\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6559",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Earthworms - The Ecological Engineers of Soil",title:"Earthworms",subtitle:"The Ecological Engineers of Soil",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'This book in two sections represents the current trend of research in ecology and biology of earthworms. In section "Ecology and Diversity" the authors reported the ecological and geographical uniqueness and diversity of earthworms in different environmental terrains of Siberia and Mexico. Functional interaction between earthworms and soil nematodes was elucidated with reference to vermicomposting and agricultural systems. Importance of digital library was highlighted for inventorization and taxonomical identification of earthworms. In section "Vermicomposting" the importance of maintaining pure cultures was discussed from the viewpoint of growth rate and the reproduction of composting species. This section includes article describing the management-related issues like roles of physicochemical parameters of soil and feed mixture on growth and reproduction of commercially important species of earthworm.',isbn:"978-1-78923-397-1",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-396-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-552-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71290",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"earthworms-the-ecological-engineers-of-soil",numberOfPages:114,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"0780208898e98441ccea18ea373c0708",bookSignature:"Sajal Ray",publishedDate:"June 27th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6559.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9222,numberOfWosCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:23,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:50,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 24th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 14th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 13th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 3rd 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 2nd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"173697",title:"Prof.",name:"Sajal",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"sajal-ray",fullName:"Sajal Ray",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173697/images/system/173697.jpeg",biography:"Sajal Ray received an MSc in Zoology and MPhil in Environmental Science from Calcutta University, India, and a Ph.D. from Jadavpur University, India. His thesis reported the immunotoxicity of pesticides in an economically important snail of India. As a recipient of the Fogarty Visiting Fellowship, Dr. Ray carried out his postdoctoral research in cardiac pathology at the National Institutes of Health, USA. His research interest is studying the immunological responses of molluscs, sponges, crabs, and earthworms exposed to pollutants. His team is engaged in understanding the evolutionary mechanism of immunity in phylogeny. He has presented his research at various conferences including the World Congress of Malacology, Washington DC. Dr. Ray is currently a Professor of Zoology at Calcutta University.",institutionString:"University of Calcutta",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"University of Calcutta",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"674",title:"Soil Biology",slug:"soil-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"61487",title:"Introductory Chapter: Earthworms - The Ecological Engineers of Soil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78264",slug:"introductory-chapter-earthworms-the-ecological-engineers-of-soil",totalDownloads:1084,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Sajal Ray",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61487",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61487",authors:[{id:"173697",title:"Prof.",name:"Sajal",surname:"Ray",slug:"sajal-ray",fullName:"Sajal Ray"}],corrections:null},{id:"61055",title:"Abundance and Diversity of Earthworms in Managed and Non- Managed Fallow Lands of Calakmul Reserve of Campeche, Mexico",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75619",slug:"abundance-and-diversity-of-earthworms-in-managed-and-non-managed-fallow-lands-of-calakmul-reserve-of",totalDownloads:905,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In Mexico, the best preserved tropical rain forest is found in Calakmul Reserve, where fallow land management has been established. Fallow lands are developed as a consequence of a successional vegetation process after clearing the primary vegetation and milpa production. Forty-nine sites were studied, where 17 were managed fallow lands, 24 non-managed fallow lands, and 8 tropical rain forests. Earthworms were collected at the end of the raining season, and four monoliths of 25 × 25 × 30 cm were developed per site according to the TSBF method. We observed how Zapatadrilus siboney, a native species was dominant in managed and non-managed fallow lands. Earthworm’s total biomass and density were not significantly different between the managed and non-managed fallow lands. Earthworm’s species richness was significantly low in non-managed fallow lands. We observed a strong correlation between earthworm density and richness with the age of the fallow lands (r2: 0.9 and 0.7; p < 0.05, respectively). The management type of the fallow land seems to affect earthworm biomasses (r2: 0.56; p < 0.05).",signatures:"Esperanza Huerta Lwanga, Lucero Sánchez-del Cid, Ligia Esparza-\nOlguín, Eduardo Martinez-Romero, Ben de Jong and Susana\nOchoa-Gaona",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61055",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61055",authors:[{id:"229081",title:"Dr.",name:"Esperanza",surname:"Huerta Lwanga",slug:"esperanza-huerta-lwanga",fullName:"Esperanza Huerta Lwanga"}],corrections:null},{id:"59413",title:"Earthworms and Nematodes: The Ecological and Functional Interactions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74211",slug:"earthworms-and-nematodes-the-ecological-and-functional-interactions",totalDownloads:1596,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Soil invertebrate organisms are responsible for several biochemical processes indispensable for the correct functioning of ecosystems. Because of the high diversity of animals that occurs in the soil environment, some invertebrates such as earthworms and nematodes are highly important in trophic chains, with high number of species and the effect that they exert on both natural and agricultural systems. However, although numerous studies have evaluated the implications of these organisms in soil processes and their consequences on crop productivity, the interaction between earthworms and nematodes has received little attention in recent years. This chapter reviews studies focusing on the elucidation of the interaction between earthworms and nematodes in diverse situations in which they occur, for example, the vermicompost process and the native and agricultural systems. Several studies have shown that the direct and/or indirect action of earthworms can highly modify nematode populations. In addition, in the presence of earthworms, the damage caused by phytonematodes can be reduced in some crops.",signatures:"Jair Alves Dionísio, Wilian Carlo Demetrio and Arlei Maceda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59413",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59413",authors:[{id:"225679",title:"Dr.",name:"Jair",surname:"Dionisio",slug:"jair-dionisio",fullName:"Jair Dionisio"},{id:"225686",title:"MSc.",name:"Arlei",surname:"Maceda",slug:"arlei-maceda",fullName:"Arlei Maceda"},{id:"225688",title:"Dr.",name:"Wilian",surname:"Demetrio",slug:"wilian-demetrio",fullName:"Wilian Demetrio"}],corrections:null},{id:"61906",title:"Exploration of Earthworms of India through Online Digital Library",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75666",slug:"exploration-of-earthworms-of-india-through-online-digital-library",totalDownloads:1058,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Online digital library (http://earthwormsofindia.com) for identification of earthworms of India has been developed for the first time. The database comprises digital keys for identification of earthworms of India, diagnostics, and mathematical parameters to provide a useful supplement for traditional morphological taxonomists and nonexperts in this area. This will scientifically broaden the taxonomic coverage of Indian earthworms. The genomic signatures with short sequences from standardized regions of the genome for 1192 specimens of earthworms were generated. Earlier, species identification of adult earthworms was possible only by dissection of the anterior end. However, this method is labor intensive, time-consuming, and very difficult for nonspecialists, particularly when dealing with field collections consisting of several different earthworm species. Furthermore, identification is limited to adult worms, as most life stages are unidentifiable and many morphological and anatomical characteristics of earthworms are variable, consequently, and the degree of variability can differ and features can overlap the taxa. The present work appears pioneer endeavor in this direction, as there appears no work available on the digitization of earthworms of India.",signatures:"Samrendra Singh Thakur and Shweta Yadav",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61906",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61906",authors:[{id:"227681",title:"Dr.",name:"Shweta",surname:"Yadav",slug:"shweta-yadav",fullName:"Shweta Yadav"}],corrections:null},{id:"60445",title:"Earthworms and Vermicomposting",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76088",slug:"earthworms-and-vermicomposting",totalDownloads:2496,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:15,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Vermicomposting, the conversion of organic waste into vermicompost, is mediated by the combined action of earthworms and microorganisms. This interesting and attractive alternative to regular composting turns organic waste into a substrate that can be used as a soil amendment and as a growing medium for use in horticulture. Soil is not required in vermicomposting as the organic matter acts as both the substrate and food, and therefore only epigeic earthworms can be used in the process. Several earthworm species have been evaluated for their potential use in vermicomposting, including Eisenia fetida (Savigny), Eisenia andrei (Bouché), Dendrobaena veneta (Rosa), Dendrobaena hortensis (Michaelsen) Eudrilus eugeniae (Kinberg), and Perionyx excavatus (Perrier). The species most commonly used in vermicomposting and vermiculture facilities worldwide are Eisenia andrei and Eisenia fetida. This chapter reviews and updates the controversy surrounding the taxonomic differentiation between E. andrei and E. fetida, and between D. veneta and D. hortensis, showing that these are all different species and emphasizing the importance of maintaining pure cultures in vermicomposting systems. In the final section, methods of cultivating epigeic earthworms to ensure high rates of growth and reproduction are described.",signatures:"Jorge Domínguez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60445",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60445",authors:[{id:"97521",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Domínguez",slug:"jorge-dominguez",fullName:"Jorge Domínguez"}],corrections:null},{id:"60450",title:"Environmental Influence of Soil toward Effective Vermicomposting",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75127",slug:"environmental-influence-of-soil-toward-effective-vermicomposting",totalDownloads:2083,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Vermicomposting is a process by which the organic waste is converted into manure with the help of earthworms. Growth rate, onset of maturity (clitellum development), rate of reproduction (cocoon production) and population buildup of earthworm during vermicomposting have been depend upon the conditions like temperature, moisture and physico-chemical properties of the feed mixtures. Eisenia fetida was superior to other epigeic species and tolerate wide range of temperature, moisture and pH. Endogeic species produced lesser cocoon than epigeic species and cocoon production decreased at low temperature. Maintenance of temperature and moisture content is the critical step for vermicomposting. Growth and maturation of earthworms was best at 20–25°C temperature with 80–85% moisture content. Increase temperature upto 30°C accelerated growth rate of earthworms and lessened the time to sexual maturity. Earthworms can survive in the soil contaminated with heavy metals by accumulating heavy metals in their tissues.",signatures:"Jaswinder Singh, Sharanpreet Singh, Adarsh Pal Vig and Arvinder\nKaur",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60450",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60450",authors:[{id:"229104",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaswinder",surname:"Singh",slug:"jaswinder-singh",fullName:"Jaswinder Singh"},{id:"240576",title:"Dr.",name:"Adarsh",surname:"Vig",slug:"adarsh-vig",fullName:"Adarsh Vig"},{id:"240577",title:"Dr.",name:"Arvinder",surname:"Kaur",slug:"arvinder-kaur",fullName:"Arvinder Kaur"},{id:"240578",title:"Mr.",name:"Sharanpreet",surname:"Singh",slug:"sharanpreet-singh",fullName:"Sharanpreet Singh"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5899",title:"Organismal and Molecular Malacology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7f042a23fd6991a546812db126ef875",slug:"organismal-and-molecular-malacology",bookSignature:"Sajal Ray",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5899.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"173697",title:"Prof.",name:"Sajal",surname:"Ray",slug:"sajal-ray",fullName:"Sajal Ray"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6344",title:"Biological Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ca4f407275697c7cf547debc6b1e85a9",slug:"biological-resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Sajal Ray",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6344.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"173697",title:"Prof.",name:"Sajal",surname:"Ray",slug:"sajal-ray",fullName:"Sajal Ray"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8421",title:"Invertebrates",subtitle:"Ecophysiology and Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"524faf733c0ebf32b356f89b2148e6de",slug:"invertebrates-ecophysiology-and-management",bookSignature:"Sajal Ray, Genaro Diarte-Plata and Ruth Escamilla-Montes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8421.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"173697",title:"Prof.",name:"Sajal",surname:"Ray",slug:"sajal-ray",fullName:"Sajal Ray"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6883",title:"Cell Signalling",subtitle:"Thermodynamics and Molecular Control",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e4e17d85c0643c7f4d274fa9adbcc628",slug:"cell-signalling-thermodynamics-and-molecular-control",bookSignature:"Sajal Ray",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6883.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"173697",title:"Prof.",name:"Sajal",surname:"Ray",slug:"sajal-ray",fullName:"Sajal Ray"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10738",title:"Update on Malacology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2a84e581549b3720e44e989c3c0be467",slug:"update-on-malacology",bookSignature:"Sajal Ray and Soumalya Mukherjee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10738.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"173697",title:"Prof.",name:"Sajal",surname:"Ray",slug:"sajal-ray",fullName:"Sajal Ray"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1398",title:"Principles, Application and Assessment in Soil Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"70c304305ba2727cc51774a1bc517e18",slug:"principles-application-and-assessment-in-soil-science",bookSignature:"E. 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Ghista",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/509.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"35845",title:"Prof.",name:"Dhanjoo N.",surname:"Ghista",slug:"dhanjoo-n.-ghista",fullName:"Dhanjoo N. Ghista"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"81685",title:"GIS Applications in Agriculture",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104786",slug:"gis-applications-in-agriculture",body:'\nAs the world population is projected to grow close to 10 billion by 2050, we need to produce about 50% more food compared to 2013 production to meet the global demand [1]. This goal needs to be met while facing the challenges of climate change, the limited scope of arable land expansion, and dwindling water resources. In addition, anticipated food production also needs to incorporate practices for sustainable management of croplands to preserve soil health, conserve water resources, and encompass biodiversity [2]. Considering these challenges and constraints in achieving our food production targets there is an unprecedented need for monitoring of crop growth and health and timely interventions to maintain or improve crop productivity while reducing wastage of inputs and resources. Advances in sensors, communication technologies, computational systems, and powerful data analytics are enabling us to accomplish these tasks. Technologies that can enable efficient use of agricultural inputs and reduce environmental losses while contributing to increased and sustainable production are of great value for achieving food security. Several existing and emerging tools and technologies such as geographic information system (GIS), remote sensing (RS), Global Positioning System (GPS), Artificial Intelligence (AI), Big Data Analytics, and Internet of Things (IoT) are instrumental in achieving this goal through efficient monitoring of crops and soils, and, combined with other pieces of information, are providing data-driven insights for targeted or site-specific management of crops ensuring increased productivity [3]. Geographic Information System (GIS), a key foundational technology, is defined as a powerful system comprising tools for the collection, storage, and retrieval of data at will, as well as analyzing, transforming, and displaying the spatial data for a specific purpose [4, 5, 6, 7]. It plays a critical role as it provides the spatial context and information on several features each of which is available as a data layer. In addition, it provides the tools to manipulate spatial and non-spatial data and presents them through intuitive and illustrative map formats [8]. GIS has been making an impact in diverse domains that include geography, environmental sciences, natural resources, forestry, agriculture, food, manufacturing, banking, and health services [8]. Recent decades have seen a significant increase in the application of GIS tools for diverse applications in agriculture at local, regional, national, or global scales. These applications most often involve the use of GIS along with partner technologies such as remote sensing, GPS, and data analytics towards an in-depth understanding of a given farm or a region and facilitating intervention or corrective measures for the crops and/or the soils. Since the GIS data are linked to a common referencing system, another advantage GIS offers is that the same data can be used for different applications or goals and we can also bring in other data and, combining that with existing data, we can perform a joint analysis for deriving novel insights. Many studies have reported the use of GIS for diverse applications in different crops [9, 10, 11]. To further enable the readers to develop a strong appreciation for the role of this powerful technology in agriculture, here we have reviewed the most widely used and emerging applications of GIS, either by itself or in combination with other partner technologies, and how it has been making major impacts on agricultural productivity and supply chains.
\nThe power and impactful contributions of GIS in diverse domains can be attributed to the combined use of GIS and two other key geospatial technologies: GPS and Remote Sensing. Each of these three partner technologies plays a crucial role in realizing the goals of applications (Section 3), and, therefore, are briefly described below.
\nBased on its role in supporting the collection, storage, retrieval, and analysis of data on features and location, and its utility for data-driven solutions, especially in site-specific management, GIS is considered the brain of Precision Agriculture [12]. Digital GIS maps differ from conventional maps in that they harbor several layers of information each layer providing information or a map about a given attribute such as soil survey, precipitation, nutrient status, pest infestation, yield, etc. In addition, GIS provides the analytical capability by using statistical tools and geospatial analytics enabling extraction of inter-relationships between attributes, and the insights, thus derived, are valuable for decision making with respect to management practices.
\nThis positioning/navigation system based on a satellite network enables the determination of positional information by providing the latitude, longitude, and elevation of a location. The location information collected by GPS receivers enables farmers and researchers to the reliable identification of fields, mapping of field boundaries, water bodies, infested or problematic areas in the field, and for understanding the relation to several other attributes within and outside the boundaries of a given field. Such a high-fidelity field mapping permits site-specific application of nutrients, pesticides, herbicides, and water, thereby improving productivity and reducing input costs—the essence of precision agriculture.
\nRemote sensing, with its diverse methods and applications in agriculture, has revolutionized crop monitoring and interventions for improving farm productivity [13, 14]. RS, in combination with GPS, GIS, and other tools is critical for implementing the goals of precision agriculture. This combination is crucial for enabling several applications that provide the basis for site-specific management of fields and include soil mapping, crop growth monitoring, estimation of soil moisture and fertility, detection of biotic (pests and diseases) and abiotic (drought and flood) stresses, and yield estimation.
\nThe onset of digital agriculture, considered the fourth revolution in agriculture, has totally transformed the way farming is done, thanks to advances in geospatial technologies, sensors, artificial intelligence, robotics, and other tools and technologies. The ability to precisely identify the problem areas in cropland and monitoring and management of all steps in the entire agriculture value chain requires image and non-image data along with spatial context. GIS, with its component tools and analytic modules, and the data gathered by its partner technologies like remote sensing and GPS provides intuitive and lucid visualization of information for data-driven decision making for improving crop productivity. While GIS has been used for agricultural applications for quite some time, the number of applications has been growing rapidly in recent years due to technological advances. Several most common and emerging applications are presented and discussed below.
\nWe are in an era where we are facing the challenge of feeding billions of people while the fertile land is shrinking, therefore, we need to optimize the use of natural resources to maximize the benefits. GIS provides an excellent platform for assessing the quality of land for suitable applications. Multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) approach based on GIS is the most popular choice among researchers for land use planning. Researchers use different features offered by GIS such as soil type distribution, soil texture map, buried deep underground water level distribution, soil fertility distribution, soil pollution distribution, hydraulic conductivity of soil (Ks), slope (S), soil texture (ST), depth to water-table (DTW), and electrical conductivity of groundwater (ECw), climate conditions, topography, and satellite data, and identify the variety of interactions, dependencies, and the impact of these interacting factors on sustainable land use.
\nChen et al. [15] evaluated weight sensitivity of MCDM model for land suitability assessment for irrigated agriculture. They aimed to examine the sensitivity of changing weights of the input features on the model output. The results suggested a strong influence of sensitivity and, therefore, they have recommended giving special emphasis on this criterion. Zolekar and Bhagat [16] have used GIS-based MCDM model with IRS P6 LISS-IV images as input for the evaluation of agricultural practices in hilly regions. The rank of influential criteria was determined by correlation analysis and recommendations from scientific literature. The combined use of remote sensing and GIS turned out to be beneficial for land suitability evaluation. Pan and Pan [17] applied three scales, two-step analytic hierarchy processes (AHP) for GIS-based crop suitability assessment. They have emphasized the importance of selecting appropriate evaluation factors and suggested the consideration of features with a significant difference and controlling the land use and avoiding causality. Following this approach of feature selection, the AHP output was spatially distinct. The authors have recommended appropriate land use based on land suitability maps. In another study, [18] selected the features based on growth requirements for examining the land suitability for the wheat crop. Analytic Network Process (ANP) model was deployed for assessing the interdependence of strategic input features for site suitability evaluation of citrus crops [19]. The ANP coupled with GIS–MCDM identified critical factors for maximizing yield and minimizing production loss. AHP integrated with geo-statistics had proven its merit for maize cultivation land suitability mapping in calcareous and saline-sodic soils [20]. These powerful GIS tools enable land reclamation planning with suitable conservation practices.
\nIntegrated fuzzy membership and GIS model were used to analyze arable land suitable for farming. Topography and eight soil parameters were utilized for fuzzy membership classification and the important crop productivity-related soil features were accommodated accordingly. Fuzzy membership allowed the consideration of partial memberships which is unlikely in classical approaches for classification. This self-adaptive approach revealed that the land was better suitable for groundnut cultivation contrary to the current practice of Finger millet cultivation. Results of this experiment proved that the GIS-based decision system can surpass the traditional knowledge and, if deployed accurately, can improve the productivity of land [21]. This is the need of the hour technology as land and natural resources are declining, and the demand for food production is increasing rapidly. The fuzzy set model, AHP, and GIS were combined to generate a land suitability map for tobacco production [22]. This study has once again demonstrated the advantage of using Fuzzy membership functions for land suitability analysis. AHP has the power of accurately assigning weights to the input factors in a logical way. The maps were generated by ArcMap. The integrated application of fuzzy, AHP, and GIS helped to circumvent the problems resulting from the uncertainties, subjectivities, and hierarchy characteristics of the traditional land suitability assessment process. GIS is a powerful tool to delineate the study area, manipulate geographic data, process maps, and present results in land suitability assessment. Integration of Fuzzy set and AHP methods with GIS provides a precise and powerful combination in applying for land suitability analysis. Researchers advocate that Fuzzy logic coupled with other decision-making methods is one of the best approaches for land suitability analysis [21, 22, 23]. Scientists are also exploring artificial intelligence along with GIS for efficient land use planning [23].
\nAbundance of water supply is a primary requirement for meeting the demand for food production by the ever-increasing global population. As indicated earlier, farmers have the responsibility of feeding about 10 billion people in 2050 which demands a 50% increment in food production compared to 2013 level [24, 25]. The availability of clean water is decreasing and dependence solely on rainfall is not a viable option for the farmers [26, 27]. In this challenging scenario, water resource management is the key to success. Irrigation is the best solution for meeting the water requirement in agriculture. GIS technology backed by remote sensing has already proved its merit for the management of water resources [28, 29, 30, 31]. Researchers strongly suggested that remote sensing can supplement the traditional geophysical models for groundwater potential assessment and recharge experiments [32, 33]. Many researchers supported the potential of GIS for groundwater management [34, 35]. Tripathi et al. [36] integrated the MODFLOW groundwater model with the GIS for watershed prioritization. Singh et al. [37, 38, 39] combined GIS and remote sensing for delineating groundwater potential zones. Lineament and hydro- geomorphological maps were prepared from remote sensing images. The delineated groundwater potential zones have been found to show synergy with the well-yield data. When sub-watershed level runoff and sediment yield were assessed using the combination of GIS and remote sensing data it reduced the time of the input data process and produced good results compared to actual runoff and sediment yield [40]. Determining the suitability of irrigation for a given geography is one of the most popular applications of GIS. A study conducted in UAE accounted for non-renewable sources like desalination and treated sewage effluent (TSE) to assess irrigation suitability [41]. This type of water-scarce region needs optimization of water resources management. Land management, topography, climate conditions, soil capabilities, and water potential were used in the analytical hierarchical process (AHP) GIS model to assess crop suitability. The results showed that the land was unsuitable for cereals and vegetables but the cultivation of sorghum, jojoba, fruits, date palm, and forage was recommended. This study unleashed the power of GIS technology for using every acre of fertile land in a geography with a high level of water scarcity. Reduction in clean water resources is motivating researchers and policymakers to identify suitable alternatives for irrigation water. [42] evaluated the scope of using urban treated wastewater as an alternate source of irrigation. They have utilized the MCDM method which was executed in the GIS software environment and the Analytic hierarchy process (AHP) was used. This analysis revealed that the suitability of treated wastewater is subject to suitability for crop cultivation, nitrate contamination burden, and aquifer vulnerability. ISAREG irrigation scheduling model was integrated with GIS with the aim of generating efficient irrigation scheduling advice and identification of practices to account for water savings and salinity control [43]. These results advocated the successful outcome of the model for irrigation scheduling and choosing water saving measures during both wet and dry years. Though the intensification of irrigation is beneficial for food production, it was pointed out that soil salinization and waterlogging are the major drawbacks of irrigated agriculture intensification, and that strong emphasis should be put on leveraging GIS and remote sensing technology for monitoring the problem areas followed by planning conservation and preventive measures [44].
\nSoil fertility is directly proportional to productivity. It controls the availability of nutrients and water to the crop. The soil fertility has been degrading due to various factors like pollution, sealing, overgrazing, waterlogging, excessive use of agricultural chemicals, and erosion. It is crucial to determine soil health and fertility status for planning effective practices for site-specific management or precision farming [45, 46, 47]. Soil macronutrients (N, P, and K), micronutrients (Zn, Mn, and Fe), pH, soil organic carbon (SOC), water holding capacity, erosion status, and moisture content are extensively used features for soil fertility status assessment [48, 49, 50, 51]. Spatial interpolation, Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) [52, 53, 54, 55], and Ordered Weighted Averaging (OWA) [56, 57, 58, 59] are the most popular geospatial analysis techniques which provide spatiotemporal variability of soil health and fertility status to the decision-makers.
\nSoil erosion status is an essential parameter for soil quality assessment and spatial variation in erosion gives a clear picture for agricultural planning [60]. It was demonstrated that geospatial maps of soil erodibility generated by Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) method is a great tool for assisting in sub-watershed level land use planning. [61] combined the remote sensing and GIS technology to assess the soil fertility status. They have used the LISS III and IV images for land use classification and the RUSLE method for soil erosion estimation, collected the soil nutrient field data, and applied a geostatistical model to identify the spatial variation of soil erosion and nutrient availability. In another study, [62] used the IDW model for derived soil nutrient maps and applied the OWA method to make the maps homogenized and used those as the input for the fuzzy inference system for soil fertility mapping. Fuzzy mathematics developed with soil organic matter (SOC), total N, total P, total K, available N, available P, available K, pH value, and cation exchange capacity as indicators in ArcGIS showed that the soil fertility of mid- and low- yielding fields were low and are directly correlated with soil profile configuration [63]. The association of crop productivity with the soil fertility is evident and GIS-based soil maps and fertility status give prior information about the field-specific crop suitability.
\nLeena et al. [64] proposed GIS-enabled cloud technology for soil fertility management decision support system. This system has the capability to make fertilizer recommendation based on soil test and crop response. This recommendation system helps farmers optimize their fertilizer usage and maximize yield. This system generated spatial nutrient variation works as fantastic e-governance system for the government agencies. GPS- and GIS-based soil fertility maps are great tools for thorough monitoring of the soil health and, based on such maps, [65] recommended application of paper mill sludge to reduce acidity in the soil and cultivate pulses and groundnut to make the best use of the acidic soil. These geospatial soil maps have proven to be an effective decision support system in the context of food production challenges due to soil degradation. [66] applied soil fertility index (SFI) based on the variables of sand, silt, clay, pH, EC, OM, CaCO3, Ntotal, Pavb, Kexc, Caexc, Naexc, Mgexc, and available micronutrients (Feavb, Cuavb, Znavb, Mnavb) and proved the strength of SFI. This study demonstrated the potential of combining Sentinel 2 image-derived crop yield for validation of soil fertility model. Advances in the observatory systems such as remotely sensed data of fine-to-coarse spatiotemporal resolutions, and in the process-based and data-driven modeling techniques have facilitated the collection, storage, analysis, visualization, and interpretation of non-spatial data for soil fertility index (SFI) [67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72].
\nLi et al. [72] applied weighted space fuzzy clustering coupled with the soil nutrient space mutation distribution for soil fertility characterization. This information aids in optimizing the fertilizer recommendation system. Agricultural practices such as crop residue management, nutrient management, soil tillage, and pest management affect ecosystem goods and services and soil quality and fertility [73, 74, 75]. The best management practices, compatible land use/cover changes, and land suitability analysis are required to prevent the degradation and loss of prime farmlands [73, 76, 77]. Soil erosion management, soil biodiversity improvement, and rehabilitative farming systems are some of the best management practices used to improve soil quality and crop yields [78, 79, 80].
\nA study that leveraged GIS and fuzzy evaluation method to evaluate the soil fertility status used total nitrogen, total phosphorus, total potassium, available nitrogen, available phosphorus, available potassium, soil organic matter, cation exchange capacity, and pH as indicators for the generation of fertility indices [63]. This fertility index revealed that total nitrogen and soil organic matter are higher for paddy fields. These fertility maps also give an insight into the suitable soil qualities under different types of land use and climatic conditions. Sub-watershed level nutrient mapping revealed that available N, P, S, Zn, and Fe are controlling agents of soil fertility [81]. Thus, fertility maps and their relationship with soil properties and crop yields serve as an information system for precision agriculture.
\nStudies have reported that biotic crop damage, caused by insects, fungi, and other pests, can cause 15–70% yield loss [82, 83, 84]. This scenario impacts the demand and supply chain and also affects the economy of farmers. The changing pattern of weather makes the crops susceptible to pests and diseases. The availability of crop protection methods is quite beneficial for tackling crop health, but the lack of timely information about the pests and diseases makes the damage irrepressible. GIS technology holds immense potential for site-specific pest and disease management. Remote sensing and GIS-based forewarning systems are boon to farmers to arrest the yield and economic loss. Ranjan and Vinayak [85] advocated that pest and disease forecasting systems allow farmers to apply the control measures in time to reduce the cost of production. Apart from the forewarning system, the pest population density map also plays a crucial role in identifying the hotspots and extending advisory to farmers. According to [86], information about the geospatial density of oriental fruit moth,
Natural calamities cause irreversible damage to agriculture. Rapid mapping and quantification of damage aid in economic loss recovery and act as a decision support system. A geo-spatial model is used in a case study to assess the impacts of extreme flood events on agricultural production in the Quang Nam province of Vietnam. [97] generated the water surface by interpolating flood depth marks by the inverse distance weighting (IDW) and employed a digital elevation model (DEM) to generate the flood inundation map. This map overlaid with the land use map gave an effective estimate of the damaged agricultural area [98, 99, 100]. Drought is another constraint to agricultural productivity and understanding the hotspot and climatology is crucial to strategically minimize the impact. MODIS satellite Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) derived drought risk classes were prepared to access the spatial pattern [101]. GIS-based characterization of climate variability and drought zones provides scope for strategic measures adoption to maximize productivity [102, 103].
\nMonitoring of crop growth, health, and accurate or near accurate prediction of yield is crucial not only for estimating economic return but also for assessing the food production thereby helping in the management of food security. Many studies showed that traditional methods of crop yield estimation could lead to poor assessment and inaccurate crop area appraisal [104, 105]. Moreover, these methods require time-consuming, labor-intensive, and expensive crop and yield data collection. This is where technologies like remote sensing (RS), GPS, and GIS provide a huge advantage as they can be used to assess temporal and spatial variability of crop dynamics and yield output [106]. The use of two key partner technologies, RS and GIS, with required input from others can provide an efficient solution for monitoring crop health and developing models for predicting crop yields across diverse spatial scales. While remotely sensed images and associated analytics permit the tracking of crop health and predicting the yield, GIS technology enables the collection, storage, retrieval, and visualization of data that were linked geographically. Remotely sensed geospatial data acquired by satellites, aircrafts, or unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) can be used to gather information on several features of the crops and the characteristics of the soils supporting their growth thereby enabling the assessment of crop health. The images gathered can be used for assessing general vigor, disease or pest infestations, or deviations from expected growth due to drought or other abiotic stresses. Geospatial data collected in a spatiotemporal manner and the associated analysis techniques help in assessing the changes in the health of crops thereby permitting management interventions while providing predictions on anticipated yields based on the growth and health of the crops. A commonly used method for assessing crop health is based on the determination of vegetation indices that are calculated based on surface reflectance from crop canopies at two or more wavelengths. Many vegetation indices are available for evaluating the extent and vigor of vegetation, crop growth dynamics, stress due to biotic or abiotic factors, and other useful assessments [107]. Adhav et al. [108] used multiple vegetation indices that included Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Green Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (GNDVI), Chlorophyll Vegetation Index (CVI), and Difference Vegetation Index (DVI) to determine crop health as well as variations in health conditions. To further improve the efficiency of health assessment, they have combined all vegetation indices using ArcMap 10.5 software and reclassified the merged indices which were then used for categorical representation of health scenarios. Such a representation helps farmers to identify areas that need immediate management intervention [108]. Determination of crop health is particularly critical in smallholder farms as the subsistence and livelihood of these farmers depend on the productivity of their crops. As per a recent study, small farms were found to account for 84% of all farms worldwide but they operate only on around 12% of all agricultural land and produce about 35% of world’s food [109]. Use of UAVs for gathering and leveraging data for assessing crop growth and dynamics has proven to be crucial for farmers to take timely and appropriate corrective measures to maintain or increase productivity. A recent study in South Africa [110] evaluated the utility of multispectral UAV imagery and random forest machine learning (ML) algorithm to estimate maize chlorophyll content at various growth stages and created a chlorophyll variation map capturing the spatial heterogeneity of chlorophyll in the field thereby helping the farmers to take management actions. Considering the strategic role of sustainable intensification towards the food production goals of Sub-Saharan Africa [111], such RS- and GIS-based diagnostics and interventions are critical for smallholder farmers. Another study assessed crop health using different chlorophyll indices in addition to modified vegetation index by leveraging data from two different satellites and ArcMap (of ArcGIS) for geospatial analytics [112] resulting in insights that could be used for managing nutrient applications towards improving crop productivity. Two essential prerequisites to implement location-specific management practices and interventions are the availability of an accurate acreage map of crop of interest and the cropping systems of a given area and technologies for predicting yield before the reproductive phase or harvesting of the crop. The use of RS and GIS technologies can help achieve both goals. NDVI, a commonly used vegetation index, serves the dual purpose of assessing crop health and predicting crop yield while GIS tools can provide the spatial context. Several studies abound that leveraged NDVI and GIS for yield predictions and a few examples are discussed here. In a study that measured NDVI values at different growth stages of rice, several linear regression-based yield prediction models were developed using NDVI values and narrowed down to a model that had the highest prediction potential and was also able to predict yield well ahead of harvesting time [113]. Such a model can help the farmers to implement changes to the fertilization, water, pest, and disease management practices towards realizing improved productivity. Using time-series data of SPOT vegetation and two key spectro-agrometeorological variables, rainfall estimate (RFE) and NDVIactual (NDVIa), that are highly correlated to maize yield, [114] have developed an operational model with high predictive ability for yield forecasting in Ethiopia. By leveraging both RS and GIS, this model enabled yield forecast at flowering season which is more than two months earlier than the forecast by conventional method thus providing an advantage of early intervention towards crop productivity and crucial data for the authorities for crop production estimates [113]. In a field study aimed at developing an efficient model for predicting potato tuber yield using RS and GIS techniques two vegetation indices, NDVI and soil adjusted vegetation index (SAVI), generated from images acquired by Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 satellites were found to be highly effective in yield prediction [115]. In addition, the indices enabled them to create maps of the study area that has clearly shown zones differing in productivity. This is very useful information for both farmers for implementing necessary management practices and for authorities in arriving at accurate production estimates. While manly researchers have used RS-based vegetation indices and GIS for predicting crop yields, several researchers have combined GIS with crop simulation or physiological models and demonstrated their strong performance in yield prediction [116, 117, 118, 119]. Crop simulation models came into prominence due to their utility in designing management practices, assessing the role of climate variations on crop performance, and predicting yields [120, 121]. Similarly, physiological crop models have evolved from their original applications in farm management to measuring the impact of climatic changes on crop productivity. The ability to incorporate spatial variability of the inputs that go into physiological or simulation models makes them even more powerful for determining the interactions between climatic variation and crop productivity while highlighting the spatial heterogeneity. In a study that integrated RS data, crop growth model, and GIS, it was found that yield estimates from RS images were more precise compared to another approach where GIS climate layers and soil attributes were integrated into Oryza 2000 rice crop model highlighting the superiority of combining RS, GIS, and crop model for estimating crop yields [118]. To capture the spatial variability of input variables and their influence on yield estimates, [116] have linked RS and GIS with a growth model of soybean. The results demonstrated spatial variability in simulated yield estimates and the variability was primarily attributed to soil characteristics and rainfall. The availability of such spatial patterns from the simulated yield estimates is very helpful in productivity estimates in areas prone to abiotic stresses, for example, droughts, as well as providing insights into factors contributing to yield. Efforts also exist that have created web-based decision support systems based on a combination of simulation model and GIS towards making agronomic decisions [119]. In yet another approach, the Erosion Productivity Impact Calculator (EPIC), a model for the analysis of the relationship between soil erosion and crop yield at field level, was integrated with GIS and an Inference Engine (IE) towards global estimation of crop productivity [122]. While the integration of GIS expands the application of EPIC to regional or global level, the availability of IE helps in determining potential crop combinations for given growing conditions. This study not only demonstrated the ability of GIS-based EPIC for crop productivity simulations at global level but also delivered predictions for future yields and how they are adversely affected by global climate change underscoring the importance of the development of climate-resilient varieties of crops. Since traditional crop productivity simulations are based on site-specific crop models, [123] developed an operational crop model that can be utilized at the regional level, North China, by integrating USDA EPIC model with NASA MODIS LAI product from Earth Resources Observation System (EROS), ancillary ground data, and GIS [123]. Applications also exist where a combination of GIS and RS was used for assessing damage in some high-value crops. Cranberry is one such crop that exhibits extreme crop yield variations due to soil characteristics which in turn influence water and nutrient availability. Using GIS, GPS, and RS, [124] have created a spatial variation map for the crop enabling the analysis of crop losses within zones in a field or at the whole field level.
\nPrecision Farming, also called Precision Agriculture (PA) or site-specific crop management (SSCM), is the application of technologies and principles to manage spatial and temporal variability associated with all aspects of agricultural production [125]. Earl et al. [126] defined it as a system that integrates information with crop production that is designed to increase long-term, site-specific as well as whole farm production efficiency, productivity, and profitability while minimizing unintended impacts on wildlife and the environment [126]. The operational goals of precision farming include better management of inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and water using right amounts of inputs at the right place, and at the right time. Several crucial tools and systems such as GPS, GIS, and RS are required for the collection of timely geospatial information on soil-plant-animal requirements towards mining insights followed by leveraging those insights for prescribing and applying site-specific treatments towards improving agricultural productivity while contributing to sustainability and protecting the environment [127, 128, 129]. The role of different tools and technologies as well as the applications of precision farming are described in several review articles and references therein [9, 128, 130]. While GPS, GIS, and RS are vital for obtaining and analyzing the data for deriving insights, a key technology that implements the precision applications by leveraging the input of these three tools is variable rate technology (VRT). VRT systems take all the required information about a field such as soil maps, yield, infestation of pests, diseases, and weeds, and they determine the quantities of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and other inputs and ensure their application at the right place and at the right time saving the input costs. The integration of GIS, GPS, and VRT technologies thus provides farmers an unprecedented ability to view field maps and apply input where and when needed towards ensuring crop productivity. Precision farming can be broadly divided into three steps or stages depending on data collection or site-directed or specific activities happening during, before, and after the crop growth period [131]. These are Preparatory or Pre-planting stage, Crop growth stage, and Harvesting stage. Role of GIS in each of these stages is discussed below.
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Renewable sources of energy are crucial to achieving climate change and sustainability goals. Agricultural residues are a promising source of biomass-based energy the demand for which is rapidly increasing around the globe. One challenge with agricultural residues for efficiently channeling them for energy production is the fact that their availability is seasonal and is geographically widely distributed. A solution that can address this spatio-temporal variability, seasonal fluctuations in biomass supply levels, and identification and transport of residues to power plants is a critical prerequisite for biomass-based energy generation. GIS, in combination with remote sensing, can be a great tool for precise identification and assessment of the crop residues and for planning a given region’s feedstock material for renewable energy and its economical transportation to power plants. GIS-based estimation of bioenergy potential enables a technologically advanced solution for leveraging the residues from existing cropping practices that promise even more benefits as the farmers shift from conventional to smart farming [139]. Some of the efforts in leveraging GIS and its partner technologies to this end are discussed below. Methods that can predict biomass potentials of a given region containing weather and crop production variations are of high value for enabling an efficient supply chain from biomass to power plants. By using BioSTAR, a carbon-based crop model, [140] have calculated biomass potentials for maize, triticale, and cup plant, and linked them with a GIS map of the soil dataset of Hannover region in Germany and demonstrated the utility of this method for predicting agricultural potentials under diverse environmental and crop management practices and conditions [140]. In a study that mapped rice cropland in a rural area in India, images from WorldView-2 satellite were used and the resulting map along with agricultural production statistics was analyzed in GIS for assessing the availability of rice straw as a feedstock for generating bioenergy [141]. In addition, the study also estimated the annual rice straw availability and the electrical power it could generate, thus providing valuable information for energy developers and policymakers for planning. Since the success and sustainability of a biomass-based energy generation project depend on several factors that include the feedstock resource, logistics, and environmental considerations, the role and value of GIS and key associated tools and technologies need to be understood prior to establishing the supply chain and the power plants. Two tools can help to address this task: GIS and life cycle assessment (LCA). While GIS is critical for assessing the resources dispersed in small or large areas, LCA is useful in evaluating the environmental impacts of bioenergy production projects. A comprehensive review on the application of LCA, especially spatial LCA, in understanding the impact of biomass-based energy generation on different ecosystem services and the value of integrating LCA and GIS to conduct a holistic assessment of environmental benefits in connection with bioenergy production recommended the inclusion of LCA as an essential component in planning bioenergy projects [142]. To assess the spatial and temporal availability of crop residues and to pinpoint locations for ideal power plants along with cost considerations, an integrated GIS-based biomass, site optimization, and logistics cost model was developed by using soil erosion, soil conditioning index (SCI), and crop residue yield indicators [143]. To estimate crop residues, prediction models based on artificial neural networks (ANNs) were developed for each of these indicators and were implemented on a GIS platform. The utility of this model was also demonstrated using a sustainable assessment of cotton stalks (CS) that are used to produce fuel pellets. An advantage of this model is that its use can be extended to assessment of multiple types of crop residues [143]. Models based on GIS and multi-criteria inclusion-exclusion analysis and facility location-allocation were also developed for the identification of sustainable crop biomass at larger spatial and longer temporal scales and to suggest ideal biogas plants along with cost considerations for biomass delivery [144].
\nGIS technology has proved to be of great value in understanding and optimizing agricultural supply chains and its use is being extended to diverse crops and locations. For ease of understanding its impact on supply chains can be discussed using the following three categories.
\nGIS technology has the potential to assist the successful transition of traditional agriculture systems to smart systems. While there are many studies that have thoroughly investigated the role of big data analytics in supply chains of diverse industries, such studies are lacking in the application of big GIS analytics (BGA) in agriculture. To this end, a systematic review of recent literature examined the role of BGA in agricultural applications and has proposed a framework for supply chains where BGA can play even a bigger role in improving the quality of GIS applications in agriculture [145]. The proposed framework serves as a useful reference for scientists and authorities for the successful management of big GIS data and leveraging it for improving productivity. The utility of Geographical Information Technologies (GITs) for improving the complex supply chain management process in the cotton crop was explored and was found to be of great value since the GITs framework enables visualization of current states as well as alternative options and what-if analyses for all steps that require decision making [146]. Another important application for which GIS was used is the analysis of supply chain patterns and description of spatial components of safe crop product (SCP) in China [147]. By using the spatial functions provided by GIS such as representation, location, analysis, traceability coding, and other techniques, tracing and retracing of the quality of safe crop product (SCP) was achieved. This system was also successfully demonstrated in a real supply chain for (re)tracing of SCP. By developing a GIS-based constrained linear programming model for minimizing transportation and storage costs for soybean and its byproducts, and further optimizing this model using General Algebraic Modeling System (GAMS), [148] have identified the lowest cost supply chains. The origin to destination cost matrices and geographic data maps required for the model development and optimization was developed by ArcGIS Network Analyst and ArcMap, respectively. This study demonstrated the combinatorial utility of ArcGIS, ArcMap, and GAMS for developing optimal supply chains that are of value to the players in the process [148].
\nProduction of biofuels from renewable sources such as agricultural residues can reduce the usage of fossil fuels thereby helping in the reduction of greenhouse gases. Identification of ideal locations for establishing biofuel facilities and designing a cost-effective supply chain for transferring biomass to the facility is highly desirable. To this end, in one approach a decision support system (DSS) has been developed by integrating a GIS-based method and two modeling methods, simulation, and optimization [149]. While GIS-based method was used for selecting facility sites, the selected sites were run through simulation and optimization modeling, and together these three methods provided an integrated DSS for assessing the cost, energy use, and emissions for the facility candidates as well as minimizing supply chain costs. In another approach, an intelligent spatial decision support system (ISDSS) was proposed to overcome the drawbacks of GIS in enabling creation of a knowledge base that supports decision making. The ISDSS combines GIS and intelligent systems and has spatial data mining capability through IoT devices [150].
\nThe sustainability of a biomass-based power plant depends on, among other things, a consistent supply of the feedstock, an economical supply chain, and an optimal location of the facility. The GIS-based analysis enables the identification of an ideal location for the plant and in making valid decisions related to the supply chain development. Using open-source GIS software, Latterini et al. [151], have simulated the identification of suitable locations for a small size power plant in Lazio region of Italy that can use olive prunings as the feedstock. This user-friendly and low-cost procedure, which can also be extended to other feedstocks, also provided supply chain costs for the evaluation of different sites and can serve as a useful tool for stakeholders in the development of economical biomass-based end-to-end supply chains [151]. In another study, an integrated approach combining GIS-based analysis with optimization modeling was developed resulting in a support system for decision-makers in comparing facility candidates and in minimizing supply chain costs [152]. The system developed could also be used for similar supply chains such as low capital biodiesel plants.
\nThe use of GIS in agriculture has increased at a rapid pace during the recent decades and the number of applications and the prominence of GIS has further amplified in the recent years due to advances in digital technologies that have been leveraging GIS as an essential partner technology for assessing crops, soils, and their environments. As discussed in this chapter, GIS is being used at all stages of agricultural value chain. In addition to the historical, current, and popular uses of GIS in land suitability/use planning and management of water, soil, and biotic and abiotic stresses, the advent of digital agricultural tools and technologies has increasingly leveraged the capabilities of GIS in new and emerging applications in high fidelity crop monitoring, yield prediction, precision farming, and supply chain management for both primary produce and biomass utilization towards energy production. The multitude of capabilities and insights provided by GIS, including the recent enhancements to collect and analyze data in real time, has further elevated its importance in providing location/spatial intelligence needed for improving the productivity and profitability of farms through precision practices. With the current and emerging applications, in combination with existing and newer partner technologies, GIS has a pivotal role in achieving sustainable agricultural productivity.
\nWe would like to thank Anu Swatantran for the support and helpful discussions, Chris Seifert, Andrea Arias, and Brian Lutz for support and funding, and Jochen Scheel, Steve Callistein, Janae Lehman Bell, and Nicole Janovick for rapid review and approval of the manuscript.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
\nBook - collection of Works distributed in a book format, whose selection, coordination, preparation, and arrangement has been performed and published by IntechOpen, and in which the Work is included in its entirety in an unmodified form along with one or more other contributions, each constituting separate and independent sections, but together assembled into a collective whole.
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\\n\\nParts of the Rules of Attribution are based on Work Attributing Creative Commons Materials published by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation, in partnership with Creative Commons Australia, which can be found at creativecommons.org.au licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia license, and Best practices for attribution published by Creative Commons, which can be found at wiki.creativecommons.org under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Work - a book Chapter (as well as Conference Papers), including any and all content, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of, or accompanying, the Chapter/Conference Paper.
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\n\nCreative Commons licenses – enable licensors to retain copyright while allowing others to use their Works in an appropriate way.
\n\nWith the purpose of protecting Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of OA (Open Access) content, IntechOpen has developed Rules of Attribution of Works licensed under Creative Commons licenses.
\n\nIn case you reuse or republish any of the Works licensed under CC licenses, you must abide by the guidelines outlined below:
\n\nAll rights to Books and other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen. The Copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to a separate Copyright from any that exists in the included Works.
\n\nA Book in its entirety or a significant part of a Book cannot be translated freely without specific written consent by the publisher. Further information can be obtained at permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nIn instances where permission is obtained from the publisher for reusing or republishing the Book, or significant parts of the Book, all of the following conditions apply:
\n\nEvery single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please write to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nIndividual Works originally published in IntechOpen books are licensed under Creative Commons licenses and can be freely used under terms of the respective CC license, if properly attributed. In order to properly attribute the Work you must respect all the conditions outlined below:
\n\nEvery single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way as described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please contact Us at permissions@intechopen.com.
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\n\nIntechOpen does not have any claims on newly created copyrighted Works, but the Works originally published by IntechOpen must be properly attributed.
\n\nAll these rules apply to BOTH online and offline use.
\n\nParts of the Rules of Attribution are based on Work Attributing Creative Commons Materials published by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation, in partnership with Creative Commons Australia, which can be found at creativecommons.org.au licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia license, and Best practices for attribution published by Creative Commons, which can be found at wiki.creativecommons.org under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license.
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Telomeres length is maintained by the activity of the telomerase complex. These structures are protected by a specialized protein complex named shelterin. In the absence of telomerase activity and/or protection telomeres are shortened after each round of DNA replication. When a critical size is reached, telomeres are recognized as damaged DNA by the cell p53-dependent DNA-repair system. Persistent activation of this pathway finally results in cell apoptosis or senescence.",book:{id:"5085",slug:"telomere-a-complex-end-of-a-chromosome",title:"Telomere",fullTitle:"Telomere - A Complex End of a Chromosome"},signatures:"Rosario Perona, Laura Iarriccio, Laura Pintado-Berninches, Javier\nRodriguez-Centeno, Cristina Manguan-Garcia, Elena Garcia, Blanca\nLopez-Ayllón and Leandro Sastre",authors:[{id:"179373",title:"Dr.",name:"Leandro",middleName:null,surname:"Sastre",slug:"leandro-sastre",fullName:"Leandro Sastre"},{id:"184869",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosario",middleName:null,surname:"Perona",slug:"rosario-perona",fullName:"Rosario Perona"},{id:"184870",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Iarriccio",slug:"laura-iarriccio",fullName:"Laura Iarriccio"},{id:"184871",title:"MSc.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Pintado-Berninches",slug:"laura-pintado-berninches",fullName:"Laura Pintado-Berninches"},{id:"184872",title:"MSc.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Centeno",slug:"javier-rodriguez-centeno",fullName:"Javier Rodriguez-Centeno"},{id:"184873",title:"Ms.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Manguan-Garcia",slug:"cristina-manguan-garcia",fullName:"Cristina Manguan-Garcia"},{id:"184874",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"elena-garcia",fullName:"Elena Garcia"},{id:"184875",title:"Dr.",name:"Blanca",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Ayllon",slug:"blanca-lopez-ayllon",fullName:"Blanca Lopez-Ayllon"}]},{id:"37424",doi:"10.5772/37904",title:"Flow Cytometry Applications in Food Safety Studies",slug:"flow-cytometry-applications-in-food-safety-studies",totalDownloads:2475,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"1578",slug:"flow-cytometry-recent-perspectives",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Recent Perspectives"},signatures:"Antonello Paparella, Annalisa Serio and Clemencia Chaves Lopez",authors:[{id:"114721",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonello",middleName:null,surname:"Paparella",slug:"antonello-paparella",fullName:"Antonello Paparella"},{id:"116805",title:"Dr.",name:"Annalisa",middleName:null,surname:"Serio",slug:"annalisa-serio",fullName:"Annalisa Serio"},{id:"116807",title:"Dr.",name:"Clemencia",middleName:null,surname:"Chaves Lopez",slug:"clemencia-chaves-lopez",fullName:"Clemencia Chaves Lopez"}]},{id:"43453",doi:"10.5772/55683",title:"Chromatin Remodelers and Their Way of Action",slug:"chromatin-remodelers-and-their-way-of-action",totalDownloads:2700,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"3536",slug:"chromatin-remodelling",title:"Chromatin Remodelling",fullTitle:"Chromatin Remodelling"},signatures:"Laura Manelyte and Gernot Längst",authors:[{id:"164322",title:"Prof.",name:"Gernot",middleName:null,surname:"Längst",slug:"gernot-langst",fullName:"Gernot Längst"},{id:"164410",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Manelyte",slug:"laura-manelyte",fullName:"Laura Manelyte"}]},{id:"51978",doi:"10.5772/64713",title:"Telomere Length and Its Relation to Human Health",slug:"telomere-length-and-its-relation-to-human-health",totalDownloads:1777,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Telomeres are complex nucleotide sequences that cap the end of chromosomes from degradation, unwanted recombination‐fusion, inappropriate activation of DNA damage response and play a critical role in cell division and chromosome stability. There is growing evidence that telomere stability can be affected by occupational and environmental exposure, as some of these factors have been correlated with increase in inflammation, oxidative stress, DNA damage, chromosome aberration, and epigenetic alterations. Both extremely short and long telomeres have been associated with neurodegenerative, cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and cancer risk. Occupational and environmental exposure to several synthetic and natural chemicals has been found to be associated with changes in telomere length, although the molecular mechanism is not fully understood. Telomeric DNA is relatively less capable of repair, resulting in accelerated shortening during the cell cycle and replicative senescence. It is recognized that diet plays an important role in telomere maintenance. Prevention of exposure to environmental and occupational hazards as well as psychological stressors can reduce the risk of telomere instability. This review provides a broad evaluation of the associated mechanism between human health and environmental and occupational exposure with telomere length, including recent findings and future perspectives.",book:{id:"5085",slug:"telomere-a-complex-end-of-a-chromosome",title:"Telomere",fullTitle:"Telomere - A Complex End of a Chromosome"},signatures:"Vivian F. S. Kahl and Juliana da Silva",authors:[{id:"170193",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliana",middleName:null,surname:"Da Silva",slug:"juliana-da-silva",fullName:"Juliana Da Silva"},{id:"187307",title:"MSc.",name:"Vivian Francilia",middleName:null,surname:"Silva Kahl",slug:"vivian-francilia-silva-kahl",fullName:"Vivian Francilia Silva Kahl"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"49878",title:"Immunophenotyping of Acute Leukemias – From Biology to Clinical Application",slug:"immunophenotyping-of-acute-leukemias-from-biology-to-clinical-application",totalDownloads:3338,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Immunophenotyping is an essential part of the modern diagnostic workup of acute leukemias and thus for an appropriate treatment of these complex and heterogeneous diseases. It provides a lot of useful information in this setting that transfers directly from laboratory to clinical management of patients. Lineage definition is the first goal leading to proper initial therapy. Some phenotypic patterns define specific subsets correlating with poor (mixed phenotype, dendritic cell neoplasm) or favorable (cortical T-lymphoblastic leukemia) outcome, thus guiding the application of treatment modalities. An advanced analysis of phenotypic data can address specific issues, such as the still debated role of multilineage dysplasia. The quality of response to chemotherapy is monitored by the detection of minimal residual disease and peripheral blast clearance during chemotherapy delivering. That allows a sharp discrimination of prognosis and again can drive the intensity of therapies proportionally to the disease chemosensitivity.",book:{id:"4720",slug:"flow-cytometry-select-topics",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Select Topics"},signatures:"Francesco Mannelli",authors:[{id:"178848",title:"M.D.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Mannelli",slug:"francesco-mannelli",fullName:"Francesco Mannelli"}]},{id:"50878",title:"Detection of Anti-HLA Antibodies by Flow Cytometer",slug:"detection-of-anti-hla-antibodies-by-flow-cytometer",totalDownloads:3171,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Lives of patients with solid organ failure depend physically, emotionally, and economically on others. Improvement in organ transplantation is one of the most important medical breakthroughs of the twenty-first century. Being healthy upon organ transplantation is the second chance to live the life. This is frequently observed in heart-, lung-, and liver-transplanted patients. For instance, upon kidney transplantation, dialysis dependence terminates and life quality of the patients increases. The major difficulty in organ transplantation is the low number of organ donation. Thus, the number of patients in the waiting list for the cadaveric transplantation increases day by day. Under these limited circumstances, required conditions should be further provided for the long survival rates of recipients with allogeneic graft without any problem. Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) tissue typing and anti-HLA antibodies produced before and after the transplantation adversely affect the graft survival and thus the survival of an individual. Investigation of pretransplantation immune status of recipients is significant. Particularly, donor-specific anti-HLA antibodies determine early and long-term graft survival. Flow cytometer is one of the most important devices used in anti-HLA antibody detection and also for other clinical and scientific purposes. Compared to conventional methods, it supports transplantation clinics due to its high sensitivity and specificity. The use of flow cytometer dependent methods in transplantation field increases progressively.",book:{id:"4720",slug:"flow-cytometry-select-topics",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Select Topics"},signatures:"Tülay Kılıçaslan Ayna and Aslı Özkızılcık Koçyiğit",authors:[{id:"178265",title:"Dr.",name:"Tulay",middleName:null,surname:"Kilicaslan Ayna",slug:"tulay-kilicaslan-ayna",fullName:"Tulay Kilicaslan Ayna"}]},{id:"44225",title:"Role of Enhancer of Zeste Homolog 2 Polycomb Protein and Its Significance in Tumor Progression and Cell Differentiation",slug:"role-of-enhancer-of-zeste-homolog-2-polycomb-protein-and-its-significance-in-tumor-progression-and-c",totalDownloads:3949,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"3536",slug:"chromatin-remodelling",title:"Chromatin Remodelling",fullTitle:"Chromatin Remodelling"},signatures:"Irene Marchesi and Luigi Bagella",authors:[{id:"91878",title:"Prof.",name:"Luigi",middleName:null,surname:"Bagella",slug:"luigi-bagella",fullName:"Luigi Bagella"},{id:"164852",title:"Dr.",name:"Irene",middleName:null,surname:"Marchesi",slug:"irene-marchesi",fullName:"Irene Marchesi"}]},{id:"48399",title:"The Multiplexing of Assays for the Measurement of Early Stages of Apoptosis by Polychromatic Flow Cytometry",slug:"the-multiplexing-of-assays-for-the-measurement-of-early-stages-of-apoptosis-by-polychromatic-flow-cy",totalDownloads:1781,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The detection of apoptosis has been a stalwart application for flow cytometric analysis for decades and this review of flow cytometric methods to detect early stages of apoptosis includes the use of the pivotal assay to detect early and late apoptosis, the Annexin V assay which when multiplexed with biologically functional fluorescent dyes to measure mitochondrial function and Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) generation allows further identification of functionally different subsets within apoptotic populations. Here we show how this polychromatic approach can be used to demonstrate which subset of cells show changes in mitochondrial function and when ROS is generated in a time dependent manner. This polychromatic approach to flow cytometry leads to the identification of over ten sub-populations of cells during classic apoptosis or programmed cell death (PCD).",book:{id:"4720",slug:"flow-cytometry-select-topics",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Select Topics"},signatures:"G. Warnes",authors:[{id:"108846",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Warnes",slug:"gary-warnes",fullName:"Gary Warnes"}]},{id:"49834",title:"The Role of Telomeres and Telomere-associated Proteins as Components of Interactome in Cell-signaling Pathways",slug:"the-role-of-telomeres-and-telomere-associated-proteins-as-components-of-interactome-in-cell-signalin",totalDownloads:1772,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Telomeres represent ends of all eukaryotic chromosomes and serve specialized biological role in maintaining genomic integrity by preventing end fusions and degradation. Various protein complexes associate with telomeres to either protect them from DNA damage machinery or maintain telomere length homeostasis. These protein complex subunits cross talk with a variety of cell-signaling components to either maintain telomere integrity or perform other functions, which are either dependent or independent of telomeres and/or their telomeric role. Mutations in these protein components lead to the development of various human diseases, such as age-related disorders, which occur mainly due to telomere dysfunction or cancer development due to telomerase reactivation. This chapter focuses on the structural and functional aspects of telomeric proteins and their importance in human diseases.",book:{id:"5085",slug:"telomere-a-complex-end-of-a-chromosome",title:"Telomere",fullTitle:"Telomere - A Complex End of a Chromosome"},signatures:"Ekta Khattar and Vinay Tergaonkar",authors:[{id:"118589",title:"Prof.",name:"Vinay",middleName:null,surname:"Tergaonkar",slug:"vinay-tergaonkar",fullName:"Vinay Tergaonkar"},{id:"176764",title:"Dr.",name:"Ekta",middleName:null,surname:"Khattar",slug:"ekta-khattar",fullName:"Ekta Khattar"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"403",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"89",title:"Education",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/89.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,annualVolume:null,editor:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\r\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\r\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Orthodontist, Assoc Prof in the Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"344229",title:"Dr.",name:"Sankeshan",middleName:null,surname:"Padayachee",slug:"sankeshan-padayachee",fullName:"Sankeshan Padayachee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"315727",title:"Ms.",name:"Kelebogile A.",middleName:null,surname:"Mothupi",slug:"kelebogile-a.-mothupi",fullName:"Kelebogile A. 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