Air Quality Index Formula
- Transmission of information or data, when it is essential for an amount of energy to reach the receiver to restore the transmitted information;\n
- Transmission of electric energy in the form of electromagnetic field, when the energy transfer efficiency is essential, the power being used to energize the receiving equipment.\n
\nThe second form of energy transfer is the subject of this book.",isbn:"978-953-51-2468-9",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2467-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6659-7",doi:"10.5772/61488",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"wireless-power-transfer-fundamentals-and-technologies",numberOfPages:140,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"2a20c1dde39792560dab996742f0e73c",bookSignature:"Eugen Coca",publishedDate:"June 29th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5187.jpg",numberOfDownloads:19398,numberOfWosCitations:24,numberOfCrossrefCitations:21,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:36,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:81,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 12th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 2nd 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 6th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 6th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 5th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"5766",title:"Dr.",name:"Eugen",middleName:null,surname:"Coca",slug:"eugen-coca",fullName:"Eugen Coca",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5766/images/1434_n.jpg",biography:"Eugen Coca is currently Associate Professor and Director of the Computers, Electronics and Automation Department at the Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, Romania. He is also the Technical Manager and Scientific Coordinator of the Electromagnetic Compatibility Laboratory—EMCLab.ro, from the same university, and also Executive Editor of Advances in Electrical and Computer Engineering journal. His current research interests are in the areas of electromagnetic compatibility, design, testing, and compliance of domestic and automotive products with emissions and immunity standards, wired and wireless communications, wireless sensor networks and general microcontroller systems and their applications. He authored or co-authored three books or book chapters, and more than 50 papers in international journals or conferences. He has also been involved as project manager or researcher in more than 40 research projects, public or privately funded. He received his BSEE and the PhD in Electronics Engineering from the Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iasi, Romania, in 1994 and 2001, respectively. Dr. Coca teaches Electromagnetic Compatibility, Wireless Sensor Network, Mobile and Satellite Communications, Digital and Analog Communication Systems, and Computer-Aided Design.",institutionString:null,position:"Associate Professor",outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"756",title:"Power Electronics",slug:"power-electronics"}],chapters:[{id:"50520",title:"Fundamentals of Inductively Coupled Wireless Power Transfer Systems",doi:"10.5772/63013",slug:"fundamentals-of-inductively-coupled-wireless-power-transfer-systems",totalDownloads:4597,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The objective of this chapter is to study the fundamentals and operating principles of inductively coupled wireless power transfer (ICWPT) systems. This new technology can be used in various wireless power transfer applications with different specifications, necessities, and restrictions such as in electric vehicles and consumer electronics. A typical ICWPT system involves a loosely coupled magnetic coupling structure and power electronics circuitries as an integrated system. In this chapter, the emphasis is placed on the magnetic coupling structure, which is the most important part of the system. Although this technology has motivated considerable research and development in the past two decades, still there are several theoretical studies such as the level of the operating frequency, operating at high secondary circuit quality factor, coupling efficiency, etc., that need further investigation to fully develop the governing mathematical relationships of this technology.",signatures:"Ali Abdolkhani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50520",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50520",authors:[{id:"179618",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Abdolkhani",slug:"ali-abdolkhani",fullName:"Ali Abdolkhani"}],corrections:null},{id:"51032",title:"Analysis of Wireless Power System Efficiency in Dependency on Configuration of Resonant Tank",doi:"10.5772/62998",slug:"analysis-of-wireless-power-system-efficiency-in-dependency-on-configuration-of-resonant-tank",totalDownloads:2021,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter compares various compensation methods for resonant coupling of the wireless energy transfer system. A proposed analysis is particularly relevant to any application where contactless battery charging is used. Main parameters that are investigated include efficiency and electrical variables (current and voltage) of the circuit. In order to analyze the most suitable solution of coupling compensation, the relevant equations are graphically interpreted for each discussed circuit topology. Finally, this chapter provides the recommendations how to design the wireless power-transfer system with the highest possible efficiency for the given system parameters (switching frequency and transmitting distance).",signatures:"Michal Frivaldsky, Pavol Spanik, Peter Drgona, Viliam Jaros and\nMarek Piri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51032",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51032",authors:[{id:"180825",title:"Dr.",name:"Michal",surname:"Frivaldsky",slug:"michal-frivaldsky",fullName:"Michal Frivaldsky"},{id:"185361",title:"Prof.",name:"Pavol",surname:"Spanik",slug:"pavol-spanik",fullName:"Pavol Spanik"},{id:"185362",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",surname:"Drgona",slug:"peter-drgona",fullName:"Peter Drgona"},{id:"185363",title:"MSc.",name:"Marek",surname:"Piri",slug:"marek-piri",fullName:"Marek Piri"},{id:"185364",title:"MSc.",name:"Viliam",surname:"Jaros",slug:"viliam-jaros",fullName:"Viliam Jaros"}],corrections:null},{id:"51254",title:"Wireless Power Transfer by Using Magnetically Coupled Resonators",doi:"10.5772/64031",slug:"wireless-power-transfer-by-using-magnetically-coupled-resonators",totalDownloads:4977,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In this chapter, a wireless power transmission system based on magnetic resonance coupling circuit was carried out. Mathematical expressions of optimal coupling coefficients were examined with the coupling model. Equivalent circuit parameters were calculated with Maxwell 3D software, and then, the equivalent circuit was solved using MATLAB technical computing software. The transfer efficiency of the system was derived using the electrical parameters of the equivalent circuit. System efficiency was analyzed depending on the different air gap values for various characteristic impedances using PSIM circuit simulation software. Since magnetic resonance coupling involves creating a resonance and transferring the power without the radiation of electromagnetic waves, resonance frequency is a key parameter in system design. The aim of this research was to define the efficiency according to variations of coefficients in wireless power transfer (WPT) system. In order to do that, the calculation procedure of mutual inductance between two self-resonators is performed by Maxwell software. Equivalent circuit is solved in circuit simulator PSIM platform. The calculations show that using the parameters that are obtained by magnetic analysis can be used for the equivalent circuit which has the capability to provide the efficiency using electrical quantities. The chapter discusses the application of this approach to a coil excited by a sinusoidal voltage source and a receiver coil, which receives energy voltage and current. Both could be obtained to calculate the instantaneous power and efficiency. To do so, the waveforms for voltage and current were obtained and computed with the PSIM circuit simulator. As the air gap between the coils increased, the coupling between the coils was weakened. The impedance of the circuit varied as the air gap changed, affecting the power transfer efficiency. In order to determine the differences between the software programs, efficiency values were calculated using three kinds of software. And it is concluded that equivalent circuit analysis by means of numerical computing is proper to obtain the voltage and current waveforms. Correspondingly, transmission efficiency can be calculated using the electrical relations.",signatures:"Ali Agcal, Selin Ozcira and Nur Bekiroglu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51254",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51254",authors:[{id:"19888",title:"Dr.",name:"Nur",surname:"Bekiroglu",slug:"nur-bekiroglu",fullName:"Nur Bekiroglu"},{id:"179716",title:"Dr.",name:"Selin",surname:"Ozcira",slug:"selin-ozcira",fullName:"Selin Ozcira"},{id:"186130",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Agcal",slug:"ali-agcal",fullName:"Ali Agcal"}],corrections:null},{id:"50788",title:"Innovative Wireless Power Receiver for Inductive Coupling and Magnetic Resonance Applications",doi:"10.5772/63341",slug:"innovative-wireless-power-receiver-for-inductive-coupling-and-magnetic-resonance-applications",totalDownloads:2531,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents a wireless power receiver for inductive coupling and magnetic resonance applications. The active rectifier with shared delay-locked loop (DLL) is proposed to achieve the high efficiency for different operation frequencies. In the DC–DC converter, the phase-locked loop is adopted for the constant switching frequency in the process, voltage, and temperature variation to solve the efficiency reduction problem, which results in the heat problem. An automatic mode switching between pulse width modulation and pulse frequency modulation is also adopted for the high efficiency over the wide output power. This chip is implemented using 0.18 μm BCD technology with an active area of 5.0 mm × 3.5 mm. The maximum efficiency of the active rectifier is 92%, and the maximum efficiency of the DC–DC converter is 92% when the load current is 700 mA.",signatures:"Young-Jun Park, Hongjin Kim, Hyung-Gu Park and Kang-Yoon Lee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50788",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50788",authors:[{id:"180098",title:"Prof.",name:"Kang-Yoon",surname:"Lee",slug:"kang-yoon-lee",fullName:"Kang-Yoon Lee"},{id:"185231",title:"Mr.",name:"Young-Jun",surname:"Park",slug:"young-jun-park",fullName:"Young-Jun Park"},{id:"185232",title:"Dr.",name:"Hyung-Gu",surname:"Park",slug:"hyung-gu-park",fullName:"Hyung-Gu Park"}],corrections:null},{id:"50455",title:"Microwave Power Transmission Based on Retro-reflective Beamforming",doi:"10.5772/62855",slug:"microwave-power-transmission-based-on-retro-reflective-beamforming",totalDownloads:2260,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Microwave power transmission has the potential to supply wireless power to portable/mobile electronic devices over long distances (on the order of meters or even kilometers) efficiently. Nevertheless, several technical challenges remain to be resolved in order to accomplish practical microwave power transmission systems, including (i) minimizing power loss due to microwave propagation, (ii) preventing humans and other electrical systems from exposure to excessive microwave radiation, and (iii) reconfiguring wireless power transmission in reaction to environmental changes (such as physical movements of portable devices) in real time. In this chapter, a microwave power transmission scheme based on retro-reflective beamforming is proposed to address the above challenges. In the retro-reflective beamforming, wireless power transmission is guided by pilot signals. To be specific, one or more than one mobile device(s) broadcast pilot signals to their surroundings, and based on analyzing the pilot signals, a wireless power transmitter delivers focused power beam(s) onto the mobile device(s). Preliminary numerical and experimental results are presented to demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed retro-reflective beamforming scheme.",signatures:"Xin Wang and Mingyu Lu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50455",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50455",authors:[{id:"179390",title:"Prof.",name:"Xin",surname:"Wang",slug:"xin-wang",fullName:"Xin Wang"},{id:"183027",title:"Dr.",name:"Mingyu",surname:"Lu",slug:"mingyu-lu",fullName:"Mingyu Lu"}],corrections:null},{id:"51247",title:"A Review of Dynamic Wireless Power Transfer for In‐Motion Electric Vehicles",doi:"10.5772/64331",slug:"a-review-of-dynamic-wireless-power-transfer-for-in-motion-electric-vehicles",totalDownloads:3014,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Dynamic wireless power transfer system (DWPT) in urban area ensures an uninterrupted power supply for electric vehicles (EVs), extending or even providing an infinite driving range with significantly reduced battery capacity. The underground power supply network also saves more space and hence is important in urban areas. It must be noted that the railways have become an indispensable form of public transportation to reduce pollution and traffic congestion. In recent years, there has been a consistent increase in the number of high‐speed railways in major cities of China, thereby improving accessibility. Wireless power transfer for train is safer and more robust when compared with conductive power transfer through pantograph mounted on the trains. Direct contact is subject to wear and tear; in particular, the average speed of modern trains has been increasing. When the pressure of pantograph is not sufficient, arcs, variations of the current, and even interruption in power supply may occur. This chapter provides a review of the latest research and development of dynamic wireless power transfer for urban EV and electric train (ET). The following key technology issues have been discussed: (1) power rails and pickups, (2) segmentations and power supply schemes, (3) circuit topologies and dynamic impedance matching, (4) control strategies, and (5) electromagnetic interference.",signatures:"Kai Song, Kim Ean Koh, Chunbo Zhu, Jinhai Jiang, Chao Wang and\nXiaoliang Huang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51247",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51247",authors:[{id:"179138",title:"Prof.",name:"Kai",surname:"Song",slug:"kai-song",fullName:"Kai Song"},{id:"179160",title:"Dr.",name:"Jinhai",surname:"Jiang",slug:"jinhai-jiang",fullName:"Jinhai Jiang"},{id:"179161",title:"Prof.",name:"Chunbo",surname:"Zhu",slug:"chunbo-zhu",fullName:"Chunbo Zhu"},{id:"180988",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaoliang",surname:"Huang",slug:"xiaoliang-huang",fullName:"Xiaoliang Huang"},{id:"180989",title:"Dr.",name:"Kim Ean",surname:"Koh",slug:"kim-ean-koh",fullName:"Kim Ean 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The natural environment in which we live in is ever-increasingly threatened by human activity (Theophanides, M. et al 2002). Both the inhabited and uninhabited environment is threatened and one such indication is the changes of the climate (Theophanides, T. et al. 2002). Furthermore, as of 2006, the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (
Exposure to pollution from gaseous pollutants diminishes the quality of atmospheric air that we breathe can induce diseases and deaths in increased numbers in the population when the values of pollutants are exceeding the recommended safe thresholds. The most vulnerable to such effects are the elderly, children and those already afflicted with health problems. Several studies (Theophanides M. et al. 2007, 2007, Touloumi et al. 1994, Katsouyanni 2003, Katsouyanni et al. 1997, Ballester, et al 1996, Arribas-Monzón, et al. 2001) indicated a positive association of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NO2) with mortality – NOx being one of the principal emissions of aviation industry. Benzene is a well-known carcinogen (Touloumi et al. 1994 ) depending on the degree of exposure, and can affect persons with indoor or outdoor air exposure for which the risk of death can be higher. A number of studies in recent years substantiate the detrimental effect of environmental pollution on human health, disease and pollution (Theophanides, M. 2002\n\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t2007; Touloumi et al. 1994, Katsouyanni 2003, Katsouyanni et al. 1997, Ballester, et al 1996, Arribas-Monzón, et al. 2001).
\n\t\t\t“Air Quality” is a measure of the degree of ambient atmospheric pollution, relative to the potential to inflict harm on the environment. The potential for deterioration and damage to both public health and the environment, through poor air quality, has been recognized at a legislative and international level. Air pollution is often quantified for purposes of comparison or threshold attainment using the Air Quality Index (AQI).
\n\t\t\t\tThe Air Quality Index (AQI) has been developed by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) USA, to provide accurate, information about daily levels of air pollution. The Index provides organizations with a standardized system of measuring pollution levels for the major air pollutants that are regulated. Index figures enable the public to determine whether air pollution levels in a particular location are Good, Moderate, Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups or worse. In addition, EPA and local officials use the AQI as a public information tool to advise the public about the general health effects associated with different pollution levels and to describe whatever precautionary steps may need to be taken if air pollution levels rise into the unhealthy range.
\n\t\t\t\tThe EPA uses the Air Quality Index to measure five major pollutants for which it has established National Ambient Air Quality Standards under the Clean Air Act (Tobias et al. 2001). The pollutants are particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and ground level ozone. For each of the five pollutants, EPA has established air quality standards protecting against health effects that can occur within short periods of time (a few hours or a day). For example, the standard for sulfur dioxide - that is, the allowable concentration of this pollutant in a community\'s air - is 0.14 parts per million measured over a 24-hour period. Air concentrations higher than 0.14 parts per million (ppm) exceed the national standard. For ozone, the 8-hour average concentration permitted under the standard is 0.085 parts per million (ppm).
\n\t\t\t\tIn the USA, the AQI is calculated every hour for each air quality parameter according to the following formula (Coull, 2001):
\n\t\t\t\tAQI=Air Quality Index, ILO=Index at the lower limit of the AQI category, IHI= Index at the upper limit of the AQI category
\n\t\t\t\tBPLO= Break-point concentration at lower limit of the AQI category, BPHI= Break-point concentration at upper limit of the AQI category, CO3=8-hour ozone concentration
\n\t\t\t\tParameter | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tConcentration | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tUnits | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAQI Formula | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Carbon Monoxide | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tIf "/ 13 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tppm | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAQI = (1.47 x concentration) + 5.88 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
If <= 13 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAQI = 1.92 x concentration | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Ozone | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tIf <= .05 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tppm | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAQI = 500 x concentration | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
If "/ .05 <= .08 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAQI = (833 x concentration) - 16.67 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
If "/ .08 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAQI = (714 x concentration) - 7.14 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Sulfur Dioxide | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAll | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tppm | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAQI = 147.06 x concentration | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Nitrogen Dioxide | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tIf <= 0.21 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tppm | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAQI = 238.09 x concentration | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
If "/ 0.21 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAQI = (156.24 x concentration) + 17.19 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
PM2.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tIf <= 30 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tug/m3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAQI = 0.8333 x concentration | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
If "/ 30 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAQI = (0.5 x concentration) + 10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Air Quality Index Formula
\n\t\t\t\t\tTable 2 illustrates the likely health effects from various levels of AQI based on the US standards:
\n\t\t\t\tAQI Range | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEPA Color Scale | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEPA Descriptor | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tClean Air Campaign Health Advisory | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0 to 50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGreen | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGood | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThe air quality is good and you can engage in outdoor physical activity without health concerns. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
51 to 100 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYellow | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tModerate | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAt this level the air is probably safe for most people. However, some people are unusually sensitive and react to ozone in this range, especially at the higher levels (in the 80s and 90s). People with heart and lung diseases such as asthma, and children, are especially susceptible. People in these categories, or people who develop symptoms when they exercise at "yellow" ozone levels, should consider avoiding prolonged outdoor exertion during the late afternoon or early evening when the ozone is at its highest. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
101 to 150 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOrange | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tUnhealthy for Sensitive Groups | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tIn this range the outdoor air is more likely to be unhealthy for more people. Children, people who are sensitive to ozone, and people with heart or lung disease should limit prolonged outdoor exertion during the afternoon or early evening when ozone levels are highest. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
151 to 200 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRed | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tUnhealthy | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tIn this range even more people will be affected by ozone. Most people should restrict their outdoor exertion to morning or late evening hours when the ozone is low, to avoid high ozone exposures. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
201 to 300 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPurple | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVery Unhealthy | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tIncreasingly more people will be affected by ozone. Most people should restrict their outdoor exertion to morning or late evening hours when the ozone is low, to avoid high ozone exposures. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Over 300 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBlack | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHazardous | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEveryone should avoid all outdoor exertion. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Air Quality Index threshold levels (EPA)
A simplified version of AQI is shown in Table 1(Coull, 2001). The highest number calculated for a specific hour is used as the AQI for that hour and indices range from 0 to 100%. Calculating the general equation for specific pollutants results in the pollutant AQI shown in Table 1.
\n\t\t\t\tThe AQI places maximum emphasis on acute health effects occurring over very short time periods - 24 hours or less - rather than chronic effects occurring over months or years. By notifying the public when an AQI value exceeds 100, citizens are given an adequate opportunity to react and take whatever steps they can to avoid exposure. The approach EPA follows is conservative, because (1) each standard has built into it a margin of safety that is designed to protect (1) highly susceptible people, and (2) the public notice is triggered as soon as a single sampling station in the community records an AQI level that exceeds 100.
\n\t\t\t\tFinally, the AQI does not take into account the possible adverse effects associated with combinations of pollutants (synergism). As more research is completed in the future, the AQI may be modified by EPA to include such effects.
\n\t\t\tNumerical Simulation of Air Pollution is the attempt to predict or simulate, by numerical means, the ambient concentration of criteria pollutants found within the atmosphere of a domain. The principal application of air pollution modeling is to investigate air quality scenarios so that the associated environmental impact on a selected area can be predicted and quantified. It is important in several ways (Coull 2001).
\n\t\t\t\tTo aid in the evaluation of source–receptor relationships so that responsibility for specific impacts can be apportioned.
To aid in project planning, site evaluation and/or environmental impact of present/future sources.
To enable the evaluation of existing sources in relation to compliance with legislation.
To permit the evaluation of proposed abatement and control strategies, in relation to short and/or long term issues.
To permit the assessment of episodic tactics and disaster aversion strategies
To optimize emission inventories and operating conditions while ensuring compliance with legislative controls.
It was possible to compare the results of simulation data with the specific air data that had been calculated in an area and correlates with pollution levels of the region. The Geographical Information Systems (GIS) was applied to this type of analysis in order to organize data results. This study integrates atmospheric simulation chemical data collected in various forms and emissions data into a GIS environment. In the study gas samples were collected and added to the GIS database. High resolution GIS models were created for a few regions where various types of atmospheric simulation studies were conducted. The dispersion of combined pollutants NOx, VOCs, Benzene, PM is shown in Fig. 1.
\n\t\t\t\tThe dark red corresponds to higher levels of pollutants and indicates the dispersion along the industries and agricultural lands from the point of pollutant sources. The dispersion direction depends on atmospheric conditions.
\n\t\t\t\tNumerical simulation of pollution dispersion including all factors, in Kavala Greece
The measurement of trace concentrations of gases can be expressed in several different ways in literature.
Vm = 22.711 litres/mol = standard molar volume of ideal gas at 1 bar, 273.15 oK,
\n\t\t\t\tM = molecular weight of gas
\n\t\t\t\tTherefore, comparing grouped pollutants such as VOCs, HC and PM expressed in ppm is not always appropriate since they are made up of many compounds that have varying molecular weights.
The other important unit is μg/m3. It simply expresses, with no ambiguity, the quantity of gas present in a given volume. From the point of view of pollutants as health hazards, ppm is a less relevant measure since equal portion of pollutants (expressed in ppm) do not result in the same health hazard. Table 3 shows the conversion from one unit to the other.
\n\t\t\t\tGas | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDescription | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMolecular weight | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVm/M | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(5ppm) µg/m3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
CH4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMethane | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t16 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.4194425 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.53 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
H20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWater Vapour | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.2617267 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.96 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
CO | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCarbon monoxide | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t28 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.8111111 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6.17 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
NO2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNitrous dioxide | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t46 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.4937191 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t10.13 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
O3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOzone | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t48 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.4731475 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t10.57 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
C6H6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBenzene | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t78 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.2911677 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t17.17 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Conversion from 5 ppmv to μg/m3 for different compounds
The atmosphere is the sphere of air surrounding the earth. The structure of the atmosphere below 50 km (50,000 meters) is most important for pollution considerations (See Fig.2). The troposphere comprises the part of atmosphere from ground level up to 11,000 meters. This section is generally characterized by turbulent weather, low ozone (O3) levels, high water content (H2O) and a linearly varying temperature from ISA conditions on ground to –55 °C at the limit of its height of 11 km. The atmosphere is relatively dense and approximately 80% of the atmospheric mass is contained in the troposphere. Approximately half of the solar radiation reaches the surface.
\n\t\t\tThe tropopause is marked by the delineation between the troposphere and the stratosphere. The temperature is a constant –55 °C and it is at 11 km above the earth’s surface (Figure 2). The stratosphere is a region of upper atmosphere stretching from the tropopause (11km) to approximately 50 km from the earth’s surface. It is generally characterized by high content of ozone (O3) and very low water content (H2O).
\n\t\t\tStructure of the Atmosphere, Radiation and Greenhouse Effect
It is substantially more stable environment with very little vertical mixing. As ultra-violet solar radiation from the sun is absorbed by ozone (O3) when it passes through the stratosphere, the result is a heating of the upper atmosphere up to a maximum of 0 °C at 55 km from the earth’s surface.
\n\t\t\tUltra-violet (UV) solar radiation is absorbed by ozone (O3) as it passes through the atmosphere, heating the upper portion of this region and causing a temperature maximum near 50 km. Below this, some of the solar radiation is reflected, mainly by clouds, and some is absorbed but about half gets through to the surface. This heats the near surface region and results in a second temperature maximum, this time at the surface. The tropopause marks the sharp boundary between the troposphere, in which the temperature drops markedly with height, and the stratosphere, where it generally increases with height. Various atmospheric constituents allow most of the short-wave solar radiation through but absorb and then re-emit the long-wave thermal radiation. This warms the near surface region, the so-called greenhouse effect. Water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and ozone (O3) are examples of important “greenhouse gases”. A convenient measure of the greenhouse effect of a change in a constituent is provided by the imbalance between solar and thermal radiation at the tropopause when the change in the constituent is suddenly imposed.
\n\t\t\tAt the top of the atmosphere, the solar energy absorbed by the Earth/atmosphere is balanced by the emission of longer wavelength thermal radiation (heat). However, the thermal radiation emitted from the near surface region is absorbed by greenhouse gases, which then re-emit back towards the surface, keeping it warm. The heat lost to space is from levels typically near 5 km where the air is colder than at the surface.
\n\t\t\tUnderstanding the natural composition of the earth’s atmosphere is necessary to understand the consequences and nature of the substances that are constantly being added to our atmosphere. The main composition of the lower atmosphere is shown in Table 4 and consists mostly of Nitrogen (N2) and Oxygen (O2) forming up to 99% of all molecules. The remaining 1 % are trace concentrations of inert gases helium, neon, argon, krypton and xenon and appear in the concentrations specified in Table 4.
\n\t\t\t\tFixed Gas | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tppmv | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Nitrogen (N2) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t78.08 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t780,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Oxygen (O2) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t20.95 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t209,500 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Helium (He) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0005 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Neon (Ne) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0015 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Argon (Ar) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.93 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t9,300 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Krypton (Kr) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0001 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Xenon (Xe) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.000005 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.05 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Fixed Gases of the Atmosphere
Fixed gases are well mixed in the atmosphere and have stable mixing ratios. The following Table 4 summarizes the key contributors and they are described individually in greater detail below (Sommer et al. 1999).
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t
Molecular Nitrogen is produced biologically in soils. During the growth of bacteria in anaerobic environments nitrate (NO-\n\t\t\t\t\t3) is reduced to N2 and small amounts of nitrous oxide gas (N2O) in what is known as “denitrification”. The source of nitrate in the soil occurs from a two-step ‘nitrification’ process from ammonium (NH4\n\t\t\t\t\t+). Ammonium is produced in three ways:
\n\t\t\t\tNaturally from the decomposition of organic material which contains nitrogen atoms
Naturally from a process called nitrogen-fixation occurring in aerobic environments whereby some amounts of N2 are converted to ammonium (NH4\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+)
Man-made generation such as fertilizers and other industrial processes
However, this production process of molecular nitrogen is slower than denitrification and, therefore, the concentration of N2 has increased in the atmosphere over time.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t
Molecular Oxygen is produced by photosynthesis when CO2 reacts with H2O in the presence of solar radiation and chlorophyll found in trees, plants, and algae. A product of this process is carbohydrates of the form CnH2nOn. For example, when n=6, glucose is derived:
\n\t\t\t\tVariable gases have volume mixing ratios that can change significantly over time and vary according to location. They are anthropogenic in origin. Natural processes or atmospheric pollution due to human activity in many circumstances can directly affect their concentration levels. The following Table 5 summarizes the key elements of the variable gases.
\n\t\t\t\tVariable Gas | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tppmv | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Water Vapor (H2O) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.00001 – 4.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.1 – 40,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0360 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t360 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Methane (CH4) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.00017 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Ozone (O3) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.000003 – 0.001 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.03 – 10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Variable Gases of the Atmosphere
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are organic volatile chemicals that have high vapor pressure and will easily form vapor at standard ambient temperature and pressure. The term is generally applied to organic aromatic compounds such as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, m/p-xylene and o-xylene, organic solvents, aerosol spray can propellants, fuels (gasoline, kerosene), petroleum distillates. VOCs are also naturally emitted by a number of plants and trees. Many VOCs are flammable. VOCs can be removed with special filtration systems such as activated charcoal systems that absorb organic materials.
\n\t\t\t\tVOCs are an important health and environment concern for several reasons:
\n\t\t\t\tSome VOCs can be hazardous to health when inhaled. Benzene is a known human carcinogen and toxic. Likewise, Formaldehyde is both an irritant and a sensitizer as well as being toxic
VOCs such as hydrocarbons constitute emissions that instigate photochemical smog.
Some VOCs such as methyl-tertbutyl-ether (MTBE) are gasoline additives that are fairly soluble in water leading to the contamination of water.
VOCs can form particulate matter if condensation forms of the gas
Volatile Organic Compounds, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) and the carbonyl compounds (CO, CO2, CH2O) are the major organic pollutants in the atmosphere. The assessment of VOCs has become a major issue of air quality network monitoring in cities. Toluene and Benzene are the major pollutants. Table 6 gives some examples of common VOCs.
\n\t\t\t\tVOC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
Hydrocarbons | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOther | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Aromatic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAliphatic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNon-aromatic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
Unsaturated Planar Structure Cyclic Noticeable smell | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSaturated Tetrahedral Linear or cyclic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tUnsaturated Chain-like structure Non-cyclic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t |
Examples : Bezene | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHydrogenated products | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOmega-3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFormaldehyde Liquor | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Volatile Organic Compound Classifications
The term particulate matter (PM) is used to describe airborne solid particles such as dust, dirt, soot, smoke and/or liquid droplets. Classification by size is based on the aerodynamic diameter because it is a good indicator of the transport and removal of particles from the air and their deposition within the respiratory system. Based on size, urban PM tends to be divided into three principal groups:
The particles contained in the PM10 size fraction may reach the upper part of the airways and lung.
\n\t\t\tWater vapor, Carbon dioxide, and Methane are important greenhouse gases. A greenhouse gas is a gas that readily absorbs infrared radiation. Methane, for example, absorbs infrared radiation emitted by the earth 21 times more efficiently than CO2 (per molecule). However, because mixing ratios are much higher for CO2, it has a more significant impact on the greenhouse effect.
\n\t\t\t\tPM Size chart
It is Jean-Baptiste Fourier who first discovered in 1824 the importance of the greenhouse effect and the overheating of the atmosphere. A little later, the chemist Nicolas-Theodore de Saussure imagined that the emission of CO2 from immense fires could delay the melting of the glaciers. However, towards the end of the XIX century John Tyndall and Olaf Arrhenius discovered the role of the carbon dioxide and the water vapors in this effect. Since then we have learned that there are other gases than the CO2, which contribute to the greenhouse effect, like nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and various chlorofluorohydrocarbons (CFC) produced by the industry, such as CCl3F (trichlorofluoromethane) called (CFC-11) and Cl2F2 (dichlorodifluoromethane) called CFC-12.
\n\t\t\t\tThe greenhouse effect is produced by the infrared radiations, which are imprisoned between the earth and the thin layer of the greenhouse gases, which are reflected and heat the earth’s surface. These gases let go through the sun’s radiations of short wavelengths, such as the visible and ultra -violet, when they are reflected from the surface of the planet and keep the radiations of longer wavelengths, which are the hot infrared radiations that increase the temperature of the surface of the earth. The temperature of the Globe increases almost half a degree (0.5 °C) per century (from 13.84 °C in 1950 to 14.4 °C in 2001) and this phenomenon tends to increase rapidly.
\n\t\t\tIt is only very recently that the full extent of transport’s negative impact on health has become clearer. In an ecological audit of the impact of cars on German society52 concluded that cars were responsible for 47,000 deaths each year and a range of other, less severe, health impacts. These are summarised in Table 7.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | Number | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tUnit | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
deaths from particulate pollution | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t25,500 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tdeaths, pa | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
deaths from lung cancer | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t8,700 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t“ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
deaths, from heart attacks | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t“ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
deaths from summer smog | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1900 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t“ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
deaths from road traffic accidents (RTAs) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t8758 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t“ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | TOTAL 47,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t“ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
serious injuries (RTAs) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t116,456 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tinjured/pa | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
light injuries (RTAs) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t376,702 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t“ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
chronic bronchitis (adults) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t218,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tnumber of illnesses/pa | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Invalidity due to chronic bronchitis | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t110 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tnumber of invalidates/pa | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
coughs/auswurf | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t92,400,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tdays/year | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
bronchitis (children) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t313,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tnumber of illnesses/pa | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Wiedreholt Husten | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1,440,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tnumber of illnesses/pa | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Hospitalisation (breathing problems) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t600 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tnumber of hospitalisations/pa | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Hospitalisation (breathing problems) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t9,200 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tnumber of days of care/pa | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Hospitalisation (cardiovascular disease) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t600 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\thospitalisations/pa | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Hospitalisation (cardiovascular disease) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t8,200 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tnumber of says of care/pa | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Arbeitsunfahigkeit (not cancer) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t24,600,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t |
Asthma attacks (days with attacks) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t14,000,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tdays/pa | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Asthma attacks (days with broncho-dilator) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t15,000,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tdays/pa | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Health damage caused by cars, Germany, 1996, annual totals
The volume of death and illness revealed in Table 7 puts the European transport problem into a very serious public health perspective. Transport is a major health problem and should be tackled as much within a public health context as in a traditional transport/roads/highway context. All the deaths and injuries in Table 7 relate to cars and not to lorries or aircraft. Total deaths are about 5 times greater than road traffic accidents deaths.
\n\t\t\t\tThe total amount of sickness, days in hospital etc. imposes a huge burden on the health services of European countries and this burden is not recovered from those who drive cars. The health impact is a huge human tragedy. 15 million days of use of bronchodilators is a huge problem for many children and many families and the impact on physical activity, social activity, enjoyment of outdoor pursuits, community and neighbourhood is incalculable. Health impacts in Europe in the 21st century are the direct equivalent of disease impacts in 19th century cities which then required major re-engineering with clean drinking water and sewage systems. We are still waiting for the 21st century equivalent of this re-engineering to deal with the modern equivalent of widely dispersed sewage.
\n\t\t\t\tRoad traffic noise and noise from aircraft also create significant health problems (WHO,1996). These health problems are generally understated in Europe with an implicit assumption on the part of traffic engineers and planners that most people can get used to noise and, in any case, it is only a minor irritation and part of life in an advanced industrial society. This has to be rejected. Noise causes raised blood pressure, cardiovascular disease, a range of psychological problems, sleep disturbance and it damages school age children if they are exposed to noise in a learning environment. WHO (1993) discusses the evidence that supports the contention that children exposed to noise learn less well and have reading abilities lower than is the case for children not in noisy environments. Studies around Heathrow Airport in SE England also point to damage to children living near the airport and under flight paths.
\n\t\t\t\tStudies of individual exposure to pollution show that car occupants are exposed to 2-4 times as much pollution from vehicles as are cyclists53. This finding is in some ways counter-intuitive and surprising but is the result of cars following a very similar path through traffic to that followed by all other cars and effectively driving in a “tunnel of pollution”. This raises the very interesting and important conclusion that the car itself damages the health of car occupants. The conventional view is that cars are safer and more pleasant than cycling (presumed to be a dangerous activity). Scientific research shows that this is not the case and the growth of car use in Europe (especially the increase in the number of children carried around by car) represents a significant public health problem which is at least an example of direct correspondence between perpetrator and victim. Those that cause the problem suffer the consequences of that problem. The fastest increase occurred between 1950 and 2000, which is due to human activity.
\n\t\t\tCommercial aviation is experiencing dramatic growth in regions throughout the world, including North America and the United States. However, airport development has not kept pace with increases in aviation activity and the problem is now acute in the United States. In 1996 the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Administrator identified lack of airport capacity as the “single most important constraint” to realizing forecast rates of growth throughout the aviation industry. Funding is one problem. The annual shortfall between funds needed for airport development and total funds available is difficult to determine but has been estimated at more than $4 billion annually in recent years. A second problem is the rapid pace of change in aviation technologies. Changes in the design and construction of airfield and landside facilities will be necessary to accommodate the larger aircraft that will enter service and the new navigation and air traffic control systems that will be deployed in the near future.
\n\t\t\t\tAccording to IPCC, in 2000 aviation was responsible for 3% of carbon dioxide emissions due to the total burning of fossil fuel and 13% of that associated with transport. However, the total greenhouse impact was more important than this would suggest. Since the vast majority of the flights were subsonic and therefore in the 9 - 13 km height range, the emissions of oxides of nitrogen led, on average, to an increase in ozone as well as a decrease in methane.
\n\t\t\t\tInnovative planning approaches are essential to timely development of new airport facilities, and environmental documentation is a key component of the planning process. Federal actions (e.g., funding, approvals) in connection with proposed airport development often require environmental review pursuant to the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) and the implementing guidelines of the Council on Environmental Quality and the FAA, which is in the process of updating its
The main environmental concerns associated with aircraft are:
\n\t\t\t\tClimate change
stratospheric ozone reduction, leading to increased surface UV radiation
regional pollution - changes in tropospheric chemistry for tens to hundreds of kilometres downwind of the airport. In particular, emissions of oxides of nitrogen in air increase ozone
local pollution - both noise and decreased air quality caused by aircraft and also by the associated ground transportation.
There is no doubt that both local pollution and regional pollution are very serious issues. It is thought that European Directives on permitted levels of oxides of nitrogen may limit the expansion of some airports ( Filliger et al 1999). Concern has been expressed to us that the techniques for assessment of the impact of aircraft emissions on both local and regional air quality are poorly developed and that the available modeling tools are in general inadequate. This issue needs addressing urgently, especially in the light of the recent consultation documents on regional airport development. However, the focus here is on the possible larger-scale impacts of aviation, on surface UV radiation through changes in atmospheric ozone and on climate.
\n\t\t\tThe main types of pollution linked to aviation and airport operations originate from aircraft, ground-support equipment (GSE), external traffic related to airport activity and industrial parks. Aircraft operations are related primarily to pollution such as carbon monoxide and dioxide, nitrogen oxides, oxides of sulfur, water vapor, hydrocarbon trace pollutants such as benzene and particulate matter consisting mainly of sulfate and soot. These emissions alter the chemical composition of the atmosphere in a variety of ways, both directly and indirectly. On the larger-scale, sulfur oxides in aircraft emissions are important only as a source of particles.
\n\t\t\t\tThe unique feature of these emissions is that the majority of them occur far above the Earth’s surface. Subsonic aircraft generally cruise in an altitude range of 9 - 13 km, close to the tropopause, the sharp transition between the troposphere and the stratosphere (see Fig. 1). The troposphere is the region in which the turbulent motions and precipitation related to weather occur. In contrast the stratosphere is relatively stable and the vertical motions in it are generally sufficiently small compared with the horizontal motions that the air travels almost horizontally (Filliger P et al 1999).
\n\t\t\tThe impact of aircraft emissions can be very different depending whether they are in the upper troposphere or the lower stratosphere. Both the abundance of trace gases and the dominant chemical composition and associated chemical reactions are very different in the two regions. In particular water vapour content is relatively high in the troposphere and low in the stratosphere, whereas ozone levels are much higher in the stratosphere. Stratospheric ozone absorbs radiation from the sun. This leads to a heating profile in the stratosphere that determines its character, and also protects life at the surface from the harmful effects of the UV radiation.
\n\t\t\t\tThe height of the troposphere varies with latitude. In the tropics the tropopause is higher than the normal range of subsonic cruise altitudes but in Polar Regions it is usually at the lower end of this range. Whether an aircraft cruises in the upper troposphere or the lowermost stratosphere depends on its location, the weather and the time of year. Supersonic aircraft typically cruise at levels in the range 17 - 20 km, which is always in the stratosphere (Filliger et al, 1999). Jet streams are typically located at the tropopause in regions where there are abrupt transitions in the horizontal between the troposphere and the stratosphere. Since eastward-flying aircraft are often routed in the strong westerly winds in jet stream regions to save fuel and time, they often fly close to this almost vertical tropopause. The dominant physical and chemical processes differ between the troposphere and stratosphere, as do the time-scales for transporting air between regions. Water vapor added by any human activity in the troposphere is soon lost through mixing and precipitation processes, whereas at 20 km it persists and moves slowly towards the pole.
\n\t\t\t\tA “conservative gas” is one that becomes well mixed throughout the atmosphere so that the point of emission is irrelevant for its impact on climate. The carbon dioxide produced by the combustion of kerosene in aircraft engines behaves as a conservative gas and so becomes well mixed. However, oxides of nitrogen, produced by high temperature burning in the engine, are rapidly involved in chemical reactions that lead to changes in both ozone and ambient methane. These reactions are complex and sensitive. Ozone is generally produced by oxides of nitrogen in the troposphere and destroyed by it in the lower stratosphere. Since the lifetime of ozone is relatively short, its aircraft-induced increase or decrease is restricted in both the vertical and the horizontal. The lifetime of methane, however, is sufficiently long that the reduction in it produced by the emitted oxides of nitrogen becomes distributed throughout the atmosphere. In the troposphere the amount of water vapor emitted in aircraft exhaust is negligible compared with the pre-existing concentrations in the atmosphere. However, along with the particles emitted, the water vapor can lead to condensation trails, some of which can persist for hours and perhaps trigger the development of cirrus clouds. Subsequent cirrus cloud may also be further influenced by particles emitted by aircraft (Samet et al. 2000).\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\tClean air is the symbol of life for humans, animals and vegetation and forms the basis of the food processing mechanisms of all these three life-borne species. Oxygen is the active ingredient in the air that reacts with food supplies by oxidizing them or burns them in various animal and vegetable tissues to maintain the balance of life. The remainder of the fixed gases (nitrogen and inert gases) does not react with the food supply. Damage to the food processing mechanism impacts growth and reproduction and, therefore, the future of life. The variable gases can have a direct effect on the quality of air necessary to maintain the food chain mechanisms. Pollution and toxic chemicals can have a detrimental effect on the balance of life and the food chain.
\n\t\t\t\tThe chemicals that are poisoning our environment are numerous. They change the composition of the atmospheric air. In addition, there are traces of solid materials (PM0.1-0.01, PM2.5, PM10) in the air that are equally toxic – usually metal oxides and other solid compounds. Species that breathe air to burn food with oxygen also inhale the toxic chemicals that interact or react with the animal tissues. Lungs, in particular, are susceptible to such damage leading to symptoms of pulmonary diseases that can range from acute irritations to chronic illnesses or death.
\n\t\t\t\tToxic substances can also work their way into the blood stream and cause cardiovascular diseases. It is also known that chemicals may damage hemoglobin and react with tissues such as breast, lung and heart tissues and cells or constituents of cells such as proteins, nucleic acids, membranes such as lipids, phospholipids, and carbohydrates. These possible chemical alterations in the above organs and molecules can lead to other diseases such as cancers and osteoporosis.
\n\t\t\t\tToday, people agree that the treasures of the earth are finite and that the biosphere is vulnerable. Studies indicate that 80% of all materials produced by companies become trash within six months36. Until now, our environment has been able to cope with this massive influx of pollution but we are starting to see its limitations of absorbing. The time is rapidly approaching where we must make dramatic changes in the way we manage our environment to avoid drastic consequences to future generations. Increased earth temperature caused by the greenhouse effect will facilitate incubation of bacteria and lead to increases in diseases. Flooding or droughts will also lead to poor hygiene for millions of humans and produce other diseases. As recent catastrophes such as SARS and the poultry viruses demonstrated, humans halfway across the globe in well-developed, western nations are equally susceptible to the transfer of these diseases. Therefore, pollution and environmental management are issues that must be addressed by the developed world.
\n\t\t\t\tThe results of epidemiological studies can be applied to current air quality statistics to estimate the magnitude of the impact of air pollution on health. The World Health Organization (WHO) produced meta-analyses for the effects on mortality and morbidity of a number of pollutants (WHO, 1997). Their effect estimates have been used by others to calculate aspects of the burden of poor health attributable to pollution. For example, in the UK, COMEAP (the UK Department of Health’s Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollutants) calculated that PM10 was associated with 8,100 deaths brought forward and with 10,500 emergency hospital respiratory admissions (brought forward and additional) in urban areas of Great Britain. The corresponding figures for SO2 were 3,500 deaths brought forward and 3,500 early and extra hospital admissions. The effects of ozone were 700 deaths and 500 admissions if there is no health effect below 50ppb, but 12,500 and 9,900 if there is no threshold. Our own studies have demonstrated that high levels of toxic air pollution can be correlated to increased mortality (Theophanides, M. et al. 2002, 2007).
\n\t\t\tSeveral empirical methods have been devised to quantify the effect of pollution on mortality and morbidity. The WHO has Meta-Analysis for the effects on mortality and morbidity of a number of pollutants (WHO, 1997) for PM10, SO2, O3. Furthermore, the WHO and is increasingly leaning toward the conclusion, substantiated by supporting research, that for some pollutants, there is no threshold below which is deemed safe. At the very least, increasingly sensitive epidemiological study designs have identified adverse effects from air pollution at increasingly lower levels. For the time being, linear models are being used for which there is no lower threshold (WHO, 2002).
\n\t\t\t\tIn short-term studies, elderly subjects, and subjects with pre-existing heart and lung disease were found to be more susceptible to effects of ambient PM on mortality and morbidity. In panel studies, asthmatics have also been shown to respond to ambient PM with more symptoms, larger lung function changes and with increased medication use than non-asthmatics. In long-term studies, it has been suggested that socially disadvantaged and poorly educated populations respond more strongly in terms of mortality. PM also is related to reduce lung growth in children. No consistent differences have been found between men and women, and between smokers and non-smokers in PM responses in the cohort studies. (WHO, 2002)
\n\t\t\tThe quantification of health effects has become increasingly important in the development of air quality policy. For such analyses it is important to have accurate information on the concentration–response relationships for the effects investigated, i.e. on the relationship between the level of air pollution and the effect on health. A quantitative meta-analysis of peer-reviewed European studies was therefore conducted to obtain summary estimates for certain air pollutants and health effects. The data for these analyses came from a database of time-series studies developed at St George’s Hospital Medical School at the University of London. The meta-analysis was performed at St George’s according to a protocol approved in advance by a WHO Task Group. Using data from several European cities, the analysis confirmed statistically significant relationships between mortality and levels of PM and ozone in ambient air. Updated risk coefficients in relation to ambient exposure to PM and ozone were obtained for all-cause and cause-specific mortality and hospital admissions for respiratory and cardiovascular causes. Some results are shown in Fig.4. The meta-analysis also included a thorough assessment of so-called publication bias. Fig. 4 shows that PM2.5 presents the high mortality risk for an increase in concentration of this pollutant. The most susceptible cause of mortality is cardiovascular deaths.
\n\t\t\t\tProbability of mortality risks as a result of a 10-μg/m3 increase of a pollutant
The WHO has estimated that in Europe 100,000 death are due to air pollution each year. Studies by the Canadian government have concluded that yearly deaths due to air pollution (CO, NO2, SO2, PM, O3) from anthropogenic sources are 1,800 for short-term exposure and 4,200 for long-term exposure (Mcdonnell, w.f. et al. 2000).
\n\t\t\tThe effects of short-term exposure to PM have been documented in numerous time-series studies many of them conducted in Europe (Rita Rita K. Seethaler et al 2003); these indicated large numbers of outcomes, such as attributable deaths and hospital admissions for cardiovascular and respiratory conditions. Both short-term (24 hours) and long-term (annual average) guidelines are therefore recommended. The WHO defines the principal short and long-term health effects attributed to Particulate Matter according to Table 8:
\n\t\t\t\tShort-Term | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLong-Term | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Lung inflammatory reactions Respiratory symptoms Adverse effects on the: Increase in medication usage Increase in hospital admissions Increase in mortality | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tIncrease in lower respiratory symptoms Reduction in lung function in children Increase in chronic obstructive Reduction in lung function in adults Reduction in life expectancy, owing | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Health Effects due to PM
\n\t\t\t\t\tFig. 5 shows schematically where particles are deposited in the respiratory tract, depending on their size. Smaller particles (in particular PM2.5) penetrate more deeply into the lung and may reach the alveolar region. Ultrafine particles contribute only slightly to PM10 mass but may be important from a health point of view because of the large numbers and high surface area. They are produced in large numbers by combustion (especially internal combustion) engines. As stated above, PM in ambient air has various sources. In targeting control measures, it would be important to know if PM from certain sources or of a certain composition gave rise to special concern from the point of view of health, for example owing to high toxicity.
\n\t\t\t\tRespiratory tract deposition probability of inhaled particles
The few epidemiological studies that have addressed this important question specifically suggest that combustion sources are particularly important for health. Toxicological studies have also pointed to primary combustion-derived particles as having a higher toxic potential. These particles are often rich in transition metals and organic compounds, and also have a relatively high surface area. By contrast, several other single components of the PM mixture (e.g. ammonium salts, chlorides, sulfates, nitrates and wind-blown dust such as silicate clays) have been shown to have a lower toxicity in laboratory studies (Schwartz, J. et al. 1996).
\n\t\t\t\tDespite these differences found among constituents studied under laboratory conditions, it is currently not possible to quantify the contributions from different sources and different PM components to the effects on health caused by exposure to ambient PM. Nevertheless, it seems reasonable to include in abatement efforts those sources/constituents that have been shown to be critical, such as emissions from diesel engines.
\n\t\t\t\tMany studies have found that fine particles (usually measured as PM2.5) have serious effects on health, such as increases in mortality rates and in emergency hospital admissions for cardiovascular and respiratory reasons. Thus there is good reason to reduce exposure to such particles. Coarse particles (usually defined as the difference between PM10 and PM2.5) seem to have effects on, for example, hospital admissions for respiratory illness, but their effect on mortality is less clear. A few studies suggest that fine PM is more biologically active than coarse PM (defined as particles between 2.5 and 10 μm in size) (Klemm, et al 2000; Schwartz, J. & Neas L. M. 2000; R.W. Atkinson et al., 2000; F. Dominici et al 2007).
\n\t\t\t\tNevertheless, there is sufficient concern to consider reducing exposure to coarse particles as well as to fine particles. Up to now, coarse and fine particles have been evaluated and regulated together, as the focus has been on PM10. However, the two types have different sources and may have different effects, and tend to be poorly correlated in the air. The systematic review therefore recommended that consideration be given to assessing and controlling coarse as well as fine PM. Similarly, ultrafine particles are different in composition, and probably to some extent in effect, from fine and coarse particles.
\n\t\t\t\tAnnual mean level | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPM10 (μg/m3) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPM2.5 (μg/m3) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBasis for the selected level | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
WHO interim target-1 (IT-1) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t70 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t35 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThese levels are estimated to be associated with about 15% higher long-term mortality than at AQG | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
WHO interim target-2 (IT-2) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tIn addition on the other health benefits, these levels lower risk of premature mortality by approximately 6% [2-11%] compared to WHO-IT1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
WHO interim target-3 (IT-3) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t30 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tIn addition on the other health benefits, these levels lower risk of premature mortality by approximately 6% [2-11%] compared to WHO-IT2 levels | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
WHO Air quality guidelines (QAG) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThese are the lowest levels at which total, cardiopulmonary and lung cancer mortality have been shown to increase with more than 95% confidence in response to PM2.5 in the ACS study. The use of PM2.5 guideline is preferred. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Air Quality guidelines for PM (annual)
Nevertheless, their effect on human health has been insufficiently studied to permit a quantitative evaluation of the risks to health of exposure to such particles. Multi-city studies of 29 cities in Europe and 20 cities in the United States (Health Effects Institute, 2004) reported short-term mortality effects for PM10 of 0.62% and 0.46% for every 10 μg/m3 respectively. A meta-analysis of 29 cities from outside Western Europe and North America reported an effect of 0.5%. A meta-analysis confined to Asian cities reported an effect of 0.49%. This suggests that the health risks for PM10 are likely to be similar in cities in developed and underdeveloped countries at around 0.5%. Therefore, a concentration of 150 μg/m3 would relate to roughly a 5% increase in daily mortality, an impact that would be of significant concern. Tables 9 and 10 illustrate the WHO guidelines for two different averaging times.
\n\t\t\t\t24-hour mean level* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPM10 (μg/m3) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPM2.5 (μg/m3) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBasis for the selected level | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
WHO interim target-1 (IT-1) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t150 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t75 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBased on published risk | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
WHO interim target-2 (IT-2)* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBased on published risk coefficients from multicentre studies and meta-analyses (about 2.5% increase in short-term mortality over AQG | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
WHO interim target-3 (IT-3)** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t75 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t37.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout 1.2% increase in short-term mortality over AQG | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
WHO Air quality guidelines (AQG) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBased on relation between 24-hour and annual PM level | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Air Quality guidelines for PM (24-hr ), *99th percentile (3 days/year), ** for management purpose, based on annual average guideline values; precise number to be determined on basis of local frequency distribution of daily means
NO2 acts mainly as an irritant affecting the mucosa of the eyes, nose, throat, and respiratory tract. Extremely high-dose exposure (as in a building fire) to NO2 may result in pulmonary edema and diffuse lung injury. Continued exposure to high NO2 levels can contribute to the development of acute or chronic bronchitis. Low level NO2 exposure may cause increased bronchial reactivity in some asthmatics, decreased lung function in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and increased risk of respiratory infections, especially in young children.
\n\t\t\t\tShort-Term | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLong-Term | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Effects on pulmonary function, particularly in asthmatics | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tReduction in lung function | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Increase in airway allergic inflammatory reactions | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tIncreased probability of respiratory symptoms | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Increase in hospital admissions | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t |
Increase in mortality | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t |
Health Effects due to NOx (Finlayson – Pitts & Pitts 1999)
Guidelines are established as follows (WHO, 2005):
\n\t\t\t\tNO2 concentration: 40 μg/m3 for annual mean,
and NO2 concentration: 200 μg/m3 for 1-hour mean
Effects of NO2 are more difficult to isolate independently because NO2 is an important constituent of combustion-generated air pollution and is highly corelated with other primary and secondary combustion products. No mortality or illness statistics can be associated yet based on lack of evidence.
\n\t\t\tRecent epidemiological studies have strengthened the evidence that there are short-term O3 effects on mortality and respiratory morbidity and provided further information on exposure response relationships and effect modification. Based on a meta-analysis of studies published during the period between 1996 and 2001 on short-term effects of O3 on all non-accidental causes of death in all ages (or older than 65 years), significant increase of the risk of dying (between 0.2% and 0.6% per each increase in 10 μg/m3\n\t\t\t\t\t
The National Morbidity Mortality Air Pollution Study (NMMAPS) study, reported a significant effect of O3 during the summer season, of 0.41 % increase in mortality associated with an increase of 10 ppb (20 μg/m3) in daily O3 “same-day” concentrations. Ozone daily levels were associated with hospital respiratory admissions at all ages in most of the studies using 8-hour measures and also in many of the studies using other averaging periods.
\n\t\t\t\tThe magnitude of the association was slightly larger than that obtained for mortality (0.5 to 0.7% increases in admissions per increase of 10 μg/m3 in O3. Studies on admissions for asthma in children did not find conclusive associations with any O3 measurement (Paul Hawken, et al 1999, Reeves H & Lenoir F.2005). The effects of long-term exposure to Ozone are much less known. Table 12 provides a summary of health effects related to Ozone. Table 13 presents the WHO guidelines for 8-hr averaging of Ozone concentrations.
\n\t\t\t\tShort-Term | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLong-Term | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Adverse effects on pulmonary function | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tReduction in lung function development | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Lung inflammatory reactions | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t |
Adverse effects on respiratory symptoms | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t |
Increase in medication usage | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t |
Increase in hospital admissions | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t |
Increase in mortality | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t |
Health Effects due to O3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | Daily maximum 8-hour mean (μg/m3) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEffects at the selected ozone level | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
High level | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t240 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSignificant health effects, substantial proportion of vulnerable population affected | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
WHO interim target-1 (IT-1) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t160 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tImportant health effects, an intermediate target for populations with ozone concentrations above this level. Does not provide adequate protection of public health. Rationale: Lower level of 6.6-hour chamber exposures of healthy exercising young adults, which show physiological and inflammatory lung effects. Ambient level at various summer camp studies showing effects on health of children Estimated 3-5% increase in daily mortality* (based on findings of daily time-series studies) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
WHO Air quality guidelines (AQG) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis concentration will provide adequate protection of public health, though some health effects may occur below this level. Rationale: Estimated 1-2% increase in daily mortality* (based on findings of daily time-series studies) Extrapolation from chamber and field studies based on the likelihood that real-life exposure tends to be repetitive and chamber studies do not study highly sensitive or clinically compromised subjects, or children Likelihood that ambient ozone is a marker for related oxidants | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Ozone Air Quality guidelines, *Deaths attributable to ozone concentrations above estimated baseline of 70 μg/m3. Based on range of 0.3 to 0.5% increase in daily mortality for 10 μg/m3.
The quality of air inside homes, buildings, schools, day care centers, etc is very important. The quality of the air that we breathe can have important effects on our health and quality of life. However, we breathe all time when we are outdoors or indoors. We are used to thinking of the outdoor environment to be safe from air pollution. It is known that during smog or dusty air people are advised to stay indoors. Yet new research, in particular research for the astronauts from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), faced the problem of indoor air pollution and began extensive studies on treating and recycling air in the chambers. These studies lead to the problem of indoor air pollution. They discovered that the indoor environment may be as much as ten times more polluted than the outdoor environment. However, as early as 1950 Dr. T.G. Randolph (Wolverton, 1996) became one of the first medical doctors to link indoor air pollution with allergies and other chronic diseases. Still today millions of people fail to realize the serious nature of the problem. Today people living in cities and in industrialized environments spend as much as 80% of their lives indoors fail to recognize this problem. Exposure to indoor air pollutants, which are many as we will see later, correlates to an increase in the number of allergic reactions, as well as to chronic diseases due to toxic substances. NASA scientists started to study the development of sustainable indoor ecological life- support facilities. The NASA scientists soon discovered that houseplants could purify air in sealed test-chambers. As many people become concerned about the direct association of indoor environment and their health, the green revolution will grow. If we stress the importance of indoor air quality and to relate our existence to a symbiotic and beneficial relationship with the animals and plants of our nature then we will be closer to our living world.
\n\t\t\tEvidence is given to show how houseplants can become a necessary component of healthy buildings whether houses or offices and how houseplants can improve the indoor air quality. Houseplants are capable of removing toxic chemical vapors. Low relative humidity levels, below 35 percent are also associated with poor IAQ. Frequent colds and allergic asthma during the cold winter months are often caused by low relative humidity. Emissions from modern materials used to construct home or office furniture from pressed wood products or fiberboard, which often replace natural wood in building construction, as well as wall- to- wall carpeting are synthetic materials and are held together with glues and resins. Furthermore, a number of electronic devices are found in our homes today, such as radios, televisions, etc. for our pleasure are known to emit various organic compounds. The synthetic materials release hundreds of volatile organic materials (VOCs) into the indoor air. Compounds that may be found in the air of indoor houses, buildings and offices may be formaldehyde, xylene, toluene, benzene, chloroform, alcohols, acetone, etc. Humans are also a source of indoor air pollutants especially in closed and poorly ventilated areas. In addition to carbon dioxide humans release many volatile substances, in the atmosphere, which are called “biofluents”, such as, ethyl alcohol, methyl alcohol, acetone, ammonia, etc.
\n\t\t\t\tThus, sealed buildings and synthetic furnishings are the main sources of indoor air pollution a phenomenon known as “sick building syndrome”(SBS) with some common symptoms, i.e. allergies, asthma, eye, nose and throat irritation, fatigue, headache, respiratory congestion, sinus congestion and others. Some also include lung cancer from asbestos exposure.
\n\t\t\tThe epidemiological study into symptoms among office workers has produced many important results, which are conflicting due to methodologic issues in the interpretation of the epidemiological findings (Mendell, 1993). The environmental factors that were found increased symptoms with air conditioning, carpets, video display terminals, etc. The ventilation rates near or below 10 liters/second/person decreased symptoms. Personal factors, such as female gender, job stress/dissatisfaction and allergies/asthma were also studied and showed increased symptoms with the above factors. The evidence suggested that work related symptoms among office workers were relatively common. Indoor exposure and problems due to this exposure could be reduced if prevention of building related symptoms may be eliminated with appropriate design, operation and maintenance practices, such as ventilation rates (Zuraimi, 2010).
\n\t\t\t\tIn another study microbial indoor air quality and respiratory symptoms of children in schools with visible moisture and mold problems showed that school buildings of concrete/brick developed fungi concentration, but not in wooden school buildings (Meklin et al, 2002). There are more epidemiological studies, which indicate that there are risks associated with elevated air fine particle concentrations (Mullen et al. 2011, Pope & Dockey, 2006).
\n\t\t\t\tPotential health risks may result from environmental exposure to ultrafine particles (< 0.1 μm diameter) in particular exposure in school classrooms. It was found that average indoor levels were higher when classrooms were occupied than when they were unoccupied due to ultrafine particle concentrations (Mullen et al. 2011).
\n\t\t\t\tA multi location indoor study in air settled dust showed abundance of orthophosphate and phthalate esters (Bergh et al. 2011). Both groups of chemicals are semi volatile compounds and they are additives in plastic materials, which are used into indoor environment as industrial chemicals emanating from furniture in general. These chemicals were found in private homes, day care centers, and workplaces in the Stockholm area. The phthalate esters were 10 times higher than the orthophosphate esters. Especially high levels of tributoxyethyl phosphate were found in the day care centers and high levels of diethylhexyl phthalate in dust.
\n\t\t\tThe research work documented in this chapter represents the systematized efforts of researchers with multidisciplinary approaches and inter-institutional cooperation efforts. The National Technological Institute of Mexico (TecNM Campus Tijuana) through the efforts of the Department of Economic and Administrative Sciences, the Division of Postgraduate Studies and Research, and the Coordination of the Doctorate Project in Administration have strategically defined a line of research on sustainable development of according to the guidelines of the National Strategic Programs (PRONACES) of the National Council of Science and Technology (CONACYT) as a requirement for the opening of new postgraduate programs at the national level in Institutions of Higher Education, to obtain the Recognition of the National Postgraduate Program of Quality (PNPC).
The strategic articulation generated with the Autonomous University of Baja California Tijuana Campus and its Faculty of Accounting and Administration was developed through a cooperation agreement and coordinated work with a research project oriented to the circular economy and the study of sustainable development for the analysis in Small and Mid-size Enterprises (SMEs) in the City of Tijuana.
The postgraduate program of Master in Administration of the National Technological Institute of Mexico Campus Tijuana, with a history of more than 25 years, has become the space and benchmark for applied research in Economic and Administrative Sciences, being the benchmark for intervention models, Unit of Verification of Municipal Development according to the Global Agendas such as the sustainable development goals (SDG), for their respective evaluation and feedback to the representatives of the Municipalities of the State of the Government of Baja California.
The University of Guadalajara through the International Center for Social Innovation for Development has generated collaborative actions of experiences developed in the Municipalities of the State of Jalisco.
The academic link and applied research of the TecNM Campus Tijuana has been characterized by leadership and the convocation of Professors, Researchers, Specialists, Researchers, and Representatives of the Social Sector. The objectives of collaborative work have generated academic and outreach productivity, as well as social economy forums, and sustainable development seminars with interventions by specialists at the local, national and international levels. In order to lay the foundations and cultivate the research line of the future postgraduate program of Doctorate in Administration, a National Research Project is being developed, entitled: Observatory of sustainable development in postgraduate study programs in Baja California. The scientific research project is registered in the call of the Technological National of Mexico. And the purpose is to eventually generate a model that can be replicated at the regional and even national and international levels according to the Global Agendas for raising awareness of sustainable development in the higher education sector.
The circular economy as a term of reference and practice-oriented towards a virtuous cycle of raw materials through recycling to reuse waste has its reference point chronologically since the 1980s. Associating the circular economy with creative initiatives. Likewise, as a point of reflection on the impact of the growing demand for non-renewable raw materials and an impact on the environment and the economy of society. Circular economy (CE), is a new concept characterized by processes associated with research, development, and innovation that challenges the linear economy model that several developing countries, towards paradigm changes in the production processes of waste management. Raw materials, and actions to prolong the virtuous cycle of recycling, reuse, and reduction of raw materials in production processes. Seeking with it, models of culture and adaptation of good sustainable development practices in organizations, and properly in all stages of the supply chain; suppliers, producers, and customers [1].
The development of the research note starts from the prospective of the objective of the scientific research project to lay the methodological bases that respond to the research question: What are the variables to determine the level of culture on the sustainable development goals (SDG)? To build an observatory for the evolution of the SDGs [2] and circular economy under the local territorial approach in the municipalities, from an academic perspective. The documentary analysis of studies at the international level as a reference framework to identify best practices in business awareness and education in the new generations for the development of programs and initiatives to promote sustainable development is connected with the structure of the NODESS [3] model (Development Nodes of Social and Solidarity Economy) that represents the articulation of Institutions of Higher Education, Local Government (Municipalities) [4] and the Organism of the Social Economy (Cooperatives and Cooperative Associations), generating experiences of coexistence and education for life, through the identification of needs, projects and innovation in the city of Tijuana and its metropolitan area; carrying out action strategies that comply with four strategies aimed at 1. Research, 2. Dissemination, 3. Dissemination and 4. Publication.
The work team made up of academics, researchers, municipal officials and members of cooperatives develop responsibility and strategic leadership in matters of research, dissemination, entrepreneurship and capacity development, linkage, follow-up, and monitoring. Through a training and orientation program in the communities on the 17 SDGs and circular economy. This includes a program of meaningful learning practices to promote a culture of awareness of the sustainable development approach that involves three main spheres in perfect balance: 1. Economy, 2. Social aspect, and 3. Environment. And under the methodological practices of systemic focus groups, an inventory of good practices and a catalog of projects that affect the circular economy are developed, as well as sustainable development under the analysis of the contents of study plans aligned to sustainable culture. With the results of the prospective research on the needs of culture and education on circular economy, dictionaries of sectoral competences Dictionary of Sectoral Competences (DSC), in Spanish Diccionario de Competencias Sectoriales (DCS) [5] will be designed that include labor, professional, and research competences, as an empowerment strategy in the different levels of education from basic education up to postgraduate level. Having an emphasis on the importance of transmitting to future generations of citizens in the different sectors of society, from a family father, an entrepreneur, a professional, a government official, or the population in general.
The Fifth Systemic Helix (FHS) Methodology [6] for the analysis of sustainable development and circular economy has been developed on the approach of systemic competitiveness, emphasizing research, development, and innovation; as a sectoral articulation factor. The QHS methodology generates a series of strategic actions and initiatives to achieve public policy [7, 8] initiatives and communication mechanisms that can give continuity to projects, with the aim of having a more developed society with a developing culture and education. Sustainability and the impact of the SDGs, as well as sensitivity to the principles of the circular economy.
The project of a “Social Economy Observatory in Latin America” creates a prospective reflection on the structural conditions necessary for indicators that are the formula to determine the gaps of reality vs. the ideal phase, which generate as a result of the areas of opportunity for each sector of society through the QHS approach [9]. The systemic methodological proposal considers in-depth interviews of the opinion context on local projects and their impact on the sustainable development goals (SDG) and the circular economy [10].
Table 1 presents a series of questions developed as a reflection strategy to create specific actions in the different sectors of society to generate culture and awareness of the importance of the objectives for sustainable development (SDG) and the circular economy [11].
Focus FHS | Bank of questions by systemic sector |
---|---|
H1. Companies |
|
H2. Universities |
|
H3. Government |
|
H4. Associations |
|
H5. Consultants |
|
Bank of questions to determine the SDG and circular economy project.
The conceptual definition of sustainable development is argued from three perspectives on the relationship between the environment and economic and social development. The conceptual genesis of sustainable development is based on the principles of allowing the needs of present generations to be met without compromising the possibilities of those of the future, of meeting their own needs and meeting an environmental protection agenda in countries with lower levels of developing. They need development of environmental policies and development strategies in their economic and social and environmental sectors.
The institutional framework for sustainable development and the green economy and the eradication of poverty, as an idea of a paradigm shift necessary to protect the environment, can also generate new opportunities for economic growth, an important issue at a time of international crisis [10].
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) has focused this message from the equality trilogy, in particular on “Structural change for equality: an integrated vision of development” and “Pacts for equality: towards a sustainable future”. Table 2 presents the opinion methodological approach to the role of interviewees under focus groups in five phases.
Phases | Systemic analysis approach |
---|---|
1 | Public policymakers; development of instruments to identify and develop models: incentives, cooperation structures, financing of research projects, aid to promote sustainable development and good circular economy practices, through the virtuous circle of waste recycling |
2 | Experts; people with extensive knowledge and experience to achieve an impact on the objectives of sustainable development and circular economy |
3 | Business leaders; university–company linkage programs that have professional practical goals, social service, thesis on SDG projects and initiatives, and circular economy |
4 | Universities; they play a fundamental role in the transfer of technology and knowledge, through research, development, and innovation, articulated with all the needs of the sectors of society |
5 | Representatives of civil society: Worktables with citizens, they are already the key piece of any city project, or of a country, through their needs, business vocations, and the capacities of the talent trained in the various educational institutions |
Methodological approach of the QHS for SDGs and circular economy.
A circular economy, he added, extends the life of the product, with maintenance, repair, reuse, and remanufacturing, and when it is no longer possible to do any of these things, recover parts that can be reused or, at least, rescue the materials or raw materials. The border dynamics of the region between the cities of Tijuana, Baja California, and San Diego, California, generate a business dynamic called CALIBAJA, in which activities of recovery of parts and materials are developed, with initiatives of a circular economy law in the business activities of the metropolitan region and the international link will provide a regulation that facilitates second-hand trade, initiatives of technological circles, and not leave the responsibility of processing our waste, generated by society, to mother nature alone.
The international reference framework according in Chile there are innovative circular economy practices; such as the case virtuous recycling of cigarette butts, recycling of glass bottles into glasses, development of glasses, using the plastic collected from fishing nets. Likewise, a review and construction of a theoretical reference framework on applied research in SDGs and circular economy as shown in Table 3, is the advancement of good practices documented in academic studies [12].
Country | Best methodological practices | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Mexico | Systemic model QHS–DCS, QHS–NODESS, for the interaction of creators of government policies, business leaders, representatives of universities, associations, and specialized experts from civil society, to determine the level of culture and sensitivity of actions to contribute to the scope of the SDGs and circular economy, identifying needs for labor, professional and research skills in the sectors of society | [13] |
Colombia | Initiatives aimed at promoting extended responsibility between producers, manufacturers, and importers of goods and services, in the comprehensive management of product waste when the final consumer discards them | [14] |
Chile | Extended responsibility of the producer, until the end of the useful life of the product; conditioning the management of all the waste generated by its processes | [15] |
Japan | Exchange program between industries, promoting continuous improvement practices | [16] |
European Union | Regulatory framework that allows the effective use of natural, human and economic resources for its transition to the circular economy model; waste can be recycled to transform waste from one industry into raw materials for another | [17] |
Actions aimed at achieving the SDGs and circular economy.
International studies of advances in implementing a circular economy at a global level is a complicated task, many rich countries do not want to give up their level and way of life. Poor countries seek to obtain a level similar to developed countries but do not have the resources. Some developed countries promote the circular economy through more artisanal jobs; activities of reuse, repair, remanufacturing, etc., including the substitution of non-renewable raw materials for recycled materials. But the concern is that the energy sources are running out and are very scarce. International statistics suggest that rich countries consume 10 times more resources than poor countries, which implies a culture and sensitivity to spread the principles of circularity.
Adaptation, reuse of used products, encourage recycling. Environmental management systems such as ISO 14001 have the task of demanding this type of change to ensure the sustainability of the resources we consume. Agreements, alliances, and cooperation mechanisms are required to make possible the answer to the great unknown of how the less developed countries will face the implementation of these new infrastructures. Some developed countries have shown interest in supporting fewer wealthy nations; however, it is not enough if the aim is to implement a global circular economy [18].
According to the UN, the sustainable development goals (SDGs) can only be achieved with strong global partnerships and cooperation. Inclusive partnerships need to be established at global, regional, national, and local levels on sustainable principles, as well as on a shared vision and goals that put people and ecosystems first. Due to the global contingency of the COVID-19 pandemic [19], it is estimated that the world economy will contract by 3% in the coming years, representing the worst recession since the Great Depression. Cooperation actions are necessary to guarantee local recovery, under awareness and culture toward the sustainable development goals (SDG). Highlighting its approach and way of addressing them from the different sectors of society: Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms throughout the world, Goal 2: End hunger, Goal 3: Guarantee a healthy life and promote well-being for all at all ages, Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all, Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls, Goal 6: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all, Goal 7: Ensure access to affordable, secure, sustainable and modern energy, Goal 8: Promote inclusive and sustainable economic growth, employment and decent work for all, Goal 9: Build resilient infrastructure, promote sustainable industrialization and foster innovation, Goal 10: Reduce inequality within and among countries, Goal 11: Make cities more inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable, Goal 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns, Goal 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its effects, Goal 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources, Goal 15: Sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, halt and reverse land degradation, halt biodiversity loss, Goal 16: Promote just, peaceful and inclusive societies, Goal 17: Revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development.
The sustainable development goals (SDGs) are the heart of the 2030 Agenda; they represent the vision of the future we want. And the need for local and international collaboration through awareness and sustainable culture. The 17 SDGs with their 169 goals and 231 indicators, the Member States of the United Nations have firmly expressed that this agenda is universal and with a transformative approach. The agenda has the principle of common responsibilities and generates mechanisms to build alliances for all participating countries.
The SDGs are universal: they constitute a universal reference framework and will apply to all countries. All countries have pended tasks and all face both common and individual challenges.
The SDGs are transformative: the 2030 Agenda proposes a paradigm shift from the traditional development model towards sustainable development: The new approach integrates the economic, social, and environmental dimensions, sustainable development centered on people and the planet, based on human rights and human dignity.
The SDGs are civilizing: The 2030 Agenda is about leaving no one behind. It contemplates universal respect for equality and non-discrimination among countries, without distinction of any kind as to race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth, disability, or any other condition. The SDGs are also a local and national planning tool, as a monitoring instrument in the countries. Contributing to sustainable development, inclusive of the environment, with public policies for planning, budgeting, monitoring, and evaluation.
The visible inequalities around the world have been a cause for great concern, since today there are around 828 million people living in poverty in the world, a figure that, like the levels of energy consumption and pollution, continues to increase, because although cities occupy only 3% of the earth’s surface, they represent between 60% and 80% of energy consumption and 75% of carbon emissions, according to data from the United Nations Organization. From this perspective, the concept of sustainable development emerges as a complex conceptual proposal that articulates the economic, environmental, social, political, and cultural dimensions, within which issues such as equity, employment opportunities, access to goods of production, environmental impacts, social spending, gender equality, good governance, an active civil society in terms of social participation, among others, considering both quantitative and qualitative aspects of development [20].
Preliminary findings on studies of circular economy and awareness of SDGs reflect a rise in actions and good practices of programs for environmental management at the documentary research level, as well as local initiatives such as the NODESS Tijuana project of the city of Tijuana with strategic links with researchers from the University of Guadalajara, Autonomous University of Baja California and the National Technological Institute of Mexico Campus Tijuana, determining in Table 4, the results of the percentage of involvement and commitment of the different sectors of society.
SDGs | Variables—Indicators | QHS–NODESS–CIRIEC | % |
---|---|---|---|
10, 11, 12, 16 | Fund for education on sustainable development | Companies, associations | 10 |
10, 11, 12, 16 | Comprehensive supply chain recycling programs | Companies, universities | 40 |
8, 10, 11, 12, 16 | Circular economy awareness programs | Companies, consultants | 30 |
17 | Strategic sector coordination programs for SDGs of the UN 2030 goals | Government with other sectors | 20 |
Analysis of SDGs actions, circular economy vs. QHS-NODESS.
According to the findings of the documentary and field research, the greatest efforts intangible facts embodied in agreements, and documented programs are found between the Universities and Companies relationship. Generating the reflection that higher education institutions represent the agent of change in societies beyond political discourse and good business intentions. Education is the engine of the training of new generations and the impact on the culture of sustainable development.
The opinion of international organizations such as the International Cooperative Alliance (ICA) [21] is that there is a relationship between the plan for a decade, the social balance, and the sustainable development goals. Preliminary findings of reflection, there are several aspects in the inkwell of necessary agreements in the different sectors of society to achieve the culture of practices to develop in a manner in tune with the sustainable development goals and thereby generate well-being and mitigate inequality in society and contribute to the improvement of the environmental conditions of our ecosystems that we cohabit.
In Latin America, 50% of solid waste is organic matter, of which 90% is not used or goes to waste. According to the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, improving the efficiency and useful life of materials in our region would lead to the creation of 5 million jobs. The circular economy has been raised on the local, national, and global agendas of public policy and private activity. Countries of Latin America and the Caribbean, and other regions in the world. The link between the circular economy and international trade has been little explored. According to the literature review, trade flows of waste, analysis of the circular economy as trade policy. Necessary knowledge and technology transfer design and development of training models, and practical awareness models of the circular economy and the SDGs, in all sectors of society. [22]. The business sector, business associations, and the education sector represent a fertile setting for the development of projects that promote practices for the sustainable development goals (SDGs) and initiatives to implement programs aimed at the culture of circular economy. Likewise, a key aspect is the role of the sector of consultants specialized in projects and applied research, and the government sector through policies and awareness programs from the local government, through the combination of forms of articulation of efforts of the different sectors of the society. Generating and consolidating the sustainability of organizations and society. Positively impacting the economy, social aspects, and the environment. The initiatives and projects on circular economy require international cooperation, alliances between public and private sectors to create knowledge and technology transfer, as a great project of interest not only of speech but of harmonization of definitions and norms and leaderships of unity for the benefit of future generations and the legacy of caring for the environment.
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\n\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
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\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
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\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
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\n\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\n\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
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\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
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\n\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\n\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
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\n\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
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On this context, this chapter summarizes the general characteristics of Actinobacteria, its habitat, systematic classification, various biotechnological applications, and negative impact on plants and animals.",book:{id:"5056",slug:"actinobacteria-basics-and-biotechnological-applications",title:"Actinobacteria",fullTitle:"Actinobacteria - Basics and Biotechnological Applications"},signatures:"Ranjani Anandan, Dhanasekaran Dharumadurai and Gopinath\nPonnusamy Manogaran",authors:[{id:"48914",title:"Dr.",name:"Dharumadurai",middleName:null,surname:"Dhanasekaran",slug:"dharumadurai-dhanasekaran",fullName:"Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran"}]},{id:"37734",doi:"10.5772/46006",title:"Endosomal Escape Pathways for Non-Viral Nucleic Acid Delivery Systems",slug:"endosomal-escape-pathways-for-non-viral-nucleic-acid-delivery-systems",totalDownloads:7395,totalCrossrefCites:33,totalDimensionsCites:91,abstract:null,book:{id:"2617",slug:"molecular-regulation-of-endocytosis",title:"Molecular Regulation of Endocytosis",fullTitle:"Molecular Regulation of Endocytosis"},signatures:"Wanling Liang and Jenny K. 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They are considered as the biotechnologically valuable bacteria that are exploited for its secondary metabolite production. Approximately, 10,000 bioactive metabolites are produced by Actinobacteria, which is 45% of all bioactive microbial metabolites discovered. Especially Streptomyces species produce industrially important microorganisms as they are a rich source of several useful bioactive natural products with potential applications. Though it has various applications, some Actinobacteria have its own negative effect against plants, animals, and humans. 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The effects of these two types of factors overlap for the most part. The combined effects of these two aging processes also affect dermal matrix alterations. The main clinical signs of skin aging include wrinkling and irregular pigmentation, which are influenced by a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic (e.g., UV radiation, heat, smoking, and pollutants) factors. Histologically, collagen decreases, and the dermis is replaced by abnormal elastic fibers as a cause of wrinkle formation through the loss of skin elasticity. There have been numerous studies of skin aging performed to elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms and to develop various antiaging therapeutics and preventive strategies. We summarized the molecular mechanisms and treatments of skin aging. Mainly UV radiation induces ROS formation and DNA damage, leading to increased production of MMPs and decreased production of collagen in keratinocytes and fibroblasts, which reflect the central aspects of skin aging. Besides UV radiation exposure, extrinsic factors including tobacco smoking, exposure to environmental pollutants, infrared radiation, and heat contribute to premature skin aging. Like UV radiation, these factors cause ROS formation and increase expression of MMPs, thus accelerating skin aging by inducing extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation. Accumulated collagen fibrils inhibit the new collagen synthesis and account for the further degradation of the ECM through this positive feedback loop. Accumulating evidence for molecular mechanisms of skin aging should provide clinicians with an expanding spectrum of therapeutic targets in the treatment of skin aging.",book:{id:"5258",slug:"molecular-mechanisms-of-the-aging-process-and-rejuvenation",title:"Molecular Mechanisms of the Aging Process and Rejuvenation",fullTitle:"Molecular Mechanisms of the Aging Process and Rejuvenation"},signatures:"Miri Kim and Hyun Jeong Park",authors:[{id:"47695",title:"Prof.",name:"Hyun Jeong",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"hyun-jeong-park",fullName:"Hyun Jeong Park"},{id:"185767",title:"Prof.",name:"Miri",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"miri-kim",fullName:"Miri Kim"}]},{id:"62731",title:"An Introductory Chapter: Secondary Metabolites",slug:"an-introductory-chapter-secondary-metabolites",totalDownloads:9757,totalCrossrefCites:34,totalDimensionsCites:53,abstract:null,book:{id:"6670",slug:"secondary-metabolites-sources-and-applications",title:"Secondary Metabolites",fullTitle:"Secondary Metabolites - Sources and Applications"},signatures:"Durairaj Thirumurugan, Alagappan Cholarajan, Suresh S.S. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. 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He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. 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The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",slug:"jose-navarro-pedreno",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",biography:"Full professor at University Miguel Hernández of Elche, Spain, previously working at the University of Alicante, Autonomous University of Madrid and Polytechnic University of Valencia. Graduate in Sciences (Chemist), graduate in Geography and History (Geography), master in Water Management, Treatment, master in Fertilizers and Environment and master in Environmental Management; Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences. His research is focused on soil-water and waste-environment relations, mainly on soil-water and soil-waste interactions under different management and waste reuse. His work is reflected in more than 230 communications presented in national and international conferences and congresses, 29 invited lectures from universities, associations and government agencies. 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He has developed his research activity in the fields of fauna and soil ecology, and in the treatment of organic waste, having been the founder and principal investigator of the Environmental Biotechnology Group of the University of Vigo.\r\nHis research activity in the field of Environmental Biotechnology has been focused on the development of novel organic waste treatment systems through composting. The result of this line of work are three invention patents and various scientific and technical publications in prestigious international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",slug:"josefina-garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",biography:"Josefina Garrido González (Paradela de Abeleda, Ourense 1959), is a doctor in biology from the University of León and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. She has focused her research activity on the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of aquatic beetles, in addition to other lines of research such as the conservation of biodiversity in freshwater ecosystems; conservation of protected areas (Red Natura 2000) and assessment of the effectiveness of wetlands as priority areas for the conservation of aquatic invertebrates; studies of water quality in freshwater ecosystems through biological indicators and physicochemical parameters; surveillance and research of vector arthropods and invasive alien species.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",slug:"francisco-ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",biography:"Fran Ramil Blanco (Porto de Espasante, A Coruña, 1960), is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago de Compostela and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. His research activity is linked to the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of marine benthic invertebrates and especially the Cnidarian group. Since 2004, he has been part of the EcoAfrik project, aimed at the study, protection and conservation of biodiversity and benthic habitats in West Africa. He also participated in the study of vulnerable marine ecosystems associated with seamounts in the South Atlantic and is involved in training young African researchers in the field of marine research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",slug:"yizi-shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yizi Shang is a pioneering researcher in hydrology and water resources who has devoted his research career to promoting the conservation and protection of water resources for sustainable development. He is presently associate editor of Water International (official journal of the International Water Resources Association). He was also invited to serve as an associate editor for special issues of the Journal of the American Water Resources Association. He has served as an editorial member for international journals such as Hydrology, Journal of Ecology & Natural Resources, and Hydro Science & Marine Engineering, among others. He has chaired or acted as a technical committee member for twenty-five international forums (conferences). Dr. Shang graduated from Tsinghua University, China, in 2010 with a Ph.D. in Engineering. Prior to that, he worked as a research fellow at Harvard University from 2008 to 2009. Dr. Shang serves as a senior research engineer at the China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research (IWHR) and was awarded as a distinguished researcher at National Taiwan University in 2017.",institutionString:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10843",title:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)",subtitle:"Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10843.jpg",slug:"persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-monitoring-impact-and-treatment",publishedDate:"April 13th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",hash:"f5b1589f0a990b6114fef2dadc735dd9",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) - Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",biography:"Prof. Mohamed Nageeb Rashed is Professor of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry and former vice-dean for environmental affairs, Faculty of Science, Aswan University, Egypt. He received his Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Assiut University, Egypt, in 1989. His research interest is in analytical and environmental chemistry with special emphasis on: (1) monitoring and assessing biological trace elements and toxic metals in human blood, urine, water, crops, vegetables, and medicinal plants; (2) relationships between environmental heavy metals and human diseases; (3) uses of biological indicators for monitoring water pollution; (4) environmental chemistry of lakes, rivers, and well water; (5) water and wastewater treatment by adsorption and photocatalysis techniques; (6) soil and water pollution monitoring, control, and treatment; and (7) advanced oxidation treatment. Prof. Rashed has supervised several MSc and Ph.D. theses in the field of analytical and environmental chemistry. He served as an examiner for several Ph.D. theses in analytical chemistry in India, Kazakhstan, and Botswana. 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He is an academic staff member of the Department of Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Selçuk University, Turkey. He manages several studies on sperms and embryos and is an editorial board member for several international journals. His studies include sperm cryobiology, in vitro fertilization, and embryo production in animals.",institutionString:"Selçuk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine",institution:null},{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90846/images/system/90846.jpg",biography:"Yusuf Bozkurt has a BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. from Ankara University, Turkey. He is currently a Professor of Biotechnology of Reproduction in the field of Aquaculture, İskenderun Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include reproductive biology and biotechnology with an emphasis on cryo-conservation. He is on the editorial board of several international peer-reviewed journals and has published many papers. Additionally, he has participated in many international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops with oral and poster presentations. He is an active member of many local and international organizations.",institutionString:"İskenderun Technical University",institution:{name:"İskenderun Technical University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",biography:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev is a senior research scientist at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Russia, and at the Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. He received his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology with his thesis “Genetic variability of the tick-borne encephalitis virus in natural foci of Novosibirsk city and its suburbs.” His primary field is molecular virology with research emphasis on vector-borne viruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, rabies virus, molecular genetics, biology, and epidemiology of virus pathogens.",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",biography:"Amlan K. Patra, FRSB, obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from Indian Veterinary Research Institute, India, in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences. He has more than twenty years of research and teaching experience. He held previous positions at the American Institute for Goat Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA, and Free University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on animal nutrition, particularly ruminants and poultry nutrition, gastrointestinal electrophysiology, meta-analysis and modeling in nutrition, and livestock–environment interaction. He has authored around 175 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:"Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Spain",institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain. She is a Full Professor at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery at the same University. She developed her research activity in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry and Immunology of horses. She is a scientific reviewer of several international journals : American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Comparative Clinical Pathology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology. Since 2014, she has been the Head of the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the Hospital Clínico Veterinario from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University.",institutionString:"CEU-Cardenal Herrera University",institution:{name:"CEU Cardinal Herrera University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. 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After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. 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