyzed by EDS spectra. The dielectric parameters of AC conductivity, electric modulus, and impedance of the samples were measured over a range of frequencies from 0.1 KHz to 1 MHz at room temperature. Europium-doped copper ferrite samples showed good humidity sensing response, response and recover times, and stability over a %RH range of 11–91%. These types of samples are very useful for sensor application, battery applications, electronic applications, and automotive applications.",book:{id:"9247",slug:"mineralogy-significance-and-applications",title:"Mineralogy",fullTitle:"Mineralogy - Significance and Applications"},signatures:"I.C. Sathisha, K. Manjunatha, V. Jagadeesha Angadi, B. Chethan, Y.T. Ravikiran, Vinayaka K. Pattar, S.O. Manjunatha and Shidaling Matteppanavar",authors:[{id:"266255",title:"Dr.",name:"Veerabhadrappa",middleName:null,surname:"Jagadeesha Angadi",slug:"veerabhadrappa-jagadeesha-angadi",fullName:"Veerabhadrappa Jagadeesha Angadi"},{id:"321561",title:"Dr.",name:"I.C.",middleName:null,surname:"Sathisha",slug:"i.c.-sathisha",fullName:"I.C. Sathisha"},{id:"321562",title:"Dr.",name:"K.",middleName:null,surname:"Manjunatha",slug:"k.-manjunatha",fullName:"K. Manjunatha"},{id:"321564",title:"Dr.",name:"B.",middleName:null,surname:"Chethan",slug:"b.-chethan",fullName:"B. Chethan"},{id:"321565",title:"Dr.",name:"Y.T.",middleName:null,surname:"Ravikiran",slug:"y.t.-ravikiran",fullName:"Y.T. Ravikiran"},{id:"321566",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayaka K.",middleName:null,surname:"Pattar",slug:"vinayaka-k.-pattar",fullName:"Vinayaka K. Pattar"},{id:"321567",title:"Dr.",name:"S.O.",middleName:null,surname:"Manjunatha",slug:"s.o.-manjunatha",fullName:"S.O. Manjunatha"},{id:"321568",title:"Dr.",name:"Shidaling",middleName:null,surname:"Matteppanavar",slug:"shidaling-matteppanavar",fullName:"Shidaling Matteppanavar"}]},{id:"65826",title:"Introductory Chapter: Mineral Exploration from the Point of View of Geophysicists",slug:"introductory-chapter-mineral-exploration-from-the-point-of-view-of-geophysicists",totalDownloads:1635,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:null,book:{id:"7315",slug:"minerals",title:"Minerals",fullTitle:"Minerals"},signatures:"Khalid S. Essa and Marc Munschy",authors:[{id:"102766",title:"Prof.",name:"Khalid S.",middleName:null,surname:"Essa",slug:"khalid-s.-essa",fullName:"Khalid S. Essa"},{id:"292929",title:"Prof.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Munschy",slug:"marc-munschy",fullName:"Marc Munschy"}]},{id:"69811",title:"Chemical Synthesis and Characterization of Luminescent Iron Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Biomedical Applications",slug:"chemical-synthesis-and-characterization-of-luminescent-iron-oxide-nanoparticles-and-their-biomedical",totalDownloads:564,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The syntheses and characterizations of biocompatible luminescent magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles has drawn particular attention as diagnostic and drug delivery tools for treatment of cancer and many other diseases. This chapter focuses on the chemical synthetic methods, magnetic and luminescent properties, including the biomedical applications of iron oxide nanomaterials and luminescent magnetic iron oxide-based nanocomposite materials. The influences of functionalizing with short ligands such as dopamine and L-cysteine on the magnetic properties of synthesized nanoparticles are described. The chapter contains some data on necessary reagents and protocols for bioconjugation aimed at cell culture and step by step the MTT assays used to evaluate cytotoxicity are also presented. In the final section of the chapter, we focus on the biomedical applications specifically for diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer treatment. This chapter also investigates the application of various characterization techniques for analysis of the structural, optical and magnetic properties of the iron oxide nanoparticles and as their nanocomposites.",book:{id:"9247",slug:"mineralogy-significance-and-applications",title:"Mineralogy",fullTitle:"Mineralogy - Significance and Applications"},signatures:"Martin Onani, Leandre Brandt and Zuraan Paulsen",authors:[{id:"258023",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",middleName:null,surname:"Onani",slug:"martin-onani",fullName:"Martin Onani"},{id:"302723",title:"Dr.",name:"Leandré Bianca",middleName:null,surname:"Brandt",slug:"leandre-bianca-brandt",fullName:"Leandré Bianca Brandt"},{id:"302725",title:"MSc.",name:"Zuraan",middleName:null,surname:"Paulsen",slug:"zuraan-paulsen",fullName:"Zuraan Paulsen"}]},{id:"27429",title:"An Introduction to Mineralogy",slug:"an-introduction-to-mineralogy",totalDownloads:6621,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"1600",slug:"an-introduction-to-the-study-of-mineralogy",title:"An Introduction to the Study of Mineralogy",fullTitle:"An Introduction to the Study of Mineralogy"},signatures:"Cumhur Aydinalp",authors:[{id:"98959",title:"Prof.",name:"Cumhur",middleName:"---",surname:"Aydinalp",slug:"cumhur-aydinalp",fullName:"Cumhur Aydinalp"}]},{id:"27435",title:"A Review of Pathological Biomineral Analysis Techniques and Classification Schemes",slug:"a-review-of-pathological-biomineral-analysis-techniques-and-classification-schemes",totalDownloads:4303,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"1600",slug:"an-introduction-to-the-study-of-mineralogy",title:"An Introduction to the Study of Mineralogy",fullTitle:"An Introduction to the Study of Mineralogy"},signatures:"Maria Luigia Giannossi and Vito Summa",authors:[{id:"101919",title:"PhD.",name:"Maria Luigia",middleName:null,surname:"Giannossi",slug:"maria-luigia-giannossi",fullName:"Maria Luigia Giannossi"},{id:"108348",title:"Dr.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Summa",slug:"vito-summa",fullName:"Vito Summa"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"651",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81626",title:"Use of Natural Safiot Clay for the Removal of Chemical Substances from Aqueous Solutions by Adsorption: A Combined Experimental and Theoretical Study",slug:"use-of-natural-safiot-clay-for-the-removal-of-chemical-substances-from-aqueous-solutions-by-adsorpti",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101605",abstract:"The main objective of this work was to investigate the potential of Natural Safiot Clay (NSC), as an adsorbent for the removal of two cationic dyes such as Basic Blue 9 (BB9) and Basic Yellow 28 (BY28) from single and binary systems in aqueous solutions. For this, the effects of three factors controlling the adsorption process, such as initial dye concentration, adsorbent dose, and initial pH on the adsorption extent, were investigated and examined. The natural safiot clay was characterized using the following technique: energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), DRX, and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and pH of the point of zero charge (pHZPC). Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy results indicate high percentages of Silica and Alumina. FT-IR spectrum identified kaolinite as the major mineral phase in the presence of quartz, calcite, and dolomite. The quantum theoretical study confirms the experimental results, through the study of the global and local reactivity and the electrophilicity power of the dyes. The electrophilicity power of dyes affects the removal efficiency. The theoretical study proves that BB9 (ω = 6.178) is more electrophilic than BY28 (ω = 2.480) and more interactions with surface sites. The results of the molecular dynamics simulation indicate that the dyes are adsorbed parallel to the surface of natural Safi clay (kaolinite), implying the strong interaction with the kaolinite atoms. All the results of quantum chemistry calculations and simulations of molecular dynamics are in perfect agreement with the results of the experimental study.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Aziz El Kassimi, Mohammadine El Haddad, Rachid Laamari, Mamoune El Himri, Youness Achour and Hicham Yazid"},{id:"80866",title:"Normative Mineralogy Especially for Shales, Slates, and Phyllites",slug:"normative-mineralogy-especially-for-shales-slates-and-phyllites",totalDownloads:44,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102346",abstract:"First, an insight into normative mineralogy and the most important methods for calculating the standard or norm minerals, such as the CIPW norm, is given. This is followed by a more detailed explanation of “slatenorm” and “slatecalculation” for low and very low metamorphic rocks, such as phyllites, slates, and shales. They are particularly suitable for fine-grained rocks where the mineral content is difficult to determine. They enable the determination of a virtual mineral inventory from full chemical analysis, including the values of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon (C), and sulfur (S). The determined norm or standard minerals include the minerals—feldspars, carbonates, micas, hydro-micas, chlorites, ore minerals, and quartz. The advantages of slatenorm and slatecalculation compared to other methods for calculating normal minerals of sedimentary rocks are discussed.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Hans Wolfgang Wagner"},{id:"80770",title:"Mg-Ilmenite from Kimberlites, Its Origin",slug:"mg-ilmenite-from-kimberlites-its-origin",totalDownloads:57,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102676",abstract:"The main regularities of the saturation of kimberlite rocks with the accessory mineral Mg-ilmenite (Ilm), the peculiarities of the distribution of Ilm compositions in individual pipes, in different clusters of pipes, in diamondiferous kimberlite fields, are considered as the example of studies carried out within the Yakutian kimberlite province (Siberian Craton). Interpretation of different crystallization trends in MgO-Cr2O3 coordinates (conventionally named “Haggerty’s parabola”, “Steplike”, “Hockey stick”, as well as the peculiarities of heterogeneity of individual zonal and polygranular Ilm macrocrysts made it possible to propose a three-stage model of crystallization Ilm: (1) Mg-Cr poor ilmenite crystallizing from a primitive asthenospheric melt; (2) Continuing crystallization in the lithospheric contaminated melt by MgO and Cr2O3; (3) Ilmenite subsequently underwent sub-solidus recrystallization in the presence of an evolved kimberlite melt under increasing oxygen fugacity (ƒO2) conditions.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Sergey I. Kostrovitsky"},{id:"80553",title:"Investigation of Accessory Minerals from the Blatná Granodiorite Suite, Bohemian Massif, Czech Republic",slug:"investigation-of-accessory-minerals-from-the-blatn-granodiorite-suite-bohemian-massif-czech-republic",totalDownloads:48,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102628",abstract:"The Central Bohemian magmatic complex belongs to the Central European Variscan belt. The granitic rocks of this plutonic complex are formed by several suites of granites, granodiorites, and tonalites, together with small bodies of gabbros, gabbro diorites, and diorites. The granodiorites of the Blatná suite are high-K, calc-alkaline to shoshonitic, and metaluminous to slightly peraluminous granitic rocks. Compared to the common I-type granites, granodiorites of the Blatná suite are enriched in Mg (1.0–3.4 wt.% MgO), Ba (838–2560 ppm), Sr. (257–506 ppm), and Zr (81–236 ppm). For granodiorites of the Blatná suite is assemblage of apatite, zircon, titanite, and allanite significant. Zircon contains low Hf concentrations (1.1–1.7 wt.% HfO2). The composition of titanite ranges from 83 to 92 mol.% titanite end-member. Allanite is relatively Al-poor and displays Feox. ratio 0.2–0.5.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Miloš René"},{id:"80423",title:"Minerals as Prebiotic Catalysts for Chemical Evolution towards the Origin of Life",slug:"minerals-as-prebiotic-catalysts-for-chemical-evolution-towards-the-origin-of-life",totalDownloads:106,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102389",abstract:"A transition from geochemistry to biochemistry has been considered as a necessary step towards the emergence of primordial life. Nevertheless, how did this transition occur is still elusive. The chemistry underlying this transition is likely not a single event, but involves many levels of creation and reconstruction, finally reaching the molecular, structural, and functional buildup of complexity. Among them, one apparent question is: how the biochemical catalytic system emerged from the mineral-based geochemical system? Inspired by the metal–ligand structures in metalloenzymes, many researchers have proposed that transition metal sulfide minerals could have served as structural analogs of metalloenzymes for catalyzing prebiotic redox conversions. This assumption has been tested and verified to some extent by several studies, which focused on using Earth-abundant transition metal sulfides as catalysts for multi-electron C and N conversions. The progress in this field will be introduced, with a focus on the CO2 fixation and ammonia synthesis from nitrate/nitrite reduction and N2 reduction. Recently developed methods for screening effective mineral catalysts were also reviewed.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Yamei Li"},{id:"80338",title:"Ionic Conductivity of Strontium Fluoroapatites Co-doped with Lanthanides",slug:"ionic-conductivity-of-strontium-fluoroapatites-co-doped-with-lanthanides",totalDownloads:54,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102410",abstract:"Britholites derivatives of apatite’s that contain lanthanium and neodymium in the serial compounds Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 were subject of the present investigation. The solid state reaction was the route of preparing these materials. Several techniques were employed for the analysis and characterization of the synthesized powders. The chemical analysis results indicated that molar ratio Sr+La+NdP+Si was of about 1.67 value of a stoichiometric powder. The X-ray diffraction data showed single-phase apatites crystallizing in hexagonal structure with P63/m space group were successively obtained. Moreover, the substitution of lanthanium by neodymium in strontium phosphosilicated fluorapatite was total. This was confirmed by the a and c lattice parameters contraction when (x) varies coherently to the sizes of the two cations. The infrared spectroscopy and the 31P NMR (MAS) exhibited the characteristic bands of phosphosilicated fluorapatite. The pressureless sintering of the material achieved a maximum of 89% relative density. The sintered specimens indicated that the Nd content as well as the heating temperature affected the ionic conduction of the materials and the maximum was 1.73 × 10−6 S cm−1 obtained at 1052 K for x = 2.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Khouloud Kthiri, Mohammed Mehnaoui, Samira Jebahi, Khaled Boughzala and Mustapha Hidouri"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:10},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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