Summary of Some Previous Studies on General Concepts of Nanostructure Materials
\r\n\tThis book is intended to provide a series of peer reviewed chapters that the guest editor believe will aid in increasing the quality of the research focus across the growing field of grain and seeds compound functionality research. Overall, the objective of this project is to serve as a reference book and as an excellent resource for students, researchers, and scientists interested and working in different functional aspects of grain and seed compounds, and particularly for the scientific community to encourage it to continue publishing their research findings on grain and seed and to provide basis for new research, and the area of sustainable crop production.
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Materials with grain size less than 100 nm are classified as nanostructure materials [1, 2]. Due to the ultra-small building units and high surface/volume ratio, these materials exhibit special properties, such as mechanical, optical, electronic, and magnetic properties [3]. In nanostructure materials, all size-related effects can be integrated by controlling the sizes of the constituent components [4]. For instance, nanostructure metals and ceramics can have improved mechanical properties compared to conventional metals and ceramics. Besides, nanostructure materials are capable of being sintered at much lower temperatures than conventional powders, enabling the full densification of these materials at relatively lower temperatures. Technological applications of semiconductor nanostructure materials in optoelectronic devices such as photodiodes and quantum dotes semiconductors are owed to the size-related effects, particularly quantum size effects caused by the spatial confinement of delocalized electrons in confined grain sizes [5]. Nanostructure materials magnetic applications are fabrication of devices with massive magnetoresistance (GMR) effects, to read data on computer hard drives by magnetic heads, and development of magnetic refrigerators by replacing compressed ozone-chlorofluorocarbons by solid magnets as refrigerants [6]. Nanostructured metals seem to be a candidate for new catalytic applications [7].
Fundamental advances in energy conversion and storage which are full of vigor in meeting outfaces of some environmental phenomena such as global warming and impact of fossil fuels are held by new materials, particularly nanomaterials, which present unique properties as electrodes and electrolytes in many applications such as lithium batteries, solar cells, fuel cells, and supercapacitors [8].
There are several techniques that can be used to develop thin films of metals and semiconductors in both micro- and nano-structures. Some of these techniques are: sol-gel process [9], chemical deposition method [10], hydrothermal method [11], pyrolysis method [12], chemical vapor deposition (CVD) [13], and electrodeposition method [14]. In Table 1, we summarize some previous studies on general concepts of nanostructure materials, their properties, and their methods of preparation. This chapter will be concerned particularly with the electrodeposition technique. Figure 1 shows thin films deposition techniques.
Materials may undergo some changes in physical properties when changing state from microstructure to a nanostructure. High surface/volume ratio and particles’ transfer to a domain with dominant quantum effects are two main factors in characteristics’ change. An increase in surface/volume ratio results in the dominance of surface atoms’ behavior compared with internal atoms. This factor affects both the particle’s properties and its interaction with the other materials. Vast surface of the nanoparticle leads to specific features such as mechanical, chemical, and thermal properties.
Nanoparticles are the basic structural blocks in nanotechnology. They are the starting point in producing nanostructure materials and tools. The production of nanoparticle is an important factor in the development of research in nanoengineering and nanoscience.
Different types of nanoparticles are prepared by using precursors in solid, liquid, and gaseous phases in the production and arrangement of nanomaterials. Based on their chemical reactivity or physical compression, these materials align the nanostructures as structural blocks side-by-side.
Thin film deposition techniques [Souad A., (2007)] [15].
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tTitle\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tDescription\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tReference\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
1. | \n\t\t\tElectrodeposition of Copper Oxide Nanoparticles on Precasted Carbon Nanoparticles Film for Electrochemical Investigation of anti-HIV Drug Nevirapine | \n\t\t\tA novel medical application is developed for the analysis of the anti-HIV drug, nevirapine (NEV), based on electrodeposition of CuO/CNP nanoparticles. The modified electrode (sensor) has shown a good response, which makes it suitable for the determination of NEV in real samples of human blood serum. | \n\t\t\tSaeed, S. et al., Electroanalysis. DOI: 10.1002/elan.201500027,2015, WILEY-VCH [16] | \n\t\t
2. | \n\t\t\tElectrochemical Synthesis of Mesoporous CoPt Nanowires for Methanol Oxidation | \n\t\t\tThin films CoPt nanowires have been successfully synthesized by electrodeposition technique. Electrodeposition helps easy synthesis of mesoporous materials useful for catalytic applications without any agent’s employment. The mesoporous CoPt nanowires have shown enhanced catalytic behavior for methanol oxidation reaction in acidic medium. Because of the catalytic activity and cost reduction, these nanowires can be a potential alternative for methanol fuel cells. | \n\t\t\tAlbert S. et al., Nanomaterials (2014), 4(2), 189-202 [17] | \n\t\t
3. | \n\t\t\tNanostructured Solids From Nano-Glasses to Quantum Transistors Materials Assembled from Atom Clusters | \n\t\t\tA review provides a discussion of method of preparation, structure and properties of nano structured solids that consist of totally crystalline, totally amorphous, and partially amorphous components. | \n\t\t\tH. Gleiter, Th. Schimmel, H. Hahn, Nano Today.. (2014) 9, 17-68 [18] | \n\t\t
4. | \n\t\t\tNanocarbon-Based Electrochemical Systems for Sensing, Electrocatalysis, and Energy Storage | \n\t\t\tA review provides comparison between carbon nanofibers, carbon nanotubes, and graphene; the three types of carbon nanostructure materials which have been focused on. | \n\t\t\tXianwen et al., Nano Today. (2014) 9, 405-432 [19] | \n\t\t
5. | \n\t\t\tElectrodeposition of Polypyrrole/Reduced Graphene Oxide/Iron Oxide Nanocomposite as Supercapacitor Electrode Material | \n\t\t\tNanocomposite polymer thin films prepared by electrodeposition technique have shown an enhanced electrochemical stability and exhibit excellent specific capacitance (F/gm) | \n\t\t\tEeu Y. C. et al., Hindawi Publishing Corporation J Nanomater. Volume 2013, (2013), Article ID 653890 [20] | \n\t\t
6. | \n\t\t\tZnxCd1-x (O) Thin Film Nanorods for PV Applications | \n\t\t\tA hexagonal nanorods thin film of ZnxCd1-x (O) were electrodeposited on ITO substrate and is used as working electrode in photovoltaic cells to generate electricity from solar energy by absorbing sun light. | \n\t\t\tUmer M. and, Souad. A., Int J Nano Sci Technol. (2013) 1, (3), April, 09-16 [21] | \n\t\t
7. | \n\t\t\tElectrodeposition of Platinum and Ruthenium Nanoparticles in Multiwalled Carbon Nanotube-Nafion Nanocomposite for Methanol Electrooxidation | \n\t\t\tA 10-15 nm diameter of PtRu nanoparticle have been electrodeposited within nanocomposite (MWCNT-Nafion). cyclic voltammetry is used to investigate the electrocatalytic activity toward the methanol electrooxidation at three different nanocomposite electrodes. | \n\t\t\tYu-Huei H. and Yu Chen T., J Nanomater. Volume 2009 (2009) [22] | \n\t\t
8. | \n\t\t\tElectrodeposition of One-Dimensional Nanostructures | \n\t\t\tElectrodeposition technique is successfully used to synthesize 1D nanostructure materials with and without temples and a comparison between the two approaches is well discussed. | \n\t\t\tGuangwei S., Lixuan M., and Wensheng S., Recent Patents Nanotechnol. (2009), 3,182-191 [23] | \n\t\t
9. | \n\t\t\tCharacterization of Electrodeposited Zn (Se, Te) Thin Films/Polymer (PEO–Chitosan Blend) Junction for Solar Cells Applications | \n\t\t\tThe work has focused on the possibility of using Zn (Te, Se) semiconductors with PEO-chitosan blend polymer electrolytes for PV applications. The methods to produce the semiconductors (electrodeposition) and polymer electrolyte (solution casting) are suitable and cheap. The economy of the processes involved such as the electrodeposition method and the solution cast technique, show some promise for future large-scale production. | \n\t\t\tSouad A. (2007), PhD thesis [15] | \n\t\t
10. | \n\t\t\tIonic Liquids as Green Electrolytes for the Electrodeposition of Nanomaterials | \n\t\t\tAir and water as ionic liquids attract the attention of researchers due to their amazing physical properties, particularly in electrodeposition of nanocrystalline metals. Copper and aluminum can be electrodeposited in the air and water ionic liquids on solid electrodes and they have shown an adequate electronic conductivity. | \n\t\t\tS. Zein El Abedin, et al., Green Chem. (2007),, 9, 549-553 [24] | \n\t\t
Summary of Some Previous Studies on General Concepts of Nanostructure Materials
Nanomaterials are produced by two main technical methods: “bottom-up” and “top-down” techniques. In the bottom-up technique, the substance developed from the bottom (atom by atom, molecule by molecule, or cluster by cluster). Colloid dispersion is produced in this technique. The top-down technique begins with bulk material and progresses toward the ideal state by its designing or abrasion. This technique is similar to the electron beam lithography in which patterns are used. In nanotechnology industry, bottom-up and top-down techniques are playing a considerable role. The major advantage of both techniques is creation of high-purity ultra-small structures. However, using bottom-up method produces improved nanostructures such as less or defect-free, homogeneous and long- and short-term orders, all due to free Gibbs energy decreases resulting in thermal balanced nanomaterials. However, in the top-down technique, mostly the material suffers from an increase in surface defects, since the material is subjected to internal stress [25]. Figure 2 shows a schematic representation of the building up of nanostructures.
Schematic representation of the building up of nanostructures
Electrochemical deposition, or electrodeposition for short, refers to a film growth process which consists in the formation of a metallic coating onto a base material (substrate) occurring through the electrochemical reduction of metal ions from an electrolyte to achieve the desired electrical and corrosion resistance, reduce wear and friction, improve heat tolerance, and for decoration. The analogical technology is oftentimes known as electroplating. In addition to the production of metallic coatings, it is also for electrometallurgy in which metals are extracted from their ores or for electroformation where molds to form objects in their final shapes are produced. Mostly, the metallic deposit obtained is crystalline. This process can therefore be called electrocrystallization, a term introduced by russian chemist V. Kistiakovski in the early twentieth century.
The electrolyte contains positive and negative ions. Therefore, it is considered an ionic conductor. To prepare an electrolyte, the desired metal contained in a chemical species liquidized (mostly dissolved in water) to form a molten salt besides different organic and ionic liquids are currently used for particular electroplating processes. To begin electrodeposition, the cathode (working electrode, W.E) immersed in the electrolyte contained in a vessel (cell) along with the anode (counter electrode, C.E). To allow electric current flow in the circuit, the two electrodes are connected to a battery or any other power source. The cathode is connected to the negative terminal of the battery, while the anode is connected to the positive terminal so that the metal ions are reduced to metal atoms, which eventually form the deposit on the surface. Figure 3 shows a schematic presentation of an electrolytic cell for electroplating or electrodepositing a metal “M” from an aqueous (water) solution of metal salt “MA”.
A schematic electrodeposition technique
This type of circuit arrangement directs electrons into a bath from the power supply to the cathode. In the bath, the electric current is carried by the positively charged ions from the anode toward the negatively charged cathode. This enables the metal ions in the bath to migrate toward extra electrons that are located at or near the surface of the cathode. Finally, the metal ions are removed from the solution and are deposited on the surface of the object as a thin layer. The reaction in aqueous medium at the cathode therefore obeys equation 1:
where n is the number of electrons involved in the reaction.
The thickness of the electrodeposited layer on the substrate is determined by the time duration of the plating. The longer the object remains in the chemical bath, the thicker the deposited layer is [15].
Lately, electrodeposition has become increasingly popular and is being extensively used by researchers in disparate fields of inquiry. What exactly is causing such an interest? The process itself is deceptively simple, a conductive surface is immersed into an electrolyte containing ions of the material to be deposited and a voltage is applied across this solid/electrolyte interface, resulting in a charge transfer reaction and film deposition. The driving force for this process is the applied potential, a quantity that can be easily and precisely controlled down to the mV and over timescales as short as 1ns. This feature leads to considerable control over the material formation process, its microstructure, and properties. The challenge in developing electrodeposition processes today is not the synthesis of a predefined material, but to strike a compromise between the ideal conditions used to produce this material and the commercial feasibility of the process. Other often-cited advantages of electrodeposition include the high utilization rate of the raw materials, low energy consumption, low material waste, little capital investment, and ease of implementation. Although the latter two are usually considered an advantage, they are perhaps a double-edged sword, they may in fact encourage quick experimentation, thereby relegating the science to the backstage and undermining the efforts of the community to place this technology on par with vacuum/gas/plasma deposition methods.
New materials and processes are being developed and integrated in microelectronic manufacturing to provide new functionalities, for example, in MEMS, lab-on-a-chip, or microfluidic devices. Polymers and biomaterials are electrodeposited for biomedical applications; metal oxides and compound semiconductors are grown electrochemically for electronic or optoelectronic applications. Electrodeposition in new electrolytic media such as ionic liquids or supercritical fluids is being strongly pursued with some success. Electrodeposition plays an important role in the development of sustainable energy conversion technologies, both at the portable and on a global scale. In addition, the principles governing the scale-up of electrodeposition processes are well understood, facilitating the development of large-scale manufacturing processes [15].
The electrolysis process consists of four parts:
The external circuit, with power supply or battery as a source of direct current (dc), that is conveyed to the plating tank, and associated with instruments such as ammeters, voltmeters, and voltage and current regulator to regulate them at appropriate values.
The working electrodes or cathodes (the material to be plated). The cathodes are to be immersed in the plating solution so that contact is made with the current source.
The plating solution or solution bath.
The counter electrodes or anodes (metal or conducting materials being plated which serves merely to complete the circuit).
The electrodeposition cell containing the plating solution or the electrolyte is usually made of plain mild steel (for alkaline solutions) or of lined steel (for acidic solutions). Steel lining could be of rubber, plastics, glass, or even lead [26].
The solution bath serves as a source of metal to be deposited, which contains ions of that metal, hence it provides conductivity, a stabilizer to stabilize the solution, for example, against hydrolysis and to stabilize the solution pH when acts as a buffer, regulates the corporal form of the deposit and helps dissolve the anodes. Finally, modifies properties of either the solution or of the deposit,
Complex ions are formed to stabilize the cation, which becomes much more stable when complexed to some ligand or to metal atoms by coordinate bonding. The concentration of the free (equated) ion is lowered by the presence of the ligand. Complex ions are also formed to hold the equated form at suitably low concentration allowing control of the evenness of plating.
Electrolytes can be defined as substances such as acid, base, and salts, which can conduct electricity in their aqueous solution due to ionization. The ions existing in the electrolyte are responsible for the conduction that results in current or free electrons passing through the wires. When a voltage is applied across the cell, and under the influence of the potential difference, the negatively charged ions migrate to the anode and the positively charged ions migrate to the cathode. The flowing of ions in aqueous solution of an electrolyte is called electrolysis [27]. For electrolysis of KCl in aqueous solution, it must be molten first by heating and elevating its temperature to the melting point. The molten ionic compound will be dissociated by electrolysis process into its elements. The reaction at each electrode is shown in equations 2 and 3:
At the cathode, potassium ions are reduced to potassium atoms (metal) by gaining electrons. On the other hand, at the anode, chloride ions are oxidized to chlorine atoms by losing electrons which are combined to form molecules of chlorine gas.
The combining of equations 2 and 3 results in the following reaction:
Electrolysis process of potassium chloride [http://www.gcsescience.com][28]
Strong Electrolytes
Some electrolytes such as potassium chloride, sodium hydroxide, and sodium nitrate are completely ionized in their constituent ions (>99%) in solution. These electrolytes are known as strong electrolytes. In other words, strong electrolytes are 100% dissociated in their aqueous solution. Generally, strong acids like sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid; strong bases like potassium hydroxide salt and many others are strong electrolytes [27]. Salts that are composed of oppositely charged ions held by strong electrostatic forces of attractions are considered strong electrolytes and they dissolve in water, which highly weakens the attraction forces between ions and reduces it by a factor of 80 due to its high dielectric constant of 80. Therefore, it facilitates the free movement of ions that are stabilized by solvation/hydration process with water. Figure 5 demonstrates how sodium and chloride ions are surrounded by water molecules due to ion-dipole interaction.
Sodium chloride solvation process
Weak Electrolytes
Some electrolytes are weak. A weak electrolyte is an electrolyte that partially dissociates in solution. In other words, ions and molecules of the electrolyte are both included in the solution. A moderately small percentage of ions (<1%) are given in solution with most of the compound staying in a non-ionic form (>99%) resulting in poorly conducting solutions. Acetic acid, carbonic acid, ammonia, rubidium hydroxide, some organic bases, and many others are considered weak electrolytes [29].
Nonelectrolytes
Substances that do not dissociate into ions in solution (water) are known as nonelectrolytes. These substances include most carbon compounds such as methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, glucose, and many others [30].
When a metal electrode is placed in an ionic solution, ions will be exchanged between the metal and the solution. Ions from the metal enter the solution, and ions from the solution enter the metal lattice. The boundary between the two phases is called the interface. Due to an electron exchange between the electrode and the ions in solution, the interface becomes electrified and a potential difference across the metal-solution interface is generated. This potential difference is called electrode potential.
In case more ions leave than enter the metal electrode, there is an excess of electrons on the metal and hence it acquires negative charge, which attracts positively charged metal ions from the solution and repels negatively charged ions. Therefore, an excess of positive ions in the solution near the metal interface and the solution side acquires opposite (positive) and equal charge. The rate of positive ions leaving the metal electrode slows down due to repulsion with the positive charge at the solution side of the interface and the rate of ions entering the metal electrode accelerates [31]. In a short time, equilibrium between the metal and its ions in the solution is achieved, as shown in Figure 6.
where,
At equilibrium:
where,
The result of the changing of the interface is the potential difference, ∆Φ (M, S), between the potentials of the metal, ΦM, and the solution, ΦS:
In order to measure the potential difference of an interphase, one must connect it to another one and thus form an electrochemical cell. The potential difference across this electrochemical cell can be measured [32].
The cell shown in Figure 7 may be schematically represented in the following way:
where the electrode at the left side is the hydrogen reference electrode. When the pressure of H2 p = 1 atm and the activity of H+ ions a = 1, the hydrogen electrode is called the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) and its potential is zero by convention. The standard electrode potential of a solution, Eº (V) is the tendency for a chemical species to be reduced. The more positive the potential, is the more likely it will be reduced [1].
Formation of metal-solution interface (equilibrium state, n⇀=n↼)
Relative standard electrode potential E0 of a Cu/Cu2+ electrode
Some acidic and basic solution reductions with their corresponding standard electrode potential E0 measured at 25ºC are presented. Obviously, the more positive the potential E0 is, the more likely it will be reduced. However, the potential E0 of the reference electrode is zero, below which the potential E0 is increasing negatively, as shown below [33]:
F2 (g) / F- (aq) | \n\t\t\t+2.87 | \n\t\t
Co3+ (aq) / Co2+ (aq) | \n\t\t\t+1.82 | \n\t\t
Pb4+ (aq)/Pb2+ (aq) | \n\t\t\t+1.8 | \n\t\t
NiO2 (s) / Ni2+ (aq) | \n\t\t\t+1.7 | \n\t\t
Au+ (aq) / Au (s) | \n\t\t\t+1.68 | \n\t\t
Ce4+ (aq) / Ce3+ (aq) | \n\t\t\t+1.61 | \n\t\t
MnO4\n\t\t\t\t- (aq) / Mn2+ (aq) | \n\t\t\t+1.51 | \n\t\t
Au3+ (aq) / Au (s) | \n\t\t\t+1.5 | \n\t\t
ClO3\n\t\t\t\t- (aq) /Cl2 (g) | \n\t\t\t+1.47 | \n\t\t
BrO3\n\t\t\t\t- / Br- (aq) | \n\t\t\t+1.44 | \n\t\t
Cl2 (g) / Cl- (aq) | \n\t\t\t+1.358 | \n\t\t
Cr2O7\n\t\t\t\t2- / Cr3+ (aq) | \n\t\t\t+1.33 | \n\t\t
N2H5\n\t\t\t\t+ (aq) / NH4\n\t\t\t\t+ (aq) | \n\t\t\t+1.24 | \n\t\t
MnO2 (s) / Mn2+ (aq) | \n\t\t\t+1.23 | \n\t\t
Pt2+ (aq) / Pt (s) | \n\t\t\t+1.2 | \n\t\t
IO3\n\t\t\t\t- (aq) / I2 (aq) | \n\t\t\t+1.195 | \n\t\t
CIO4\n\t\t\t\t- (aq) / CIO3\n\t\t\t\t- (aq) | \n\t\t\t+1.19 | \n\t\t
Br2 (l) / Br- (aq) | \n\t\t\t+1.066 | \n\t\t
AuCl4\n\t\t\t\t- / Au (s) | \n\t\t\t+1 | \n\t\t
Pb2+ (aq) / Pb (s) | \n\t\t\t+0.987 | \n\t\t
NO3\n\t\t\t\t- (aq) / NO (g) | \n\t\t\t+0.96 | \n\t\t
NO3\n\t\t\t\t- (aq) / HNO2 (aq) | \n\t\t\t+0.94 | \n\t\t
Hg2+(aq) / Hg2\n\t\t\t\t2+(aq) | \n\t\t\t+0.92 | \n\t\t
Hg2+(aq) / Hg (l) | \n\t\t\t+0.855 | \n\t\t
Ag+(aq) / Ag (s) | \n\t\t\t+0.7994 | \n\t\t
Hg2\n\t\t\t\t2+(aq) / Hg (l) | \n\t\t\t+0.789 | \n\t\t
Fe3+(aq) / Fe2+(aq) | \n\t\t\t+0.771 | \n\t\t
SbCl6\n\t\t\t\t-(aq) / SbCl4\n\t\t\t\t-(aq) | \n\t\t\t+0.75 | \n\t\t
[PtCl4]2-(aq) / Pt (s) | \n\t\t\t+0.73 | \n\t\t
O2 (g) / H2O2(aq) | \n\t\t\t+0.682 | \n\t\t
[PtCl6]2-(aq) / [PtCl4]2-(aq) | \n\t\t\t+0.68 | \n\t\t
H3AsO4 (aq) / H3AsO3 (aq) | \n\t\t\t+0.58 | \n\t\t
I2 (s) / I-(aq) | \n\t\t\t+0.535 | \n\t\t
TeO2 (s) / Te (s) | \n\t\t\t+0.529 | \n\t\t
Cu+(aq) / Cu (s) | \n\t\t\t+0.521 | \n\t\t
[RhCl6]3- (aq) / Rh (s) | \n\t\t\t+0.44 | \n\t\t
Cu2+(aq) / Cu (s) | \n\t\t\t+0.337 | \n\t\t
HgCl2 (s) / Hg (l) | \n\t\t\t+0.27 | \n\t\t
AgCl (s) / Ag (s) | \n\t\t\t+0.222 | \n\t\t
SO4\n\t\t\t\t2-(aq) / SO2 (g) | \n\t\t\t+0.2 | \n\t\t
SO4\n\t\t\t\t2-(aq) / H2SO3 (g) | \n\t\t\t+0.17 | \n\t\t
Cu2+(aq) / Cu+(aq) | \n\t\t\t+0.153 | \n\t\t
Sn4+(aq) / Sn2+(aq) | \n\t\t\t+0.15 | \n\t\t
S(s) / H2S(aq) | \n\t\t\t+0.14 | \n\t\t
H+(aq) / H2(g) (reference electrode) | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
N2O(g) /NH3OH+(aq) | \n\t\t\t-0.05 | \n\t\t
Pb2+(aq) / Pb(s) | \n\t\t\t-0.126 | \n\t\t
Sn2+ (aq) / Sn (s) | \n\t\t\t-0.14 | \n\t\t
Ni2+(aq) / Ni (s) | \n\t\t\t-0.25 | \n\t\t
Co2+(aq) / Co (s) | \n\t\t\t-0.28 | \n\t\t
TI+(aq) / TI (s) | \n\t\t\t-0.34 | \n\t\t
Se (s) / H2Se (aq) | \n\t\t\t-0.4 | \n\t\t
Cd2+(aq) / Cd (s) | \n\t\t\t-0.403 | \n\t\t
Cr3+(aq) / Cr2+(aq) | \n\t\t\t-0.41 | \n\t\t
Fe2+(aq) / Fe (s) | \n\t\t\t-0.44 | \n\t\t
CO2 (g) / (COOH)2 (aq) | \n\t\t\t-0.49 | \n\t\t
Ga3+(aq) / Ga (s) | \n\t\t\t-0.53 | \n\t\t
Cr3+(aq) / Cr (s) | \n\t\t\t-0.74 | \n\t\t
Zn2+(aq) / Zn (s) | \n\t\t\t-0.763 | \n\t\t
H2O (l) / H2 (g) | \n\t\t\t-0.8277 | \n\t\t
Cr2+(aq) / Cr (s) | \n\t\t\t-0.91 | \n\t\t
Mn2+(aq) / Mn (s) | \n\t\t\t-1.18 | \n\t\t
V2+ (aq) / V (s) | \n\t\t\t-1.18 | \n\t\t
Zr4+(aq) / Zr (s) | \n\t\t\t-1.53 | \n\t\t
Al3+ (aq) / Al (s) | \n\t\t\t-1.66 | \n\t\t
H2 (g) / H- (aq) | \n\t\t\t-2.25 | \n\t\t
Mg2+(aq) / Mg (s) | \n\t\t\t-2.37 | \n\t\t
Na+(aq) / Na (s) | \n\t\t\t-2.714 | \n\t\t
Ca2+ (aq) / Ca (s) | \n\t\t\t-2.87 | \n\t\t
Sr2+ (aq) / Sr (s) | \n\t\t\t-2.89 | \n\t\t
Ba2+(aq) / Ba (s) | \n\t\t\t-2.9 | \n\t\t
Rb+(aq) / Rb (s) | \n\t\t\t-2.925 | \n\t\t
K+(aq) / K (s) | \n\t\t\t-2.925 | \n\t\t
Li+(aq) / Li (s) | \n\t\t\t-3.045 | \n\t\t
OOH- (aq) / OH- (aq) | \n\t\t\t0.88 | \n\t\t
NH2HO (aq) / N2H4 (aq) | \n\t\t\t0.74 | \n\t\t
ClO3\n\t\t\t\t- (aq) / Cl- (aq) | \n\t\t\t0.62 | \n\t\t
MnO4\n\t\t\t\t- (aq) / MnO2(s) | \n\t\t\t0.588 | \n\t\t
MnO4\n\t\t\t\t- (aq) / MnO4\n\t\t\t\t2- (aq) | \n\t\t\t0.564 | \n\t\t
NiO2 (s) / Ni(OH)2 (s) | \n\t\t\t0.49 | \n\t\t
O2(g) / OH-(aq) | \n\t\t\t0.4 | \n\t\t
ClO4\n\t\t\t\t-(aq) / ClO3\n\t\t\t\t-(aq) | \n\t\t\t0.36 | \n\t\t
Ag2O (s) / Ag (s) | \n\t\t\t0.34 | \n\t\t
NO2\n\t\t\t\t-(aq) / N2O(g) | \n\t\t\t0.15 | \n\t\t
N2H4(aq) / NH3(aq) | \n\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t
[Co(NH3)6]3+(aq) / [Co(NH3)6]2+(aq) | \n\t\t\t0. | \n\t\t
HgO (s) / Hg (l) | \n\t\t\t0.0984 | \n\t\t
NO3\n\t\t\t\t-(aq) / NO2\n\t\t\t\t-(aq) | \n\t\t\t0.01 | \n\t\t
MnO2(s) / Mn(OH)2(s) | \n\t\t\t-0.05 | \n\t\t
CrO4\n\t\t\t\t2-(aq) / Cr(OH)3(s) | \n\t\t\t-0.12 | \n\t\t
Cu(OH)2(s) / Cu(s) | \n\t\t\t-0.36 | \n\t\t
Fe(OH)3(s) / Fe(OH)2(s) | \n\t\t\t-0.56 | \n\t\t
H2O / H2(g) | \n\t\t\t-0.8277 | \n\t\t
NO3\n\t\t\t\t-(aq) / N2O4(g) | \n\t\t\t-0.85 | \n\t\t
Fe(OH)2(s) / Fe(s) | \n\t\t\t-0.877 | \n\t\t
SO4\n\t\t\t\t2-(aq) / SO3\n\t\t\t\t2-(aq) | \n\t\t\t-0.93 | \n\t\t
N2(g) / N2H4(aq) | \n\t\t\t-1.15 | \n\t\t
[Zn(OH)4]2-(aq) / Zn(s) | \n\t\t\t-1.22 | \n\t\t
Zn(OH)2(s) / Zn(s) | \n\t\t\t-1.245 | \n\t\t
Cr(OH)3(s) / Cr(s) | \n\t\t\t-1.3 | \n\t\t
SiO3\n\t\t\t\t2-(aq) / Si(s) | \n\t\t\t-1.7 | \n\t\t
Michael Faraday (1791–1867) observed that redox reactions occur when electric current passes through electrolyte solutions. When external source supplies electric current to the electrolytic cell, the electrons flow in the cell is in the opposite direction of that in the external circuit. At the cathode, electrons are supplied from the external source, which causes reduction reaction to occur. Similarly, oxidation reaction occurs at the anode since electrons return to the external source from this electrode.
Faraday’s law states that the amount of electrochemical reaction occurs at an electrode is proportional to the electric charge Q passing through the cell that is.
where
where, I is the current measured by amp (A), and t is the time measured by second (s)
One mole of electrons is called one faraday. Faraday constant F is defined as the charge of one mole of electrons. To produce 1 g of reaction product at the electrode, 96,487 C (Faraday constant F) is required, which can be calculated as in Eq. 11:
where
To produce one mole of hydrogen molecules H2, two faradays are required since the reduction of 2H+ requires two electrons; for one mole of silver, one faraday is required since the reduction of Ag+ requires one electron; and for one mole of aluminum, three faradays are required since the reduction of Al3+ requires three electrons. Generally,
where Awt is the atomic weight, n is the number of electrons [32].
If Q = 1C, then
Equation 14 shows that the electrochemical equivalent Z is the weight produced or lost.
Combining Eqs. (8) and (14) produces:
Since 96,487 C is required for the deposition of an equivalent of a metal, weq
And
Using Eq. (13):
The current efficiency of metal electrodeposition is highly determined by the deposition rate and energy. For instance, in copper electrodeposition the current efficiency decreases with increasing deposition current density and concentration of acidic solution. However, it is directly proportional with increasing copper concentration, solution flow rate, and solution temperature [34]. Based on Faraday’s law, the amount of chemical change at the electrode is proportional to the quantity of electricity passing through the solution. Therefore, the quantity of metal deposited at the cathode or dissolved at the anode is our concern, and the elaborated hydrogen or oxygen at the cathode or the anode, respectively, is considered electrical energy dissipation and process efficiency reduction. Equation (20) is a statement of percentage current efficiency:
where CE is current efficiency, Act is the actually deposited weight, and Theo is the expected deposited weight. Current efficiency when applied to the cathode reaction is called cathode efficiency and current efficiency as applied to the anode reaction is called anode efficiency [26].
Michael Faraday has formulated many laws. But the most important law in this regard is the relationship between current, time, and the weight of the deposit metal, represented by the following equation:
where,
Consider nickel electrodeposition at the cathode, nickel ions will be reduced or deposited as nickel metal.
If a current of 1 amp is supplied to the cathode for 1 h.
Hence, the thickness is:
where T (μm) is the thickness,
Combining Eqs., 21 and 23 yields:
Assume that, the surface area of the Ni deposit is 22.1 cm2. Thus,
From the above equation, thickness is proportional inversely with the surface area, provided that, all other parameters in the equation are maintained the same [35].
Electrodeposited thin films are playing a major role in the development of new materials such as magnetic materials, where electrodeposition reveals strong potential to grow high-quality ultrathin magnetic layers with interesting magnetic properties, and, further, in the study of magnetism on micro- and nano scales [36]. Thermoelectronic devices are another emerging technology that uses electrodeposited materials [37]. J.F.K. Cooper, et al., have successfully grown thin films of ternary alloy of CoNiCu by single-bath electrodeposition techniques using weak and strong electrolytic solutions, whereby the potential can be controlled to grow a wide range of homogeneous films [38]. Nanostructured deposits of the alloys of bismuth, antimony, tellurium, and select other elements have useful thermoelectric properties. One successful fabrication technique is to electrodeposit the materials into nanoscale pores [39]. Electrodeposition is a simple and flexible method for the synthesis of one-dimensional (1D) nanostructures of metals, semiconductors, and polymers in the form of nanowires, nanorods, nanotubes, and nanoribbons that have shown novel physical properties and amazing potential applications in nanodevices [40]. The photovoltaic (PV) conversion of solar energy is one of the most promising renewable energy sources for our future energy needs. Electrodeposition technique was used successfully to synthesize nanostructured electrodes of ZnxCd1-x (O) on ITO glass substrate with several values of x in an aqueous medium containing Zn2+ and Cd2+ species for energy generating photovoltaic cell, and the efficiency achieved was 1.6% [21]. Electrodeposition of materials has the potential to change phase of deposits upon heating or cooling. Deposit in the amorphous state at room temperature can change phase to crystalline when annealing at elevated temperatures. The switching between amorphous and crystalline phases is useful for rewritable optical storage and solid-state memory [41]. Wiring of printed circuits and interconnections of multilayer microchips are another developed areas of electrodeposition for electronic applications. The plated area can be accurately defined by using photoresist. Electroless plating or Autocatalytics permits a conducting layer to be deposited on insulating materials. For connection, a solder thin layer can be deposited [42].
Electrodeposition is the application of metallic coatings to metallic or other conductive surfaces by electrochemical processes for the purpose of good appearance, protection, special surface properties, and engineering or mechanical properties. Electrodeposition is a multidisciplinary technique and based on chemistry, physics, chemical and electrical engineering, metallurgy, and probably others. Besides, it retains the aspects of art, in which experience is the only way to learn. No text on electroplating will produce an expert electroplater. There is no substitute for experience and what is somewhat inelegantly termed know-how. The most beautiful feature of electrodeposition technique is that the deposit thickness, deposition temperature, and deposition potential can be relatively controlled.
Health psychology explores different ways in the pursuit of getting people to embrace health promotion, illness prevention and health maintenance. As a speciality, health psychology examines how biological, psychological and social factors influence people’s behaviour about their health status. The aim of this chapter is to examine possible contributory connections between bio-psychosocial factors and health at the population level. The book explores bio-psychosocial model which can help individuals to develop and maintain healthy lifestyles so as to promote good health and prevent illness. Friedman and Adler [1] noted that the original bio-psychosocial model shaped not only research and theory on health but also the development of health psychology.
Kazarian and Evans [2] suggest that people commonly think about health in terms of an absence of (1) objective signs that the body is not functioning properly and (2) subjective symptoms of disease or injury, such as pain or nausea. World Health Organization defined health as ‘a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity’ (WHO, 1946 cited in [3]:4). Some health psychologists defined health as a positive state of physical, mental and social well-being not simply the absence of injury or disease that varies over time along a continuum [4]. At the wellness end of the continuum, health is the dominant state. At the other end of the continuum, the dominant state is illness or injury, in which destructive processes produce characteristic signs, symptoms or disabilities [4]. For further detail, see Figure 1.
Health (source: adopted from Sarafino [4]).
Health psychology is a speciality within the discipline of psychology concerned with individual behaviours and lifestyles affecting physical health. The discipline strives to enhance health, prevent and treat disease, identify risk factors and improve the healthcare system public opinion regarding health issues [5]. Matarazzo in 1980 (as cited in [3]:4) offered a definition of health psychology which has become widely accepted:
Health psychology is the aggregate of the specific educational, scientific and professional contributions of the discipline of psychology to the promotion and maintenance of health, the prevention and treatment of illness, the identification of etiologic and diagnostic correlates of health, illness and related dysfunction, and the analysis and improvement of the health care system and health policy formation.
Sarafino ([4]:11) mentioned the following goals of health psychology as to:
Promote and maintain health
Prevent and treat illness
Identify the causes and diagnosis correlates of health, illness and related dysfunction
Analyse and improve healthcare systems and health policy
The recognition of health psychology as a designated field is widely acknowledged. The relationship between mind and body and the effect of one upon the other has always been a controversial topic amongst philosophers, psychologists and physiologists. Within psychology, the development of the study of psychosomatic disorders owes much to Freud [3]. It has been observed in the recent studies that more deaths are caused now by heart disease, cancer and strokes which are by-product of changes in lifestyles in the twentieth century. Psychologists can be instrumental in investigating and influencing lifestyles and behaviours which are conducive or detrimental to good health [3].
Health behaviour is part of maintaining a healthy lifestyle and avoiding ill health. These are known as protective health behaviours. Health protective behaviours include the following categories:
Environmental hazard avoidance—avoiding areas of pollution or crime.
Harmful substance avoidance—not smoking or drinking alcohol.
Health practices—sleeping enough, eating sensibly and so forth.
Preventive health care—dental check-ups and smear tests.
Safety practices—repairing things, keeping first aid kits and emergency telephone numbers handy.
Although most of us are familiar with the need to engage in these health behaviours, only a few of us actually do so, and that is what we need to work on to remind people of adopting a better health lifestyles. Many other researchers such as Berg (1976 as cited in Pitts, 1998) asserted that most people are aware of which health behaviours should be engaged in; however, they frequently do not do so, and they instead do engage in activities which they know to be harmful to their health. It is this cantankerousness which psychologists have spent a great deal of time examining. The dilemma for health psychologists is to explain why some or many people do not do what they know is in their own best interest to do and why some people are more amenable to the adoption of healthy habits than others.
This chapter is therefore in support of a consistent focus on the role of knowledge in informing people of the risks to themselves that certain behaviours can engender. Pitts [3] reported studies that examining a range of issues relevant to health such as smoking, drug-taking, medical checks and adopting safer sex have fairly consistently shown that knowledge, by itself, does not lead to behaviour change. The only question left to ask is: So what is required, other than knowledge, to persuade people to look after their health? This question is the guiding principle to understand the role of health psychology in persuading people to look after their health informed by bio-psychosocial model.
It is generally recognized that there are two models of health, namely, biomedical and bio-psychosocial models. Biomedical model focuses on treatment and elimination of symptoms, while bio-psychosocial model focuses on individual’s perception of their symptoms and how they and their families respond to symptoms they are experiencing [6]. Also Deacon [7] asserts that under the biomedical model, illnesses were understood as having physiological aetiologies that were diagnosed through distinct biochemical markers and were to be treated through physical interventions. This chapter however is primarily focusing only on the bio-psychosocial models of health. Its founder, Engel [8], discovered that bio-psychosocial model represents the contribution of biological, psychological and social factors in determining health. Table 1 shows the differences between the two models.
Focal area | Biomedical model | Bio-psychosocial model |
---|---|---|
What causes illness? | Biological factors (chemical imbalances, bacteria, viruses and genetic predisposition) | Biological (virus), psychological (beliefs, behaviour) and social (unemployment) |
Who is responsible for illness? | Individuals are regarded as victims of some external force causing internal changes. Because illness is seen as a result of biological changes beyond their control, individuals are not seen as responsible for their illness | Individuals should be held responsible for his/her health and illness |
How should illness be treated? | Through vaccination, surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy, all of which aim to change the physical state of the body | The whole person should be treated, e.g. behaviour change, change in beliefs and coping strategies and compliance with medical recommendations |
Who is responsible for treatment? | The responsibility for treatment rests with the medical profession | The focus is the whole person to be treated not just their physical illness; the patient is therefore responsible for their treatment (e.g. taking the medication or changing their behaviour) |
What is the relationship between health and illness? | Health and illness are seen as qualitatively different—you are either healthy or ill—there is no continuum between the two | Health and illness exist on a continuum. Individuals progress along this continuum from health to illness and back again |
What is the relationship between the mind and the body? | The mind and body function independently of each other. In other words, the mind and body are separate entities | The focus is on an interaction between the mind and the body. The mind and body interact |
What is the role of psychology in health and illness? | Illness may have psychological consequences, but not psychological causes (e.g. cancer may cause unhappiness, but mood is not seen as related to either the onset or progression of the cancer) | Psychological factors not only as possible consequences of illness but as contributing to it at all stages along the continuum from healthy to being ill |
Comparing biomedical and bio-psychosocial models of health.
Within health psychology one model that has enjoyed considerable popularity is the ‘stress-diathesis’ model (Steptoe cited in [3]) which is currently called bio-psychosocial model. This model was first described by G.L. Engel in 1977. It emphasizes the interactive effect of environment and individual vulnerability (genetic and psychological characteristics) factors upon health [3]. According to bio-psychosocial model, psychological, physical and social threats present demands upon an individual’s resources and capacity for coping which give rise to physiological reactions involving the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and endocrine and immune system of the body.
The effects include both short-term and long-term components, and these may have consequences on health depending upon the individual’s predisposition or vulnerability to adverse effects. Vulnerable individuals develop chronic allostatic reactions such as reduced immunocompetence or exaggerated sympathetic activation of the ANS or increased secretion of adrenal hormones. Physiological reactions of these types have been implicated in the development of many disease states, including cancers, cardiovascular diseases and other non-communicable diseases susceptibility to infections [3]. The following section presents the strengths and critical views of bio-psychosocial model.
Bio-psychosocial model benefits the patients and healthcare system as revealed by research [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14]:
Guiding application of medical knowledge to the needs of each patient.
Improved patient satisfaction, better adherence to prescriptions, more maintained behaviour change, better physical and psychological health and less of a tendency to initiate malpractice litigations.
Development and application of techniques to reduce health risk behaviour.
Reduce multiple visits and admission into hospitals.
Individuals with health challenges are acknowledged to be active participants in the recovery process and good health, rather than mere passive victims.
Increase efficiency of care by reducing unnecessary prescription of drugs (i.e. diabetes and other chronic conditions).
Development of psychological techniques in the strengthening of immune reaction to illness.
Bio-psychosocial model can be used as a predictor of pain and other psychosocial problems resulting into development appropriate prevention and intervention strategies.
Improvement of communication between health staff and the patients.
Development and introduction of programmes of life quality improvement for chronic patients, physically disabled individuals and the elderly patients.
A significant influence on contemporary understanding of mental health difficulties.
Development and application of psychosocial support for the terminally ill patients and their families.
A list of critical views of bio-psychosocial model has been noted in literature [9, 10, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18] as follows:
Time-consuming and expensive apply.
It requires more information be gathered during the assessment about an individual’s socioeconomic status, culture, religion, as well as psychological factors that might affect the individual’s condition.
There is a lack of theoretical basis of bio-psychosocial model and scientific evidence to support the model.
The complex relations between causes and effects of biological, psychological and social factors to influence the state of health and or occurrence of diseases.
The holistic nature of the bio-psychosocial model makes it a luxury many healthcare systems in resource-poor settings cannot afford.
Insufficient training opportunities or financial resources available to support the existence of multidisciplinary teams consisting of psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, mental health nurses and social welfare workers to allow for a full understanding of the biological, psychological and social factors involved in individual’s condition.
The model’s failure to provide straightforward guidelines for clinical treatment or rules for prioritization in clinical practice.
Medical students receive very limited amount of content in psychosocial subjects compared to biomedical-oriented courses.
The focus of this chapter was mainly on integrating bio-psychosocial model in public health discipline. Authors like Nadir et al. [12] found that bio-psychosocial model has been a mainstay in the ideal practice of modern medicine. It is attributed to improve patient care, compliance and satisfaction and to reduce physician-patient conflict. Both strengths and critical views of bio-psychosocial model were presented in the chapter. Even though it appears that patients and healthcare system are likely to benefit from the utilization of bio-psychosocial model, further research is still needed to determine whether or not bio-psychosocial model is a workable model in healthcare system to benefit all patients. In particular, more knowledge about how psychosocial factors can influence health and disease remain unclear to most public health professionals.
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