Calculation of exiting flux in Youngs’ method.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6442",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Into Space - A Journey of How Humans Adapt and Live in Microgravity",title:"Into Space",subtitle:"A Journey of How Humans Adapt and Live in Microgravity",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Our anatomy and physiology have been completely shaped by Earth's gravity. All body systems function in synergy with this unseen force. Yet, as we journey further and longer into space, our bodies must conform to a new reality, wherein gravity is absent or reduced, cosmic radiation threatens and our social and familial connections become distant. Into Space: A Journey of How Humans Adapt and Live in Microgravity gives an overview of some of the physiological, anatomical and cellular changes that occur in space and their effects on different body systems, such as the cardiovascular and musculoskeletal, and touches on cultural and psychosocial aspects of leaving behind family and the safety of Earth. It further addresses the complexity of manned space flights, showing how interdisciplinary this subject is and discussing the challenges that space physiologists, physicians and scientists must face as humans seek to conquer the final frontier.",isbn:"978-1-78923-221-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-220-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-473-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70684",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"into-space-a-journey-of-how-humans-adapt-and-live-in-microgravity",numberOfPages:296,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e7414f85fdf56e54bfd694d91fa492ac",bookSignature:"Thais Russomano and Lucas Rehnberg",publishedDate:"May 30th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6442.jpg",numberOfDownloads:17728,numberOfWosCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitations:21,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:37,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:72,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 28th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 1st 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 15th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 28th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 28th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"220541",title:"Dr.",name:"Thais",middleName:null,surname:"Russomano",slug:"thais-russomano",fullName:"Thais Russomano",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/220541/images/system/220541.png",biography:"Thais Russomano, MD PhD - graduated in medicine from the Federal University of Pelotas, Brazil (1985), has a Master’s Degree in Aerospace Medicine - Wright State University, USA (1991), and PhD in Space Physiology - King\\\\\\'s College London (1998). She founded and coordinated for 18 years the Microgravity Centre, PUCRS, a unique Latin American reference centre in the study of human space physiology and space biomedical engineering; is senior lecturer at King’s College London; Director of InnovaSpace Consultancy; Director/CMO of International Space Medicine Consortium; and International Relations Director of HuSCO. More than 25 years of experience in the fields of Aerospace Medicine, Aerospace Biomedicine, Aerospace Biomedical Engineering and Telemedicine, including participation in 200+ scientific events with 300+ scientific papers presented. She further holds 7 patents related to Space Life Sciences and Aerospace Biomedical Engineering.",institutionString:"King's College London",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"220542",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucas",middleName:null,surname:"Rehnberg",slug:"lucas-rehnberg",fullName:"Lucas Rehnberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/220542/images/7599_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Lucas Rehnberg, MBBS, BSc, MSc – graduated from Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry in 2015. Currently a Junior Clinical Fellow in Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Southampton, UK. Has an undergraduate degree in Biomedical Sciences and a Masters in Human and Applied Physiology from Kings College London (2009). He has been a Visiting Research Associate at the Centre of Human and Aerospace Physiological Sciences since 2011 and a Consultant in Space Medicine from 2012 at the Microgravity Centre, PUCRS. He has many years of experience in space life sciences, from conducting research, publishing several papers in the area of space medicine, as well as international presentations and teaching.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"683",title:"Aeronautics",slug:"aeronautics"}],chapters:[{id:"59621",title:"Reimagining Icarus: Ethics, Law and Policy Considerations for Commercial Human Spaceflight",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74716",slug:"reimagining-icarus-ethics-law-and-policy-considerations-for-commercial-human-spaceflight",totalDownloads:1012,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Commercial human spaceflight presents an area for engaging novel human activity and objectives, to include space exploration, entertainment, transportation and extraterrestrial resource acquisition. The inherent dangers and lack of scientific and medical certainty involved however raise interrelated questions of ethics, bioethics, law and public policy. This is particularly the case with spaceflight participant (SFP) screening, selection, and commercial human spaceflight activities where regulations are currently silent or lacking. In the absence of established law, ethics can play an important role by informing industry standards, policies and best practices. Understanding the fundamental ethical values at stake in the application of new technologies and societal opportunities therefore is a significant step in establishing a practical, moral and sustainable framework for human expansion into space. As the frequency and reliability of private human spaceflight activities advances, spaceflight is likely to take on the legal and ethical vestiges of common carriers, with distinct passenger rights and higher standards of care attributed to the launch operator as a common carrier. This chapter raises some of the complex issues and challenges that face the private spaceflight industry and that merit collaborative discussion across disciplines and the global space transportation community going forward.",signatures:"Sara M. Langston",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59621",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59621",authors:[{id:"221246",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Langston",slug:"sara-langston",fullName:"Sara Langston"}],corrections:null},{id:"60371",title:"Basic Methodology for Space Ethics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75689",slug:"basic-methodology-for-space-ethics",totalDownloads:1140,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The introduction sets out a standard concern that space ethics may be unduly constraining upon state and private sector activities in space. As a counter-picture, Section 2 sets up a distinction between ‘standard space ethics’ and ‘special space ethics’ which will allow us to explore ways in which space ethics enables as well as constrains. A case is then made in Section 3 for pragmatic constraints upon space ethics itself. Space ethics should be either ‘policy apt’ (able to directly shape space policy within a liberal democratic social context) or ‘precursor apt’ (able to contribute productively to broader, precursor discussions which may feed into policy apt deliberations). What makes any ethic satisfy either of these conditions will depend upon a range of factors. The ethic should have stability (dealt with in Section 3.1). It should not merely track transitory voting trends or the ebbs and flows of electoral politics. Secondly, it should have a high degree of political realizability (dealt with in Section 3.2). Finally, the ethic should be psychologically available. Section 4 then shows the usefulness of these basic constraints upon space ethics through a contrast between the emerging US and European agendas in astrobiology.",signatures:"Tony Milligan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60371",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60371",authors:[{id:"220964",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony",surname:"Milligan",slug:"anthony-milligan",fullName:"Anthony Milligan"}],corrections:null},{id:"58161",title:"From the Individual to the Cultural Space Group",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72357",slug:"from-the-individual-to-the-cultural-space-group",totalDownloads:1105,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"From a behavioral point of view, human crews into Space will have to both live and work in physical environment (microgravity, 1/3 g, 1/6 g), confined environment (spatial restriction, social constraints, and sensorial privation), and isolated environment (familiar privation, cultural background, and remote communication) that involve a multisystem adaptive model on a long-duration process. Physiological, medical, psychological, sociological, anthropological, and ethological impacts have been emphasized in a wide panel of investigations. The current results are presented with a focus on relevant methods in ethology based on the observation, description, and quantification of (i) the individual behavior from short-term orbital missions; (ii) the social behavior during inter-planetary missions simulated in terrestrial environments; and (iii) the cultural behavior in considering manned missions on Moon, on Mars, and beyond. Global analysis highlights that the crewmembers going into Space will be definitively interactive men and women with personal experiences, social rules, and new cultural habits. They will have their individual identities and they will be a group entity for extended periods of time.",signatures:"Carole Tafforin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58161",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58161",authors:[{id:"221427",title:"Dr.",name:"Carole",surname:"Tafforin",slug:"carole-tafforin",fullName:"Carole Tafforin"}],corrections:null},{id:"59500",title:"Acute and Chronic Effects of Hypobaric Exposure upon the Brain",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74231",slug:"acute-and-chronic-effects-of-hypobaric-exposure-upon-the-brain",totalDownloads:1276,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Exposure to the hypobaric environment presents numerous physiological challenges to both aviators/pilots, mountain climbers and astronauts. Decompression sickness (DCS) is one of the most commonly experienced maladies and may present variably in protean fashion from mild symptoms such as the bends to severe neurological or pulmonary (i.e. chokes) symptomatology. Furthermore, exposure to extreme non-hypoxic hypobaric environments such as those experienced by our U-2 pilots, irrespective of clinical history of decompression sickness, incites development of white matter hyperintensity lesions that are diffuse in nature. Additionally, non-hypoxic hypobaric exposure also impacts white matter integrity independent of presence of white matter hyperintensities as measured by fractional anisotropy. Functionally, this translated into subtle but significantly lower neurocognitive test performance in U-2 pilots exposed to extreme non-hypoxic hypobaric conditions when compared to pilots without repeated exposure and correlated with degree of white matter lesion burden. In this chapter, we discuss results of our U-2 pilot studies along with published research on high-altitude climbers. We also review ongoing and future directional research and discuss operational implications due to our findings of non-hypoxic hypobaric exposure. Lastly, we examine the incidence of DCS in our astronaut population as well as the risks of performing extravehicular activity (EVA).",signatures:"Paul Sherman and John Sladky",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59500",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59500",authors:[{id:"222286",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Sladky",slug:"john-sladky",fullName:"John Sladky"},{id:"222312",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul",surname:"Sherman",slug:"paul-sherman",fullName:"Paul Sherman"}],corrections:null},{id:"59772",title:"Spaceflight Induced Changes in the Central Nervous System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74232",slug:"spaceflight-induced-changes-in-the-central-nervous-system",totalDownloads:1002,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Although once a widely speculated about and largely theoretical topic, spaceflightinduced intracranial hypertension is more accepted as a distinct clinical phenomenon; yet, the underlying physiological mechanisms are still poorly understood. In the past, many terms were used to describe the symptoms of malaise, nausea, vomiting, and vertigo though longer duration spaceflights have increased the prevalence of overlapping symptoms of headache and visual disturbance. Spaceflight-induced visual pathology is thought to be a manifestation of increased intracranial pressure (ICP) because of its similar presentation to cases of known intracranial hypertension on Earth as well as the documentation of increased ICP by lumbar puncture in symptomatic astronauts upon return to gravity. The most likely mechanisms of spaceflight-induced increased ICP include a cephalad shift of body fluids, venous outflow obstruction, blood-brain barrier breakdown, and disruption to CSF flow. The relative contribution of increased ICP to the symptoms experienced during spaceflight is currently unknown though as other factors recently posited to contribute include local effects on ocular structures, individual differences in metabolism, and the vasodilator effects of carbon dioxide. Spaceflight-induced intracranial hypertension must be distinguished from other pathologies with similar symptomatology. The following chapter discusses the proposed physiologic causes and the pathological manifestations of increased ICP in the spaceflight environment and provides considerations for future long-term space travel.",signatures:"Alex P. Michael",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59772",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59772",authors:[{id:"220742",title:"Dr.",name:"Alex",surname:"Michael",slug:"alex-michael",fullName:"Alex Michael"}],corrections:null},{id:"59699",title:"The Effect of Gravity on the Nervous System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74715",slug:"the-effect-of-gravity-on-the-nervous-system",totalDownloads:1617,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Gravity affects the nervous system of living organisms. This book chapter reviews historical and recent findings on how changes in gravity affect cellular and subcellular parameters of human and animal cells as well as the timing and shaping of complex sensorimotor responses. With an emphasize on weightlessness, partial, and hypergravity conditions, the gravity dependencies of living organisms have been manifested on different levels of organization, ranging from changes in biophysical properties of single cells to the intact nervous system. An effort has been made to integrate the various findings into a consistent model for a better understanding of how the components of the nervous system interact as a response to acute and long-term gravitational variation. Especially with planned long-term manned missions to Mars and beyond, knowledge about the impact of increased and decreased gravity on the nervous system is essential for the physical and cognitive preparation to assure the success of space missions and human survival in space.",signatures:"Florian P.M. Kohn, Claudia Koch and Ramona Ritzmann",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59699",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59699",authors:[{id:"148496",title:"Dr.",name:"Florian",surname:"Kohn",slug:"florian-kohn",fullName:"Florian Kohn"},{id:"238072",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Koch",slug:"claudia-koch",fullName:"Claudia Koch"},{id:"238073",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramona",surname:"Ritzmann",slug:"ramona-ritzmann",fullName:"Ramona Ritzmann"}],corrections:null},{id:"59767",title:"Spaceflight: Immune Effects and Nutritional Countermeasure",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74709",slug:"spaceflight-immune-effects-and-nutritional-countermeasure",totalDownloads:1312,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Microgravity is predicted to be a significant challenge to immune system during space travel. Consequences of weakened immune responses range from increased disease susceptibility to neoplastic growth. Degree of immune dysfunction is considered proportional to duration of stay in spaceflights. As a result of these risks, there is major concern over potential health risk for space travels that ultimately result in serious and considerable loss of mission objectives. Therefore, here is a need to explore the immune effects of spaceflight and its countermeasures. Several attempts have been made to develop effective measure to alleviate or prevent immune dysfunction due to microgravity. Among them, immunonutritional model has been shown to effectively modulate and upregulate immune system. This is further supported by our experiments demonstrating that supplementation of nutritional substrates like nucleotide and mushroom extracts active hexose-correlated compound (AHCC) effective in maintaining or restoring immunity in microgravity analog models.",signatures:"Anil D Kulkarni, Marie-Francoise Doursout, Asmita Kulkarni,\nAlamelu Sundaresan, Takehito Miura, Koji Wakame and Hajime\nFujii",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59767",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59767",authors:[{id:"222175",title:"Prof.",name:"Anil",surname:"Kulkarni",slug:"anil-kulkarni",fullName:"Anil Kulkarni"}],corrections:null},{id:"58565",title:"Countermeasure Development for Lumbopelvic Deconditioning in Space",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72881",slug:"countermeasure-development-for-lumbopelvic-deconditioning-in-space",totalDownloads:1285,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Physical inactivity and lumbopelvic deconditioning have been linked to increased incidence of non-specific low back pain (LBP) and spinal injury in those who are exposed to microgravity (e.g. astronauts and individuals on long-duration bed rest) and in the general population. Astronauts have an increased risk of experiencing moderate to severe LBP during microgravity exposure and herniated intervertebral discs within 1 year following spaceflight. Atrophy and reduced motor control of the lumbar multifidus (LM) and transversus abdominis (TrA) muscles resulting from periods of deconditioning are linked to non-specific LBP and spinal injury risk in both post-flight astronauts and general populations. However, voluntary recruitment of these two key muscles is difficult and presents a rehabilitation challenge. This chapter reviews the concept of spinal stability as it relates to microgravity, discusses how existing exercise countermeasures used in space do not successfully maintain lumbopelvic muscle size, and introduces the functional readaptive exercise device (FRED) that shows potential to activate the LM and TrA muscles automatically and in a tonic fashion, which has relevance to rehabilitation of both astronaut and terrestrial populations.",signatures:"Andrew Winnard, Dorothee Debuse and Nick Caplan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58565",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58565",authors:[{id:"222099",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",surname:"Caplan",slug:"nick-caplan",fullName:"Nick Caplan"},{id:"222101",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",surname:"Winnard",slug:"andrew-winnard",fullName:"Andrew Winnard"},{id:"234054",title:"Prof.",name:"Dorothee",surname:"Debuse",slug:"dorothee-debuse",fullName:"Dorothee Debuse"}],corrections:null},{id:"61131",title:"Tumor Cells in Microgravity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77214",slug:"tumor-cells-in-microgravity",totalDownloads:1251,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The excessive proliferation and metastasis of tumor cells are due to frequent genetic alterations and subsequent stimulation of abnormal signal transduction pathways. Inventing and improving novel therapeutic strategies are critically needed. However, it remains unknown which of these pathways is essential to tumor initiation and progression. A weightless environment on Earth is a rare phenomenon, achieved using various simulations, but brings about changes of internal cellular structure and interactions among cells not normally seen under normal terrestrial gravitational conditions. For this reason, spaceflight experiments are of great value for cell biology research in general and for cancer research in particular. Many experiments indicate that microgravity, more so actual spaceflight as opposed to simulations, induces changes in the expression and secretion of genes as well as proteins involved in cancer cell proliferation, metastasis, and survival, shifting the cells toward a less aggressive phenotype. Therefore, studies on the biological features and gene expression of tumors cells under microgravity conditions may underline new clues to the tumor initiation, process, diagnosis, and therapy.",signatures:"Jun Chen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61131",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61131",authors:[{id:"220992",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun",surname:"Chen",slug:"jun-chen",fullName:"Jun Chen"}],corrections:null},{id:"59615",title:"Plants in Space",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74230",slug:"plants-in-space",totalDownloads:1554,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Plants will play a critical role in the survival of human beings on long-duration space missions, probably beginning pretty soon with a mission to Mars. Plants can adapt to extreme environments on Earth, and model plants have been shown to grow and develop through a full life cycle in microgravity. In space, long-term human space exploration missions require a life support system in which higher plants play a vital role. Growing crops in space is as much about developing the humans’ technological capacity to provide plants with adequate growth conditions in the unique microgravity environment, as is about the symbiotic relationship between plants and space travelers. After several decades of research, we have learned a lot about the impediments to growing plants in microgravity, in outer space, and on other planets. As human space exploration advances, we should feel confident about our ability to grow plants on board spacecraft during long-term space missions, on the Moon, and on other planets. Plants will require specialized environments for growth and development in microgravity, but – at least on a small scale – we already know how to produce such growth chambers and greenhouses.",signatures:"Bratislav Stankovic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59615",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59615",authors:[{id:"220778",title:"Dr.",name:"Bratislav",surname:"Stankovic",slug:"bratislav-stankovic",fullName:"Bratislav Stankovic"}],corrections:null},{id:"59735",title:"Approaches to Assess the Suitability of Zooplankton for Bioregenerative Life Support Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74261",slug:"approaches-to-assess-the-suitability-of-zooplankton-for-bioregenerative-life-support-systems",totalDownloads:1465,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Future manned space exploration will send humans farther away from Earth than ever before (e.g., to Mars), leading to extended mission durations and thus to a higher demand for essentials such as food, water and oxygen. As resupplying these items from Earth is nearly impossible, aquatic bioregenerative life support systems (BLSS) appear to be a promising solution. Due to its central role in aquatic ecosystems, zooplankton could act as a key player in aquatic BLSS, linking oxygen liberating, autotrophic producers and higher trophic levels. However, prior to the utilization of BLSS in space, organisms proposed to inhabit these systems have to be studied thoroughly to evaluate any space-borne adverse traits, which may impede a proper function of the system. To investigate the impact of microgravity (μg), in particular, several platforms are available, providing μg periods ranging from seconds (Bremen drop tower and parabolic flights), to minutes (sounding rockets), up to even days and months (space flights and the International Space Station (ISS)). Furthermore, ground-based facilities, such as clinostats, enable the of candidate organisms to variable periods of simulated/functional μg. In this book chapter, research on zooplankton utilizing these methods is summarized.",signatures:"Miriam Knie, Bernard Wolfschoon Ribeiro, Jessica Fischer, Burkhard\nSchmitz, Kay Van Damme, Ruth Hemmersbach, Donat-P. Häder and\nChristian Laforsch",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59735",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59735",authors:[{id:"223193",title:"Prof.",name:"Christian",surname:"Laforsch",slug:"christian-laforsch",fullName:"Christian Laforsch"},{id:"239673",title:"Dr.",name:"Miriam",surname:"Knie",slug:"miriam-knie",fullName:"Miriam Knie"},{id:"239674",title:"MSc.",name:"Bernard",surname:"Wolfschoon Ribeiro",slug:"bernard-wolfschoon-ribeiro",fullName:"Bernard Wolfschoon Ribeiro"},{id:"239675",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Jessica",surname:"Fischer",slug:"jessica-fischer",fullName:"Jessica Fischer"},{id:"239676",title:"Mr.",name:"Burkhard",surname:"Schmitz",slug:"burkhard-schmitz",fullName:"Burkhard Schmitz"},{id:"239677",title:"Dr.",name:"Kay",surname:"Van Damme",slug:"kay-van-damme",fullName:"Kay Van Damme"},{id:"239678",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruth",surname:"Hemmersbach",slug:"ruth-hemmersbach",fullName:"Ruth Hemmersbach"},{id:"239679",title:"Prof.",name:"Donat-P.",surname:"Häder",slug:"donat-p.-hader",fullName:"Donat-P. Häder"}],corrections:null},{id:"60129",title:"Are We Alone? The Search for Life on Mars and Other Planetary Bodies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75437",slug:"are-we-alone-the-search-for-life-on-mars-and-other-planetary-bodies",totalDownloads:1038,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Extensive research has shown the potential for microorganisms to survive in some of the most extreme environments on Earth. Our current understanding of diverse life on Earth implies that, even though the surface of Mars is very inhospitable to life, it is possible that there may be indigenous microorganisms on Mars, especially in the protective subsurface. Ultimately, a better understanding of microbial diversity on Earth is needed to determine the limits of life to help determine the potential for life on Mars and other exoplanets.",signatures:"Stephanie A. Smith, Andrzej Paszczynski and Susan E. 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Exposure to this environment causes unique injuries to the human body that can be deadly if the correct management is not promptly initiated. The preceding decades are filled with stories of deadly failures from such exposures and marked achievement as we began to explore this section of our outer atmosphere. Through advances in technology, we have developed pressure suits and vehicles used for high altitude and outer space that provide protection and allow us to not only survive, but also explore these dangerous environments. The recent high altitude missions are examples of the remarkable capability of human innovation and ingenuity. These missions have fostered an explosion of interest and wonder, creating new demand for a commercial space industry that was virtually nonexistent in the previous century. Though recent tragedies have temporarily delayed the travel of eager citizens into space, the boom of the commercial space industry is pushing forward with new promises of space exploration available to the next paying customer, anticipated in the next few years.",signatures:"Laura Galdamez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59151",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59151",authors:[{id:"221942",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",surname:"Galdamez",slug:"laura-galdamez",fullName:"Laura Galdamez"}],corrections:null},{id:"59553",title:"The Mortality of Space Explorers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73603",slug:"the-mortality-of-space-explorers",totalDownloads:1474,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Outer space exploration poses unique risks to human survival. Here, we review the current literature on United States astronauts and Soviet and Russian cosmonauts and provide updated and original research findings. As in previous research, both astronauts and cosmonauts are shown to have reduced risk of death by natural causes, particularly from chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease and cancer, compared with appropriately matched general populations. Simultaneously, space explorers are at increased risk of death by external forces, particularly accidents such as plane crashes and spacecraft accidents. In total, both astronauts and cosmonauts are at reduced risk of all-cause mortality in comparison to the general populations of the United States and Russia. However, in comparison to astronauts, cosmonauts have been at equal risk of accidental death, but increased risk of death by chronic disease. We conjecture that the lack of risk from chronic disease may be due to the excellent health and medical monitoring of space explorers coupled with the deliberate attempts to limit their radiation exposure levels below those that would be detrimental. The differences in the astronaut and cosmonaut mortality experiences are likely due to lifestyle factors and the background rates of mortality in the two nations.",signatures:"Robert J. Reynolds and Steven M. Day",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59553",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59553",authors:[{id:"220737",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",surname:"J. Reynolds",slug:"robert-j.-reynolds",fullName:"Robert J. Reynolds"},{id:"220748",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven",surname:"M. Day",slug:"steven-m.-day",fullName:"Steven M. Day"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1992",title:"Recent Advances in Aircraft Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"67fa903d68a094013f66d01b38882107",slug:"recent-advances-in-aircraft-technology",bookSignature:"Ramesh K. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. 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In the continuum mechanics, there are two methods to express the motion in the environment. The first description is the Eulerian approach. In this method, attention is paid to a special volume in the space. A mesh remains fixed in the Eulerian method and fluid regions change in shape and location on the mesh. It uses a fixed grid system which is not transformed during the solution procedure. The fluid is studied while passing this volume and continuously replaced in time. Therefore, this method is not appropriate for formulation of basic equations of fluid movement. The Eulerian method has some limitations. For example, when the portion of the perimeter to the area of a zone of fluid is large, the error of this method is increased. In the Eulerian method, it is not possible to decompose the equation on the boundaries with the same precision of inner region of fluid and accordingly, the finer mesh should be used near the boundaries. Therefore, when the free surface of a discontinuous region is modeled by this method, finer grid should be employed in order to achieve more precise results, specifically if this surface has large deflections. This is crucial when the portion of the area to the perimeter of a zone is low, for example on phase of a multiphase fluid. In this case, using finer mesh could increase the portion of the number of the inner elements to the boundary elements, which in turn, increases the precision of the numerical solution. The main superiority of the Eulerian description is the possibility of modeling of complicated surfaces. For example, the collapse of a column of a fluid could be modeled in the Eulerian grid which is shown in Figure 1.
\nFluid column in Eulerian grid: (a) before collapse and (b) collapsing flow.
A sample of Lagrangian grid in vertical direction.
In Lagrangian method, the flow field of the considered fluid is covered by a mesh moving with the fluid. The fluid boundaries always coincide with the grid boundaries and the fluid inside each cell of the grid always remains in that computational cell. Although this method is not applicable to flows undergoing large distortions, where meshes can be twisted into unacceptable shapes, but its advantage is the ease with which it handles free surfaces and interfaces, which makes it applicable to a wide variety of problems. For example, the grid shown in Figure 2 is Lagrangian in the vertical coordinate. For free surface problems, if the free surface movement or the tangential acceleration gradient in the perpendicular direction to its surface is not large, the Lagrangian method can be used to simulate free surfaces. The grid lines are located on the free surface and move with it. Therefore, there is no need for any special boundary condition in this location [1].
\nGoverning equations for a compressible viscous fluid flow with no phase change are as follows:\n
In these equations,
where indices 1 and 2 show first and second fluids properties, and
This phase indicator function is the fluid property or volume fraction, which moves with it and can be derived as follows:
\nThis function can be used to calculate the fluid properties in each phase as a weight function. In order to use a set of governing equations using the weight function, each fluid property should be calculated based on the volume occupied by this fluid in the surface cell as expressed in Eqs. (9) and (10) [2]:
\nFree surfaces considered here are those on which discontinuities exist in one or more variables. This has been the challenge for researchers to omit or reduce this problem as much as possible. The transient state as well as phenomena such as surface tension, changing of fluid phase and Kelvin‐Helmholtz instability makes numerical simulation of such problems cumbersome. It is expected that methods used to simulate interface of fluids have a number of characteristics. These include mass conservation, simulating the interface as thin as possible, being able to reproduce complicated topologies, generalization of expansion to 3D problems, and being able to model surface phenomena and be computationally efficient.
\nThere are different methods to simulate free surface flow, each of which has its own advantages and disadvantages:
\nThe main idea of donor‐acceptor approach is that the value of volume fraction in downwind cell, the acceptor cell, is used for anticipation of transferring fluid in each time step. The problem in this approach is that using downwind cell in calculations may lead to unreal situations which are values out of zero and unity domain in surface cells. Figure 3a shows this method with the first fluid with gray color and volume of fluid equals to unity. It could be seen that using donor‐acceptor approach with downwind differencing scheme results in values greater than unity in donor cell. It is because the second fluid in the acceptor cell is greater than the value needed in the donor cell. Similarly in Figure 3b, using downwind differencing scheme leads to negative values for volume of fluid, which is because the needed fluid in acceptor cell is more than what is in the donor cell [3].
\nSchematic view of donor‐acceptor approach [
In order to be assured that volume of fluid is between zero and one, the amount of fluid or volume of fluid in donor cell should be used to regulate the estimated fluid transferring between two adjacent cells [5].
\nOne drawback of donor‐acceptor method is that this method changes any finite gradient into step, and consequently increases the slope of the surface model in the direction of flow. This problem was alleviated by proposing a method to consider the slope of interface for flux transferring in adjacent cells by Hirt and Nichols [6]. For this purpose, a donor‐acceptor equation was proposed so that it could detect the direction of the flow in interface and then define the upwind and downwind cells accordingly. Thereafter, this model was expanded for 3D domains by Torrey et al. [7]. The Surfer method is one version of volume of fluid which deals with merging and fragmenting of interfaces in multiphase flows [8].
\nThe volume of fluid method is one of the most popular methods for anticipation of interfaces, and many researches have been conducted based on this method including dam break, Rayleigh‐Taylor instability, wave generation and bubble movement [6, 9–12]. This method was modified in 2008 to get more accurate results by considering diagonal changes in fluxes of adjacent cells for structured grid domains [13, 14].
\nThe volume of fluid (VOF) method was first proposed by Hirt and Nichols [6]. In this method, similar to the SLIC method, free surfaces can be reconstructed based on parallel lines with respect to one of the principal coordinates of the system. However, nine neighboring cells are considered for flux changes and defining the normal vector in a desired cell. Then, free surface is considered as either a horizontal or a vertical line in cell with respect to the relative normal vector components. Figure 4 shows the actual free surface and what was simulated by Hirt‐Nichols method.
\nFree surface (a) actual surface and (b) reconstructed surface based on Hirt‐Nichols method [
Hirt‐Nichols scheme (a) actual surface and (b) reconstructed surface.
Upwind fluxes are used for fluxes parallel to the reconstructed interface, while donor‐acceptor fluxes are used for those fluxes normal to it. For instance according to Figure 5a, the interface in the cell
where
The “min” operator has been designed to ensure the fluid leaving the cell
The FCT method is based on the idea to present a formulation which combines the upwind and downwind fluxes. This formulation aimed to leave out upwind numerical diffusion and instability of downwind scheme [15]. Idea of neighboring fluxes based on higher order translate scheme was first proposed by Boris and Book [16] and then developed by Zalesak [17] to multidimensional.
\nIn this method calculations consist of some steps. First, an intermediate value of volume of fluid,
Three adjacent typical cells in FCT method.
where
Thereafter, an anti‐diffusive flux is needed to be defined (
To make this stable, a correction factor,
This method was first proposed by Youngs in 1982 [18]. It was then developed by Rudman [19] with more details. In this method, at first the slope of the interface position is estimated. Then, the free surface is defined as a straight line with the slope of
Assuming that
Four possible positions for free surface in Youngs’ method [
Using components of the normal unit vector, the angle
The angle
It is possible to set
What is behind this conclusion is as follows:
\n\n | Case I | \nCase II | \n
---|---|---|
0 | \n0 | \n|
1 | \n||
0 | \n||
\n | Case III | \nCase IV | \n
---|---|---|
1 | \n1 | \n|
1 | \n||
0 | \n||
Calculation of exiting flux in Youngs’ method.
Four side fractions
To solve fluid volume transfer equation with FDM or FVM, diffusion error in interface reconstruction occurs. This leads to poor modeling of free surfaces, specifically in the interface of two adjacent fluids with large density difference. PLIC is one of the methods to reconstruct the interface between fluids with second‐order accuracy [20]. It can increase the accuracy of transferred flux estimation and geometric fluid distribution in each cell. In this method, unit normal vectors of the surface are calculated based on the volume fraction of fluid using Youngs’ least square method as:
\nwhere
Different positioning of the interface for
where
in which
When unit normal vector of a surface is defined, the true position of the interface can be easily determined using volume of fluid in each cell.
\nVarious positions of an interface in a cell.
Another method to reconstruct the interface between two fluids is to discretize the convection term using higher order differencing schemes or blended differencing scheme. The accuracy of less/non‐diffusive schemes and compressive schemes was compared by Davis [22]. Less/non‐diffusive schemes prevent the interface profile from being diffused. Compressive schemes not only prevent the interface from being diffused, but also omit any diffusion in the neighboring of the interface. Thus, they are considered as powerful tools for thin interface simulation.
\nGhobadian [23] applied the higher order scheme proposed by Van Leer [24]. However, his results showed that this scheme has poor ability in terms of removing diffusion. Therefore, he proposed solutions for decreasing numerical diffusion. Other methods for omitting diffusion proposed by Pericleous and Chen [25] proved to be associated with interface diffusion. Although first‐order upwind or downwind schemes lead to diffusion, higher order methods result in numerical fluctuations in the interface. There are other methods for reducing the interface as follows:
\nThe CICSAM scheme, presented by Ubbink, is a combined method to reduce the diffusion problem in interface modeling. This method imposes some limitations on the fluid fraction value. It is obvious that the value of a fluid in a cell should be constant in the absence of a source. The CICSAM approach presents an equation for free surface volume fraction as:\n
where
where
More details on determining
where
The CICSAM method well satisfies the bounds defined within it, and can be accurately reconstruct the free surface. The basis of the method, however, is on the 1D equations and linearization, which makes it less accurate for 3D modeling reconstructions.
\nCalculation of the upwind value for an arbitrary mesh.
This scheme is based on the CICSAM and switches smoothly between the upper bound of the universal limiter and ULTIMATE‐QUICK, a combination of the universal limiter and QUICK, considering the angle between the interface and the direction of motion [27].
\nAnalogous to CICSAM, this scheme is an algebraic advection scheme for the interface, which is designed for the implicit time advancing algorithm. In this method
where\n
HiRAC scheme is another modification of the CICSAM method [28]. This newly proposed method tries to improve the computational efficiency and maintain the accuracy. In this method, the weighing factor,
where
This method is somehow similar to CICSAM, which benefits from a combined interpolation scheme. In HRIC method, the difference between two upwind schemes is calculated based on the normal vector angle of the free surface as [29]:
\nThe portion of each of the two terms in the above equations can be defined as:
\nIn this way,
It should be noted that an improved scheme of HRIC, called Flux-Blending Interface-Capturing Scheme (FBICS), has been recently proposed. In this method, analogous to CICSAM and HRIC, the difference between two upwind schemes is calculated based on the normal vector angle of the free surface. Based on FBICS, Eq. (33) can be reformulated to obtain a more accurate scheme as:
\nSome other modifications are also proposed by Tsui et al. [30].
\nOne of the drawbacks of HRIC and CICSAM schemes is high Courant numbers. Both methods lack a proper switching strategy to accurately model the interface when Courant number increases. The Courant number,
which is suitable for Courant numbers between 0.3 and 0.7. For a
STACS method has been proposed to improve the accuracy and stability of the results specifically in high Courant numbers by Darwish and Moukalled [31]. It uses an implicit transient discretization, i.e. no transient bounding is applied, and in order to minimize the stepping behavior of HRIC scheme, a modification is proposed. In this method, applying
where
This enables a rapid but smooth switching strategy that works very well, especially where the normal to the free‐surface face is not along the grid direction.
\nIn this method, presented by Jasak and Weller [32], free surface compression is modeled using additional compressive artificial terms.\n
where
where
where
Figure 11 shows the NVD for inter‐gamma scheme.
\nNVD for inter‐gamma scheme.
As mentioned before, volume of fluid is among the most popular methods in free surface modeling. Having in mind that this method is based on defining a discontinuous function, the color function, there is not a unique form for free surface. Therefore, it is required to reconstruct the free surface using volume of fraction function. In one hand, VOF method satisfies the conservation of mass while it is unable to calculate free surface parameters including curvature radius and normal unit vector directly. On the other hand, in level set methods as the distance function is smooth, the surface geometry can be easily calculated, while satisfying the conservation of mass is very demanding. In order to resolve the problems of level set methods, a number of different researches have been conducted. For example, higher order schemes were proposed to improve the conservation of continuity equation by Peng et al. [33]. Adaptive mesh refinement techniques were also proposed to increase the accuracy of the local mesh consistency. In 2009, an integrated method known as hybrid Particle Level Set (PLS) was proposed to improve the accuracy of the results. However, the problem still remained in relation with mass conservation.
\nIn order to take the advantages of both methods and eliminate their disadvantages, integration of volume of fluid and level set methods was proposed in a new scheme known as coupled level set and volume-of-fluid (CLSVOF) method to model two‐phase incompressible flows by Sussman and Pucket [34]. It should be noted that although accurate, this method cannot be easily employed, because these two methods, VOF and level set, should be individually solved and their effects need to be coupled based on the reconstructed interface.
\nDefining the pressure difference inserted on the surface of two fluids with different densities and tension stresses is one of the most demanding problems in fluid mechanics. One method to do this is the Pressure Calculation based on the Interface Location (PCIL) method which is presented here. Surface tension, that changes the value of variables in momentum equations, imposes a discontinuity at the position of the interface between two fluids [21].
\nStress from surface tension inserts a force upon the interface. The resultant force is perpendicular to the surface and its curvature is dependent on the geometry of the surface. Surface tension can be considered in two ways. In the first approach, it is considered as a boundary condition in the equations for the surface. This needs using an iterative method for true approximation of pressure, which in result, increases the time and cost of calculation and consequently makes it inefficient. In order to address this problem, some other methods have been proposed in which the precise calculation of interface position is not necessary. In these methods, the direct force of surface tension has been replaced with the body force in the momentum equation. The Continuum Surface Force (CSF) method is a base method for calculation of body forces of fluid surface tension [2]. The body forces can be considered to act smoothly on a narrow strip of cells in interface zone. In this method the surface stresses are replaced with the body forces which are calculated as:\n
where
Another approach based on CSF method was proposed by Torrey et al. [7] called Continuum Surface Stress (CSS), in which body forces of CSF method were replaced by tension tensors of surface tension based on the following equation:\n
where
It should be mentioned that employing CSF or CSS methods has some drawbacks. For instance, spurious velocities of the thinner fluid near the interface is one the reported problems.
\nA number of researches have been performed in order to resolve the problem of spurious velocities [35, 36]. In one approach, using virtual particles moving along with the surface could improve the results [37]. One of the latest methods presented in this field is PCIL. This method shows that having more precise border cells and calculating their associated pressure based on the momentum equation can lead to significant reduction of bothersome flows near this region. PCIL is a simple and efficient method of calculating free surfaces. The total pressure on the left side of the cell can be calculated as (see Figure 12):
\nCells on the interface in contact with left and right cells of the free surface [
where
where
On the other hand, the change in pressure
Accordingly, the above equation can be reformulated for pressure in the
where the second term introduces the normal force of the surface tension per unit area of the interface. This can be presented in the vector form as:\n
where
One of the most fundamental steps to perform surface tension calculations is defining the curvature of the interface. Defining this curvature is not so demanding as long as the precise position of the interface is known. However, using volumetric tracing methods and equivalent alternatives representing the interface position make the estimation of the curvature cumbersome.
\nThe method of volume of fluid presented by Hirt and Nichols [6] is one of the earliest methods in this field. In this method, a curve
The value of the surface curvature can be defined based on the distance function as:\n
To discretize the above equation, it is required to first calculate the normal vector of the surface based on Figure 13 and the following relations, and consequently estimate the curvature:\n
Position of the normal vectors of the surface in the cell faces.
One of the advantages of this approach, the level‐set method, is using a distance function which is smooth and uniform, so that it increases the simplicity of the calculation and accuracy of the results.
\nThe value of the body force from surface tension of the cell faces can be calculated in CSF method as:\n
where
in which the ratio of the densities is inserted in order to reduce spurious velocities of the thinner fluid. The discretized version of Eq. (58) can be obtained as follows:\n
Based on what was discussed for PCIL method, the following relation is adopted to the present method:\n
It can be seen that in this equation, the ratio of densities is replaced by the variable
This newly proposed method is based on two sub‐models, the Four-Point Method (FPM) and the Three-Line Method (TLM). In the former sub‐model, a curve is fitted to the intersection of the points of grid lines for central and two neighboring cells, while the latter fits a curve to the free surface so that the distance between the curve and its linear interface approximation is minimized [42].
\nIn the four‐point method, free surface (as illustrated in Figure 14) is approximated using a continuous function
Free surface modeling in FPM.
where
In this method, the desired function is approximated using an n‐degree polynomial function with unknown constant coefficients. Therefore, we have:\n
where
It is supposed that Q is the set of
As we have
Now, it is claimed that there is an
Thus, our aim is to solve Eqs. (63) and (64), and one can write them in the following forms:\n
or\n
such that
Now, the intervals
This is a nonlinear set of equations and can be easily solved using Matlab or Lingo software.
\nIn this method as illustrated in Figure 15, the main goal is to find a function as
Free surface modeling by TLM.
Similar to what was discussed in the four‐point method, in this method the function
The steps of using the above equations are as follows:
\nStep 1: Read
Step 2: Solve Eq. (73) or (76) in the FPM or the TLM, respectively.
\nStep 3: If the previous step is infeasible, set
Step 4: Set
Then set the value of target function in
Step 5: If
In this chapter volume of fluid (VOF) scheme was introduced. This is one of the most effective methods employed in the simulation of two fluid flows interfaces with dramatic changes in density and viscosity. . These interfaces are represented implicitly by the values of a color function which is the fluid volume fraction. The advantage of the method is its ability to deal with arbitrarily shaped interfaces and to cope with large deformations, as well as interface rupture and coalescence in a natural way. In VOF the mass is rigorously conserved, provided the discretization is conservative. However, advecting the interface without diffusing, dispersing, or wrinkling is a big issue. This can either be performed algebraically, in schemes such as CICSAM or geometrically, in schemes such as PLIC. Herein, the viscous fluid governing equations which are Navier‐Stokes coupled with VOF equation were presented. Then the most popular VOF schemes such as donor‐acceptor, Hirt‐Nichols, FCT, Youngs, and PLIC were explained. CICSAM, HiRAC, HRIC, STACS, and some other up‐to‐date proposed methods were introduced and the accuracy and time calculation of each method were evaluated. Moreover, surface tension modeling and parametric study of interfaces were discussed. The author hopes this brief presentation of the VOF method will be beneficial for scientists and students in their further researches and will help them to massively and continuously expand this very challenging field of fluid mechanics.
\nPig is one of the oldest domesticated animals and majority of the breeds are known to have descended from the Eurasian Wild Boar (
The origins of African domestic pig breeds are obscured and highly controversial due to lack of sufficient archaeological and genetic evidence to establish sound hypotheses about how, when and where they were founded. Although
The wild pigs of Africa are the warthog,
The history of pigs in sub-Saharan Africa has been blurred by the importation of very large numbers of European pig breeds into all parts of the continent through a number of ways ranging from undocumented subsistence strategies or colonial agricultural development projects [6]. Thus, the genetic heritage of today’s African pig populations is extremely mixed. Secondly, the history and distribution of pigs in Africa have been substantially affected by the growth and domination of many parts of Africa by Islam. This has led to the disappearance of pigs from a wide swathe of Africa in historic times [6].
\nThe domestic pig, based on historical records and scientific evidence, is thought to have originated from the Eurasian wild boar (
In West Africa, the indigenous pigs are known by several names such as the West African dwarf pig (Nigeria), Ashanti dwarf pig (Ghana), or the bush pig (Togo). The Ashanti Black Forest Dwarf pig of Ghana, commonly called the Ashanti Dwarf Pig for instance, has been shown to have both a European and Asian ancestry, with the pigs differing from the north to the south of the country [18]. Phenotypically, these pigs have been described as having a concave head profile, black coat colour, erect ears that sometimes project backwards and a short cylindrical snout. They are hardy, able to survive under poor management, mostly scavenging for their food and can digest high fibrous matter; they are well adapted to resist heat stroke as well as other harsh environmental conditions and are considered to be less susceptible to many local diseases and parasites; they also have good mothering ability. Average body weight of adult pig is 60 kg, bearing 5–7 piglets [18]. The Nigerian indigenous pig (NIP) is described in a similar manner to the Ghanaian local pig [19, 20]. Eastern African and Southern Africa indigenous pigs have also been described [21, 22].\n
\n
The Local African Pig Breed of Burkina Faso. Copied from: au-ibar.org\n\n
\n
The Local African Pig Breed of Burkina Faso. Copied from: au-ibar.org\n\n
\n
Nigerian Local Pig breed. (Pictures courtesy of Adedeji JA).\n
\n
Nigerian Local Pig breed on a free range Management system. (Pictures courtesy of Adedeji JA).
\nThe introduction of pigs into Southern Africa is thought to have taken place later than for other regions of the African continent, and this might have occurred through the processes of barter, warfare and migration as there is little historical information on the Southern Africa indigenous pig populations [22]. There are two recognized indigenous pig breed populations in Southern Africa namely: “Kolbroek” and “Windsnyer”. There is however a third group of local pigs referred to as the South African hard-footed pigs which are free ranging scavengers and converters of unutilized household and farm waste [22].\n
\n
The South African “Kolbroek” breed. Copied from: Farmersweekly.co.za. Photo: \n
\n
The South African “Windsyner” Pig Breed: Copied from: livestockoftheworld.com\n
\nWhile the Eastern African indigenous pigs are sturdy, dark to light coloured skin, black or white long feet, long narrow snout and a well-developed mane, the Kolbroek pigs are short, with prickled ears, short snout and a squashed face. They are dark black or brown in colour, often striped at birth; docile nature with high disease resistance, and thrives well on a high fibre diet. Windsnyer pigs on the other hand are smaller with bristles that form a distinct mane. The coat colour varies from black, reddish-brown, black and white to spotted. They are narrow-bodied, long-nosed and razor-backed, and are able to survive periods of food scarcity. Other pig breeds described by Swart are the Namibian and the Mozambican pig breeds. The Namibian indigenous pigs are found in the northern communal areas of Namibia, and their origin is unsure but they are thought to be brought from areas around the Mediterranean Sea. They are relatively long, lean-bodied pigs with long snout, with coat colour ranging from mottled brown to black and white. They are well adapted to harsh environments with low maintenance requirements, fertile, and are excellent lard producers [22] The Botswanan indigenous pig breed is found mostly in the southern part of the country called the Tswana. The pig is predominantly black in colour, and well adapted for the climatic conditions of Botswana [17].
\nIndigenous pig breeds are unique to the geographic locations where they are found and possess genetic characteristics which may provide future breeds with production traits that are advantageous for survival [23]. These qualities include their adaptation to harsh environments, resistance to disease and adaptation to harsh production system in developing countries [24]. These advantages are quickly being lost due to the inability to compete with the fast-growing commercial exotic breeds and the resultant indiscriminate cross-breeding of the local with the exotic species which has consequently narrowed the gene pool of the local breeds [25]. Poverty, lack of information on the attributes of local pigs and ill-defined government policies and programmes have been adduced as some of the reasons why local pig breeds are being lost very rapidly [26]. There is therefore the severe danger of losing the local pig biodiversity because of the race to satisfy high production capacity of pigs’ i.e. fast growth and large litter size [23]. Thus, a number of researchers have reported a steady waning of the indigenous pig population in Africa, with some recommending the conservation of the germplasm of valuable genetic resource [24, 27, 28, 29]. In Nigerian, the local pigs (Figure 2b) have been replaced with exotic breeds such as Large White, Landrace, Hampshire and Duroc because of the afore-mentioned advantages [24]. Similarly, the commercial pig industry in Southern Africa has been taken over by exotic pig breeds which were imported to enhance the industry and meet the demand of the market system [22]. Predominant exotic pig breeds in South Africa include the South African Landrace, the Large White, the Duroc and the Pietrain [22]. The Eastern African commercial pig industry as seen in Ugandan, has also been replaced with exotic pig breeds such as Camborough, Landrace and Large White along with their crosses [30]. However, many small producers acknowledge the value of local pigs and they have resolved to conserve them [31]. Thus, it is necessary to work on pig conservation and the development of the family production system that will conserve the genetic potential of African local or indigenous breeds [28, 32].
\nThe indigenous pigs are reservoirs of genes and sources of heterosis, but these variable and valuable traits suited for our particular ecological zone are constantly being threatened by genetic erosion, leading to a progressive loss of genetic diversity [33]. These phenomena are actually related to the implementation of indiscriminate and unsustainable crossbreeding programs which influence the structure and dynamics of the pig populations in Africa. It is therefore imperative to draw attention to the disappearance of the indigenous African pig breeds [6, 16, 25]. However, in view of the diverse roles indigenous pig plays, it entails that there is need for an increased knowledge of the indigenous pig, their characterization and conservation to support sustainable agricultural development and maintain local breeds of pigs which have variable traits suited to a particular ecological zone [34].
\nIn most African countries, the agricultural sector still provides a relatively large share of GDP [35]. Livestock production can contribute to poverty reduction in various ways including increase in food supply, source of income and a means for capital accumulation, employment opportunities and supply inputs and services for crop production. Livestock also represents an important factor for social integration [36]. Pig production has the potential of improving the real per capita income of Sub-Saharan African reported as $688 in 2010 compared $1717 of the rest of the world. Over the past 30 years, GDP growth per capita in SSA has an average of 0.16 percent per year [35]. However, pig production is an important means of livelihood in many parts of Africa, particularly in rural communities [37, 38, 39]. It is increasingly perceived as a source of income generation and poverty reduction.
\nDespite the decline in the use of indigenous breeds and the shift towards more improved, exotic breeds in most part of Africa including South Africa over the years, indigenous pigs in African remain a source of food and income for people farming in rural areas and subsistence-orientated production systems [37, 40, 41]. These indigenous pigs and their crosses are noted for their high potential for subsistence-oriented production systems [37]. Thus, many small-scale rural farmers in various parts of South Africa still keep indigenous pigs [37, 42, 43] probably due to their ability to remain productive even when living in poor sanitary conditions and fed low quality feed. This low input requirement is helpful in low-income rural communities [44].
\nIn 1998, Nigeria was estimated to have 4.86 million pigs, followed by Uganda (1.55 million), South Africa (1.54 million), Cameroon (1.35 million), and the Democratic Republic of Congo (1 million) as the top five pig populations in Africa [45]. This has grown in the last two decades, as presently Nigeria is estimated to have over 7.5 million pigs, Malawi 6.3 million, Uganda 2.7 million, Angola 2.6 million, Burkina Faso 2.5 million, Madagascar 1.7 million and Mozambique 1.6 [46]. Presently, Africa is estimated to have over 40 million pigs [46]. In many African countries, particularly tropic regions, most of the pigs is kept by smallholders in rural area (51). Uganda, for instance has 2.3 million pigs being kept by one million households for consumption and translates into cash in times of emergencies [47]. Pig enterprise has been reported to be a profitable enterprise that should be encouraged and embarked upon [48]. More often than not, pig farming is combined with crop farming. A pig possesses a large caecum, and its manure is rich in nutrients which make it good source of organic fertilizers for crops and can also be recycled into livestock feeds. Besides having main production systems like extensive, semi-intensive and intensive system; there are also subsistence-oriented households and market-oriented households which look to pig production for different reasons [37]. Pigs also can contribute positively to the empowerment of women and enhance their equal participation in local markets [49].
\nIn recent times, commercial pig production under intensive system of management is becoming more popular because of the favourable return on investments. Owing to increasing human population and demand of meat source, pork production has scaled up with a developing pig value chain which gradually established over time. This chain includes several stakeholders like input suppliers, middlemen, traders, transporters and butchers who play vital roles in the economy of communities, regions and countries where pig production is thriving. Farmers are also able to enter at different phases of the production chain as breeders (selling piglets), pig fatteners (selling live or slaughtered pigs), or both. The feed supply input is exemplified in local feed mill production for pig feed as seen in Uganda [49].
\nPigs are largely slaughtered for home consumption, during funerals and cultural ceremonies [50] Pig production has been reported to be a dependable source of income for livelihood activities like school fees, income and consumption in Uganda [51, 52] medical bills, fertilizer purchase, and debt recovery. In Congo pig farming was for cash [53], in Ghana it was for consumption, savings, wealth/status, breeding and manure [54], while in South Africa pigs were seen as a substitute for savings [55]. In Cameroun and Congo, it was considered as an emergency fund [44, 53], and sales were done during festivities, and when demand was high. In Nigeria it was kept for income and consumption [56]. In Namibia, and Kenya pig keeping is for income and consumption [57] while it was for cash in Botswana [58] and South Africa [59].
\nThe impact of diseases in pigs can also result in huge economic consequences for farmers’ livelihoods and income generation both at household level, community level and regional level. The impact of diseases results in losses of income to the farmers, and possible closure of market. No country is yet to export pork meat in Africa, however reasonable trade is known to occur within regions. Such examples can be seen between Nigeria and Benin in West Africa [39] and between Uganda and Kenya in East Africa [60].
\nPig production system across Africa is dominated by small-holder pig owners mostly in rural areas with poor farm infrastructure and limited biosecurity [61, 62, 63]. The production system in Africa is faced by many constraints, with marketing being a limiting factor to the expansion of pig populations in Africa. Pig marketing in Africa is mainly dominated by sales of live pigs through auctions by farmer, traders or middlemen [40, 56]. Sales of these live pigs involved movement to various destination evading ante-mortem inspections and congregation at the point of sale, thus leading to spread of infectious diseases [40]. These small holders pig farmers do not have access to high value markets and the market they patronize are generally exploitative, collusive and economically inefficient [64]. High value markets are only limited to big commercial pig farms that supplies pork to supermarkets and companies [61], while the main channels of marketing pigs in many African countries are through auctions at live pig markets, slaughtering facilities and direct sales to individuals [56, 65, 66]. These trade/marketing practices also have huge concomitant influence on the breeding programs as better price value are gotten for improved exotic breed in comparison to indigenous breeds of pigs.
\nAnother marketing-associated limiting factor to small holder’s pig farmers is having good value for their animals, because pigs are considered more or less as a single-product animal in most pig producing areas in Africa unlike cattle, sheep and goats [64]. This is because pork is the only end product of the production system, as other by-products like lard, hair etc. are not utilized.
\nLive pig markets are generally categorized into three: primary/collection markets; secondary/regrouping markets and terminal market, with many actors (farmers, traders, assemblers and brokers) within each market performing different functions or roles along the marketing chain [56]. The practices in some countries where pigs sold passes through two or more middlemen before eventually reaching the market or consumer makes such pig to become highly expensive to the consumer [56, 67]. While some farmers may sell directly to other farmers without using the middlemen, others farmers in several African countries sells their pigs in the local community or neighbourhood at low prices [17, 50, 53, 58, 59, 65, 67, 68], as most of the famers especially in South Africa could not gain entrée into sustainable markets due to lack of information, knowledge and skills on the selling price of pig [65, 68]. In some African countries the middle men purchase the pigs from farmers at poor prices and sell to traders; at pig slaughter houses or pork serving centres’ in order to escape taxes at the slaughter slab [51], while in Botswana, the main pig market for pig farmers are the local meat processors and butcheries [69, 70] and the common marketing chain involves “farm–abattoir–butchery or processing plants and the end products were distributed to shopping malls [61]. In Nigeria, sales are either in cash or credit depending on relationship between the buyers and traders, as well as on size, health status, body score, season and festivals at the time of sales [56].
\nIt has been reported that a solid relationship existed between auctions and prevailing market price of pigs as high pig populations at auctions show that the market prices are good [65]. Others have however observed that pig and pork were generally more expensive in dry season (September to April) when the Fulani herdsmen migrate to the south (causing a temporal shortage of beef) and also due to Christmas and Easter festivities in December and April respectively [56]. Therefore, in order to improve price and access to market, there is need to investing in market infrastructure, organizing pig farmers into cooperative groups, and develop other products from pigs as part of value chain addition. Furthermore, government policies aimed at improving prices of pigs/pork and access to high value market for small holder’s farmers particularly farmers rearing indigenous pigs should be put in place.
\nPig wholesaling and retailing is assumed to be oligopolistic leading to higher marketing margin for the traders through incorporation of gain market power and control of market price paid by consumers since only a few handles the bulk of the trade and majority of the farmers are also traders operating in the same market with majority of them controlling both production and marketing decisions [56].
\nSecondly, standardization/grading of animals and adequate price information are absent in the markets and creates problem/difficult for the traders in many African countries [43, 52, 56, 59, 65, 67, 68, 71]. In addition, there are lack of price harmonization among the farmers since no templates exists to standardize transactions even on live pig-weight estimate [68], which in turn forced pig farmers to consent to any amount middle men offered them [67]. This has resulted in farmers having an irregular income because they regularly sell their pigs at poor prices as observed in Kenya, Tanzania and South Africa [41, 65, 67, 71, 72].
\nThirdly, marketing of pigs and their products in many African countries is poor and not organized and is generally accompanied by seasonal variations in market price due to poor demand [38, 40, 41, 51, 52, 56, 59, 61, 65, 67, 68, 70, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79].
\nFourthly, marketing in Africa countries is also dominated by inadequate equipment/infrastructure, slaughter facility, lack of refrigeration/storage facilities and poor hygiene [52, 56, 61, 65, 67, 70, 71, 79, 80]. There was limited processing ability due to poor electricity supply [51, 52, 74, 81, 82]. Thus, to avoid condemnation at abattoirs [40] and spoilage, farmers are forced to sell their pigs at informal markets and at poor prices. This has been reported in South Africa [40, 43, 68, 73], Kenya [67] and Tanzania [41]. Consequently, majority of the farmers in South Africa reported that they sold to any willing buyer due to lack of stable market [73].
\nFifthly, few wholesalers are usually involved in the transaction compared to retailers [56] because of insufficient funds and credit facilities as reported in Kenya [38] and Nigeria [56, 78, 83]. Moreover, lack of funds affected pig production and marketing especially due to high cost of transportation faced by the traders in Botswana and Nigeria [56, 79, 84]. In some instances, the problem is exaggerated due to increase in the price of petroleum and spare parts of vehicles [56, 70, 71, 85]. This is because majority of the traders in most African countries including Uganda do not own vehicles for transportation and thus engage the services of other transporters [66]. Hence both live pigs and pig carcasses are transported in trucks, buses, roof of saloon cars, bicycles and motorbikes openly while pigs from neighbouring villages are trekked directly to the markets in Nigeria (motorbike transportation of pigs in Quan-Pan LGA of Plateau state, Nigeria - Figure 2a) [56, 86] and Kenya [74]. The method of transporting pig/pig products can spread diseases including African swine fever and foot and mouth disease etc. which comes with severe economic consequences [82].
\nHerd Health Management of pigs just like in other livestock involves all the farm practices that promotes health, improve productivity and prevent diseases in animals for the benefit of all stakeholders in the industry, while at the same time not sacrificing animal welfare, food safety, public health and environmental sustainability [87]. Traditionally, the essence of herd health is to control or eliminate diseases and management inefficiencies that may impact on welfare or limit swine productivity. This is achieved by ensuring comprehensive husbandry management systems that includes breeding, biosecurity and environmental management, nutrition management, parasite control, vaccination, adequate risk monitoring and assessment in conjunction with best farming practices in a practical and economically feasible way [88]. Health management of Swine in Africa is dependent on the type of husbandry or production system being employed by the farmer. Three major management systems are obtainable in most developing countries of Africa, and they include:
\nThe free-range (scavenging) system which is the oldest and traditional method of rearing pigs in most parts of the world is mostly obtained in rural areas where resources (feeds and capital) are limited but with ample land resources necessary for wandering animals (Figure 1a). It involves households keeping a small number (1–3) of pigs which can roam about and scavenge for food and water, with occasional provision of kitchen wastes, and farm by-products. Pigs are rarely sheltered and there is no investment on feed or veterinary services [74]. The unrestricted roaming often leads to indiscriminate mating, with high probability of inbreeding leading to poor quality offspring. Local pig breeds are suitable for this system because they have high resistance to diseases and can manage with low-quality feed therefore, disease control in this system is quite minimal since little or no investment and management are needed [89]. In several African countries where the free-range traditional system of pig production has been characterized, its hallmark includes high mortality rate due to diseases, minimal health care, slow growth rate due to poor feed conversion, low off take, low reproductive rates, lack of supplementary feeding, and lack of proper housing [90, 91].
\n(a) Free-ranging village pig, Langtang, Nigeria. (b) Semi-intensively kept pigs, Shendam, Nigeria. (c) Intensive piglets in a farrowing pen in Jos-south, Nigeria (d) Backyard pig farm, Wukari, Nigeria. (Pictures courtesy of Adedeji JA).
The semi-intensive system involves the restriction of pigs to a limited space (Figure 1b and 1d), with the provision of feed (kitchen wastes and agricultural by-products), water and veterinary services. Periodically, the pigs are allowed into a larger area to exercise, graze, and wallow, such that some classes of pigs are kept outside the pig shelters, e.g. boars and sows stay within a perimeter fence where water, feeds and shade are provided [70].
\nThe intensive system of farming is characterised by complete housing of pigs and provision of complete diets (Figure 1c). In this system, pigs are shifted from one pen to another according to the production stage, until they reach market weight [70]. This management system is practised in large-scale commercial systems that are characterized by improved breeds, use of commercial concentrates for feeding and proper housing with sophisticated equipment and biosafety measures [33]. In certain parts of Africa especially the urban areas where land resources are minimal due to explosion of human population and urbanization, pig farmers tend to adopt the intensive and semi-intensive systems of production [91].
\nThe most prevalent and endemic disease responsible for outbreaks in many pig producing areas of Africa is the African swine fever, a viral disease that spreads rapidly and is associated with high morbidity and mortality [92, 93]. Other known infectious diseases that have been recorded includes, but not limited to swine erysipelas, brucellosis, exudative dermatitis (greasy pig), respiratory diseases, swine dysentery, mastitis, and porcine parvovirus. Parasitic diseases in the form of Helminthosis (Strongylid parasites,
Diseases and poor herd-health management practices are the major challenges to efficient management and profitable swine production in developing countries of the world [96]. In terms of disease control and herd health management in most pig producing areas of Africa, government and private veterinarians are usually available to provide disease diagnosis and treatment services. However, the level of acceptance of such services from farmers varies especially among smallholder farmers. In preventing swine diseases, having a herd health plan usually help to minimize disease incidence, thus most farmers depend on the provision of adequate housing, good husbandry and nutrition, hygiene, and ventilation [97].
\nVaccination is a major focus of disease prevention and herd-health management in pig production. Vaccines in use in a few African countries against production limiting diseases of pigs includes but not limited to Erysipelas,
While pig farmers in many African countries are scaling up their businesses from backyard to commercial enterprises due to increased population growth and demand for complementary source of animal protein, many are confronted with a number of challenges ranging from high feed costs that are prohibiting their progress, transboundary diseases and inadequate extension and veterinary service, poor breeding stock, unorganized marketing and inadequate slaughter facilities. Another challenge is the religious sentiments in some part of Africa towards pigs and pork products [38, 67, 74]. Despite these challenges pig farming and pork are gradually gaining acceptance in Africa. However, for production to be raised, these challenges need to be addressed individually at farm level and collectively by stakeholders through collaborative efforts.
\nEfficient and profitable pig production has been on the decline in Africa irrespective of the benefits derived from pig farming due to disease as observed in Nigeria [29, 78], Senegal [100], Kenya [67, 74] Congo [53], Southern Africa [37, 101], Botswana [61], Uganda [51, 52, 102], Tanzania [103], and Cameroon [80]. Livestock diseases forms one of the key threats to the livestock industry and specifically pig farming since diseases that affect livestock reduce productivity [104]. Livestock diseases including pig disease represent a major constraint to profitable production and have devastating impacts upon the industry leading to losses in hundreds of millions of dollars every year in Sub-Saharan Africa [105, 106]. Important pig diseases especially in Nigeria include: African swine fever, foot-and-mouth disease, brucellosis, Trypanosomosis, babesiosis, eperythrozoonosis, helminthosis, coccidiosis and other parasitoses (reviewed in [106]). These diseases impact negatively on production by affecting feed conversion efficiency, reproduction and growth rates as well as causing piglet and adult mortalities [106]. There is also the risk of zoonosis associated with some of the pig diseases. In general, a disease control strategy that can provide for the sustainability and expansion of the pig production capacity [106] is necessary in Africa.
\nHigh piglet and pig mortality rates has been reported in many African countries [32, 37, 38, 53, 58, 68, 69, 73, 74, 78, 83, 91, 103, 107, 108, 109]. These piglet mortalities affects both exotic and indigenous breeds, and were largely attributed to low birth weights and diseases such as septicaemia and colisepticaemia [101, 106] or high pre-weaning mortalities have been associated with crushing and chilling which are indication of inadequate husbandry management practices when farrowing pen with heating facilities are not provided [61, 69]. In addition, starvation, agalactiae and stress have also been reported to cause pre-weaning mortality [101]. Therefore, strategies that can provide adequate neonatal health and prevention of infertility and abortions in herds are paramount and appropriate initiative for growth of the pig population [106].
\nMost animal production activities in Africa are located in rural areas or remote areas that are inaccessible to proper veterinary services, while those that are accessible grapple with high cost of drugs and veterinary services that may be prohibitive. Thus, the farmers are forced to resort to easily available quacks that can wreak havoc on their animals due to wrong diagnosis and the prescriptions of wrong drug for treating diseases, or the use of expired vaccines, fake and sub-standard drugs [105, 110]. In addition, poor veterinary services were also reported among small scale farmers due to lack of skilled veterinarians or inadequate Vet staff. Sometimes the access by farmers to veterinarians is often limited by poor infrastructure including road/transport system as observed in many African countries including Nigeria, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Cameroon, and Ethiopia [38, 67, 71, 74, 80, 83, 102, 103, 107, 111].
\nMajor production constraints including high cost of drugs, veterinary services and labour encountered by pig producers in many Africa including Nigeria, Kenya, Senegal, Congo, South Africa, Uganda and Angola have been reported [29, 32, 38, 53, 54, 73, 83, 86, 100]. Similarly, limited vaccination and biosecurity or public health preventive measures with little or no treatments of sick pigs have been reported in some African countries among small-scale pig farmers [17, 38, 40, 41, 42, 68, 71, 75, 76, 80, 111].
\nThe extension system and services in Africa is also poor and ineffective and extension networks are weak. Farmers did not know veterinarians existed as observed in Tanzania [103], Ethiopia [111], Kenya [38, 67, 71], Botswana [61, 70], South Africa [17, 42, 59] and Nigeria [112]. In addition, extension staff are not sufficiently trained and equipped to offer excellent service to pig farmers as observed in Botswana [61, 70] and South Africa [40]. Poor relationship between small scale farmers and animal health technicians have also been reported in many African countries [53, 67, 73, 102], thus depriving them of the opportunities to access health services for their animals. There is therefore the need for governments of most African countries to standardize and subsidize veterinary services to farmers [105].
\nSome farmers lacked knowledge of veterinary services, as they did not know they could contact veterinarians to offer veterinary services for their animals in South Africa [40, 52, 68, 73] and Kenya [67]. While some of the farmers were misinformed over the effectiveness of some veterinary treatments and vaccines in Congo [53] and South Africa [65]. However, others believe that indigenous pigs can’t fall sick especially with intestinal parasites as reported in South Africa [17] and Kenya [38], and thus do no need treatment. Similarly, farmers lacked knowledge on pig diseases and their identification in Kenya [67, 74].
\nThe lack of basic knowledge on pig management practices was observed among famers, thus such farmers resort to traditional pig farming system which are archaic and unproductive. Pigs were seen under poor management system, with some either roaming freely, tethered or kept in poor and improper housing most of the year, while some are penned during the rainy season and sheltered only in the night. This was done in order to keep the cost of input of production low as observed in many African countries [29, 37, 38, 68, 73, 81, 102, 111, 113, 114, 115, 116]. Free range pigs also serve as sources of neighbour’s conflicts due to their destructive behaviour on farmlands [78], which in extreme cases leads to the shootings or salt poisoning of pigs [67]. Tether wounds were commonly observed on the neck and leg of pigs which is a welfare worry as farmers lacked the knowledge to tie proper knots and do not regularly rotate tethers to different sites on the pig’s body as reported in Kenya [38].
\nThe farmers are faced by high cost of production inputs including building materials, hence farmers use poor building material for pig housing as observed in Senegal [100], Nigeria [29, 83, 116], Uganda [52, 102], South Africa [68, 73], Cameroon [80], Botswana [61], Kenya [38] and Ghana [117]. High cost of pigs and piglets was also common challenges among small scale farmers as reported in Nigeria [78, 86], hence shortage of piglets has been observed in some African countries like Kenya [67]. Due to the poor or lack of infrastructure, small scale farmers allow their pigs to roam, thus confound deworming of pigs and also expose pigs to increased risk of diseases and infections, theft and pilferage [37, 40, 41, 73, 74, 102, 113].
\nGood and nutritious feeds are essential for growth, body maintenance and productivity, but animal feeds which are nutritive and essential for productivity are not readily available and where they are, they are not easily affordable for an average farmer [105]. In pig production, feeds which are mostly made up of maize and soya beans account for approximately 88% of the cost of production [69]. However, most African countries and the farmers do not produce enough of these cereals to meet the demands of the pig farmers. Thus, feed manufacturing companies depends more on imported raw materials to meet their customer’s needs [61], thus making their finished product expensive, and since farmers are into animal production for profit, the high cost of feeds make production unsustainable.
\nHigh feed cost is observed or reported in many African countries [31, 51, 52, 65, 68, 71, 73, 75, 103, 107, 108, 113]. Unbalanced diets were also given to pigs in many African countries which adds to their slow growth and causes a reduced pig performances [29, 40, 41, 51, 53, 54, 61, 70, 71, 73, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 111, 117].
\nFeeding of swill/kitchen wastes/leftovers to pigs by small- holder farmers is commonly reported across Africa as a substitute to commercial feeds and to reduce the cost of production [42, 53, 57, 68, 80, 111]. Inadequate feeding was commonly practiced in dry season, in Kenya [38] and South Africa [17, 73]. Swill generally consists of restaurant waste and kitchen scraps [43, 44, 59, 75]. However, feeding such feed is associated with poor growth and depressed economic gain [43], and predispose pigs to infection and diseases [43]. The feeding of swill has been associated with disease occurrence especially, FMD and ASF [102].
\nSome African pig industry like Uganda largely depend on indigenous breeds of pigs [52] however the challenges across Africa include lack of good quality breeding stock [38, 40, 51, 68, 71, 74, 75, 76, 81, 82, 86].
\nFarmers reported poor reproductive performance across various regions of Africa [38, 58, 68, 107]. This is confounded by the fact that most of the farmers do not have boars and are thus forced to source for boars in neighbouring towns [37, 38, 40, 41, 51, 86, 118] or buy auctioned boars to service their sows which promotes the spread of diseases [43, 51, 68, 73, 107] and promotes Inbreeding. Inbreeding causes depression, and a weakening of genetic pools [40, 73], loss in heterozygosity and increases homozygosity which results in increased lethal genes that increase embryonic death, mummified foetuses etc. [61]. Lending of boars also causes break in biosecurity measures and promotes the spread of parasites and diseases [41, 73, 99, 107, 108]. Moreover, breeding is not controlled as the farmers had no set purposes; it is just carried out randomly [117].
\nThe farmers also found it difficult to access credit facility or institutional/government loans as reported in Nigeria [79, 112], Uganda [52], Kenya [67], Botswana [61] and South Africa [73]. Hence most of the farms could not enlarge but existed under small scale [67, 86]. Water and electricity are also lacking and limited in some locations as seen in Uganda [52], Botswana [70] and Nigeria [79] as such small-holders do not have the finance to provide their own sources of water and electricity. Lack of Land and sufficient space for pig farming was observed by some studies in Nigeria [29, 79], Kenya [67] Uganda [52], Botswana [61, 70], and South Africa [40, 75].
\nSocial and religious beliefs are among the constraints to pig production in Africa due to the fact that pigs are not readily accepted by most communities because of cultural, spiritual problems and religious reasons which renders it a taboo for pork to be eaten by some individuals [29, 38, 67, 78, 100, 111].
\n\n
Inbreeding should be decreased and controlled breeding should be encouraged [42].
Biosafety should be encouraged to control diseases such as African swine fever, FMD, Porcine cysticercosis etc. and farmers should be trained on diseases control [17].
Feeding practices should be improved [81].
Management system, and housing should be upgraded and pig confinement be emphasized. Government can design model pig houses and make them available to farmers [67, 81].
Record keeping should be emphasized among farmers [54] and producers, middlemen, traders and slaughter men for pork safety and traceability in Africa [38, 67].
Encouraging farmers to form cooperatives/pig farmers association in order to obtain capital/loans.
Small scale farmers and extension workers should be trained on husbandry practices [68, 102].
Government should provide physical infrastructure in the market and abattoirs and provide slaughter slabs with shades and portable water and adequate drainage facilities [79] and traders should provide cold stores in the market for meat storage [56].
Government should give farmers credit facilities in order to enable them expand their pig farms [119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124].
Our study had the limitations of not being a structured research but most of the materials and relevant records were sourced from the following data base; Pubmed, Google scholar, Google, Ajol, Hindawi, text books, internet explorer, and NCDI Data base. Hence there might be some literature that we may not have been able to access or some records that have not been published.
\n(a) Transportation of pigs Quan-Pan LGA. (b) Local Nigerian Pig breed (Courtesy, Adedeji AJ).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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