Major industrial companies involved in the production of cyanobacterial metabolites.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5806",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Senescence - Physiology or Pathology",title:"Senescence",subtitle:"Physiology or Pathology",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In the second half of the twentieth century, life expectancy was prolonged, and the number of elderly people increased. The effect of population aging increases in the frequency of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, epilepsy, and stroke. Also, a higher incidence of infections, autoimmune diseases, and malignant cancers is observed in elderly people. The aging process is difficult to define. Are physiological changes in elderly people controlled by specific genes? Is aging process a pathophysiology affecting different organs with different severity? Finding answers to these questions may help prevent age-related diseases and improve the quality of life of old people. This book was made as a compendium on contemporary challenges in senescence.",isbn:"978-953-51-3462-6",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3461-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4678-0",doi:"10.5772/65533",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"senescence-physiology-or-pathology",numberOfPages:166,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a8b68766b3057a8d6b4d30695e00f576",bookSignature:"Jolanta Dorszewska and Wojciech Kozubski",publishedDate:"August 30th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5806.jpg",numberOfDownloads:10780,numberOfWosCitations:18,numberOfCrossrefCitations:18,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:32,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:68,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 14th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 5th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 3rd 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 1st 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 31st 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"31962",title:"Dr.",name:"Jolanta",middleName:null,surname:"Dorszewska",slug:"jolanta-dorszewska",fullName:"Jolanta Dorszewska",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31962/images/4731_n.jpg",biography:"Editor, Professor Jolanta Dorszewska is Chief of Laboratory of Neurobiology, Department of Neurology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences (PUMS), Poznan, Poland. Prof. Dorszewska graduated from PUMS, (M.Sc., Pharmacy, 1987), Ph.D. degree obtained at PUMS, (1996), D.Sc. in Medical Sciences at PUMS, (2004) and Full Prof., (2016). Between the years 1999 and 2000 she worked as a Research Scientist at the Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, New York, USA.\r\nProf. Dorszewska is an author and co-author of about 100 papers (e.g. Oncotarget, Curr. Alzheimer Res., Seizure) mainly concerning the pathophysiology of Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases as well as epilepsy and migraine. She is also a co-author and co-editor of books on genetic and biochemical factors in neurological diseases. \r\nProf. Dorszewska was also a Guest Editor of two Theme Issue in Current Genomics (2014, 2013), and a member of Editorial Board in Advances in Alzheimer’s Disease and Austin Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s Disease (USA). Prof. Dorszewska is a member of the Commission of Neurochemistry of Neurological Sciences, Polish Academy of Science and Polish Association of Neuropathologists, as well as International Association of Neuropathologists.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Poznan University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"83372",title:"Prof.",name:"Wojciech",middleName:null,surname:"Kozubski",slug:"wojciech-kozubski",fullName:"Wojciech Kozubski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/83372/images/system/83372.jpg",biography:"Prof. Wojciech Kozubski, MD, PhD is the Head of the Department of Neurology, University of Medical Sciences in Poznan, Poland.\nHe graduated from Medical School in Lodz in 1980. In 1983 he received his PhD and in 2002, his professorship.\nFrom 1987 to 1991, he was awarded a scholarship from the Academic Unit of Neuroscience, University of London, Department of Neurology, University of Tel-Aviv and the Department of Neurology, University of Trondheim.\nHe is an author and co-author of over 300 papers concerning the migraine and related headaches, stroke, and dementia. He is the editor of the handbook of clinical neurology for neurologists, the handbook for medical students, monographs on brain tumours, affective diseases of nervous system and therapy in neurology. \nFrom 2011 to 2014, he was the President of the Polish Neurological Society.",institutionString:"Poznań University of Medical Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Poznan University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"419",title:"Microbial Genetics",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology-microbiology-microbial-genetics"}],chapters:[{id:"56406",title:"Introductory Chapter: Molecular Basis of Senescence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70214",slug:"introductory-chapter-molecular-basis-of-senescence",totalDownloads:1083,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Jolanta Dorszewska and Wojciech Kozubski",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56406",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56406",authors:[{id:"31962",title:"Dr.",name:"Jolanta",surname:"Dorszewska",slug:"jolanta-dorszewska",fullName:"Jolanta Dorszewska"}],corrections:null},{id:"55982",title:"Genetic Factors Associated with Longevity in Humans",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69637",slug:"genetic-factors-associated-with-longevity-in-humans",totalDownloads:1342,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Introduction: Life expectancy and the rate of survival into old age have risen dramatically throughout the past century. The positive ageing outcomes may be due to a variety of factors including healthy lifestyle behaviors, but it is clear that longevity has a genetic basis, with heritability estimate of 20–35%. In this contest, it was emerged that human longevity seems strongly influenced by gender defined as the combination between biological sexual characteristics and factors related to behavior, social role, lifestyle and life experiences. Body—research methods: Successful ageing seems to be related to gene involved in different pathways of regulation, such as immune-inflammatory responses and oxidative stress. The aims of the present review are to discuss recent findings and highlight the genetic basis of longevity. For these reasons we are aimed to describe the most important underpinning which is the gender differences in longevity between males and females. Conclusion—key results: It appears clear that longevity may represent a complex polygenic trait that is influenced by the interaction of multiple genetic variants, as was demonstrated by several genetic studies conducted in the last years. Furthermore, epigenetic and environmental factors actin on the longevity phenotype.",signatures:"Sara Bozzini and Colomba Falcone",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55982",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55982",authors:[{id:"201831",title:"Prof.",name:"Colomba",surname:"Falcone",slug:"colomba-falcone",fullName:"Colomba Falcone"},{id:"201834",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Bozzini",slug:"sara-bozzini",fullName:"Sara Bozzini"}],corrections:null},{id:"55008",title:"Sunflower Leaf Senescence: A Complex Genetic Process with Economic Impact on Crop Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68588",slug:"sunflower-leaf-senescence-a-complex-genetic-process-with-economic-impact-on-crop-production",totalDownloads:1384,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Leaf senescence is a complex process controlled by multiple genetic and environmental variables. In different crops, a delay in leaf senescence has an important impact on grain yield trough the maintenance of the photosynthetic leaf area during the reproductive stage. In sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), the fourth largest oil crop worldwide, senescence reduces the capacity of plants to maintain their green leaf area for longer periods, especially during the grain filling phase, leading to important economic losses.",signatures:"Sebastián Moschen, Agustín I. López Gialdi, Norma Paniego, Paula\nFernandez and Ruth Amelia Heinz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55008",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55008",authors:[{id:"199155",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ruth",surname:"Heinz",slug:"ruth-heinz",fullName:"Ruth Heinz"},{id:"199163",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",surname:"Moschen",slug:"sebastian-moschen",fullName:"Sebastian Moschen"},{id:"199164",title:"Dr.",name:"Paula",surname:"Fernandez",slug:"paula-fernandez",fullName:"Paula Fernandez"},{id:"199165",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma",surname:"Paniego",slug:"norma-paniego",fullName:"Norma Paniego"},{id:"199191",title:"BSc.",name:"Agustín",surname:"López Gialdi",slug:"agustin-lopez-gialdi",fullName:"Agustín López Gialdi"}],corrections:null},{id:"55125",title:"Accelerated Senescence of Cancer Stem Cells: A Failure to Thrive or a Route to Survival?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68582",slug:"accelerated-senescence-of-cancer-stem-cells-a-failure-to-thrive-or-a-route-to-survival-",totalDownloads:1592,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Accelerated senescence of cancer stem cells (CSCs) represents an adaptive response allowing withstand cell death. TP53, the pivotal tumor suppressor plays an important role in this process by inducing a prolonged dual state with senescence and self-renewal as potential outcomes. Molecularly, this is achieved by activating both OCT4A (POU5F1) and p21CIP1. OCT4A suppresses the excessive activity of p21 preventing the immediate precipitation of apoptosis or terminal senescence. It persists as long as sufficient cellular energy remains; generated through autophagy, itself sequestrating p16INK4A in the cytoplasm. As such, autophagic capacity is the bottleneck of these TP53-dependent senescence reversal processes, as well terminal senescence will follow if DNA damage is not ultimately repaired. In TP53 mutants the CSC-like state is boosted by stressed cells overcoming the tetraploidy barrier. These cells acquire additional DNA repair capacity through mitotic slippage and entrance to a sequence of ploidy cycles, allowing repair and sorting DNA damage, ultimately facilitating the genesis of mitotically competent daughter cells following final depolyploidisation. Again, autophagy is required to fuel this process. More detailed knowledge of these arcane processes anticipates the provision of anti-cancer drug targets, such as AURORA B kinase and Survivin, which ensure mitotic slippage and the continuity of ploidy cycles.",signatures:"Jekaterina Erenpreisa, Kristine Salmina and Mark Steven Cragg",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55125",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55125",authors:[{id:"28637",title:"Dr.",name:"Jekaterina",surname:"Erenpreisa",slug:"jekaterina-erenpreisa",fullName:"Jekaterina Erenpreisa"},{id:"198907",title:"Dr.",name:"Kristine",surname:"Salmina",slug:"kristine-salmina",fullName:"Kristine Salmina"},{id:"198910",title:"Prof.",name:"Mark Steven",surname:"Cragg",slug:"mark-steven-cragg",fullName:"Mark Steven Cragg"}],corrections:null},{id:"55869",title:"Aging and Neurological Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69499",slug:"aging-and-neurological-diseases",totalDownloads:1868,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:14,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Current knowledge indicates that the aging process starts with subclinical changes at the molecular level. These include the accumulation of mutations, telomere attrition, and epigenetic alterations leading to genomic instability. Such defects multiply exponentially over time, resembling a “snowball effect,” and eventually leading to morphological and functional deterioration of the brain, including progressive neuronal loss, reduced levels of neurotransmitters, excessive inflammation, and disrupted integrity of vessels, followed by infarction and microbleeds. Additionally, the decreasing efficiency of DNA repair mechanisms increases the susceptibility to reactive oxygen species and spontaneous mutagenesis, resulting in age-related neoplasia. Moreover, the malnutrition and malabsorption seen commonly in the elderly may cause deficiency of vitamin B12 and folic acid, both necessary for homocysteine metabolism, and lead to vascular damage. Altogether, these lead to brain damage in old age and greatly increase the risk of developing diseases of the central nervous system, such as stroke, epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, and other dementias.",signatures:"Marta Kowalska, Michal Owecki, Michal Prendecki, Katarzyna Wize,\nJoanna Nowakowska, Wojciech Kozubski, Margarita Lianeri and\nJolanta Dorszewska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55869",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55869",authors:[{id:"31962",title:"Dr.",name:"Jolanta",surname:"Dorszewska",slug:"jolanta-dorszewska",fullName:"Jolanta Dorszewska"},{id:"186409",title:"MSc.",name:"Michal",surname:"Prendecki",slug:"michal-prendecki",fullName:"Michal Prendecki"},{id:"186528",title:"MSc.",name:"Marta",surname:"Kowalska",slug:"marta-kowalska",fullName:"Marta Kowalska"},{id:"190030",title:"Ms.",name:"Katarzyna",surname:"Wize",slug:"katarzyna-wize",fullName:"Katarzyna Wize"},{id:"206247",title:"Mrs.",name:"Joanna",surname:"Nowakowska",slug:"joanna-nowakowska",fullName:"Joanna Nowakowska"},{id:"206248",title:"Dr.",name:"Michal",surname:"Owecki",slug:"michal-owecki",fullName:"Michal Owecki"}],corrections:null},{id:"55105",title:"Presenilins Interactome in Alzheimer’s Disease and Pathological Ageing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68748",slug:"presenilins-interactome-in-alzheimer-s-disease-and-pathological-ageing",totalDownloads:1232,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common type of dementia characterized by massive neuronal loss. Pathological hallmarks of the disease are overproduction of β-amyloid (Aβ) and hyperphosphorylation of tau protein accumulated into senile plaques (SPs) and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), respectively. SPs with cortical tau pathology are also hallmark of pathological ageing (PA). Recently, an extensive overlap has been shown between Aβ levels and profiles in PA and AD brains, suggesting that PA could be a prodromal AD phase. Presenilins are major components of the γ-secretase complex involved in Aβ production. Furthermore, presenilins interact with players of numerous signalling pathways important in the PA and AD. Integration of various modern research approaches would reinforce the role of presenilins signalling network in brain pathology. These approaches include high-throughput (epi)genetic and transcriptomic analyses, large-scale microscopic imaging studies, immunoaffinity purification or mass spectrometry. Comprehensive integration of these methods is necessary to update the definition of the role of presenilins in AD and PA. Hereby, we summarize the available data on presenilins’ functions and interactions. We believe that the systematization of the existing knowledge will stimulate further research and will help reveal the molecular nooks and crannies in Alzheimer’s disease and in pathological ageing.",signatures:"Michalina Maria Wężyk and Cezary Żekanowski",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55105",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55105",authors:[{id:"205453",title:"Dr.",name:"Michalina Maria",surname:"Wężyk",slug:"michalina-maria-wezyk",fullName:"Michalina Maria Wężyk"},{id:"205454",title:"Prof.",name:"Cezary",surname:"Żekanowski",slug:"cezary-zekanowski",fullName:"Cezary Żekanowski"}],corrections:null},{id:"55126",title:"Is Senescence Important in Hepatic Diseases?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68587",slug:"is-senescence-important-in-hepatic-diseases-",totalDownloads:1053,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Aging is a condition in which a person gradually loses the ability to maintain homeostasis, due to structural alteration or dysfunction. Aging changes biological processes in many organs and tissues. The loss of regenerative capacity is the most dramatic age-associated alteration in the liver. Cellular damage, if not repaired, leads to apoptosis or senescence. The presence of permanent cell cycle arrest, the acquisition of major morphological change, and expression of senescence-associated β-galactosidase (SA-β-gal) are the characteristics of cellular senescence (CS). Interestingly, CS plays a crucial role in aging of both individual organs and the entire organism; consequently, senescent cells accumulate in organs and decline in organ function. Senescent cells have considerable influence on their microenvironment and exert both beneficial and detrimental effects through secretory associated senescent phenotype (SASP) factors. CS has attracted considerable recent interest with recognition of pathways linking aging, malignancy, and insulin resistance and the current focus on therapeutic interventions to extend healthspan. There are major implications for hepatology in the field of fibrosis and cancer, where cellular senescence of hepatocytes, cholangiocytes, stellate cells, and immune cells has been implicated in chronic liver disease progression.",signatures:"Ruth Pacheco Rivera, Jaime Arellanes Robledo and Jesús Serrano\nLuna",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55126",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55126",authors:[{id:"146165",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose De Jesús",surname:"Serrano-Luna",slug:"jose-de-jesus-serrano-luna",fullName:"Jose De Jesús Serrano-Luna"},{id:"199060",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruth",surname:"Pacheco-Rivera",slug:"ruth-pacheco-rivera",fullName:"Ruth Pacheco-Rivera"},{id:"199064",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",surname:"Arellanes-Robledo",slug:"jaime-arellanes-robledo",fullName:"Jaime Arellanes-Robledo"}],corrections:null},{id:"55948",title:"Potential Reduction in Mortality Associated with the Shifts of Population Educational Structures in the Czech Republic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69635",slug:"potential-reduction-in-mortality-associated-with-the-shifts-of-population-educational-structures-in-",totalDownloads:1226,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Educational inequalities in mortality are large in Central and Eastern Europe. Mortality levels are particularly high among low educated men as well as women in the Czech Republic. However, differences in male mortality by educational attainment exceed those of females. Two mortality patterns are apparent when dividing the Czech classification of education into four categories—basic, vocational, secondary, and university. Males with basic education experience much higher mortality when compared to their higher educated counterparts. An anomaly in the mortality gradient is observed among women when comparing basic and vocational education. Women with basic education show a rather lower mortality level compared to their vocational counterparts. Three scenarios show how the shifts toward a higher education could contribute to the change in mortality level using temporary life expectancies between ages 30 and 80 for males and females: (a) population structure by sex, age, and education remains the same as from the census 2011; (b) 60% of males having the basic education move into the next higher category (vocational) and 60% of women with basic and vocational education move into the secondary education; and (3) sex age education‐specific mortality rates will be shifted upwards by one level.",signatures:"Jitka Rychtaříková and Klára Hulíková Tesárková",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55948",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55948",authors:[{id:"202636",title:"Prof.",name:"Jitka",surname:"Rychtarikova",slug:"jitka-rychtarikova",fullName:"Jitka Rychtarikova"},{id:"205750",title:"Dr.",name:"Klara",surname:"Hulikova",slug:"klara-hulikova",fullName:"Klara Hulikova"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5277",title:"Challenges in Parkinson's Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec247c295eeed9e8c8ab48a63b0b94c1",slug:"challenges-in-parkinson-s-disease",bookSignature:"Jolanta Dorszewska and Wojciech Kozubski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5277.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31962",title:"Dr.",name:"Jolanta",surname:"Dorszewska",slug:"jolanta-dorszewska",fullName:"Jolanta Dorszewska"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6614",title:"Alzheimer's Disease",subtitle:"The 21st Century Challenge",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"91df6c15517737c8fb91543f870d484d",slug:"alzheimer-s-disease-the-21st-century-challenge",bookSignature:"Jolanta Dorszewska and Wojciech Kozubski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6614.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31962",title:"Dr.",name:"Jolanta",surname:"Dorszewska",slug:"jolanta-dorszewska",fullName:"Jolanta Dorszewska"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1446",title:"Senescence",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7aa2772cf0b5653b6c599dba90f4c709",slug:"senescence",bookSignature:"Tetsuji Nagata",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1446.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"93967",title:"Dr.",name:"Tetsuji",surname:"Nagata",slug:"tetsuji-nagata",fullName:"Tetsuji Nagata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3509",title:"Gene Therapy",subtitle:"Tools and Potential Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0fd8b4898c201b4a9f8e597cbcf4d968",slug:"gene-therapy-tools-and-potential-applications",bookSignature:"Francisco Martin Molina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3509.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32294",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",surname:"Martín-Molina",slug:"francisco-martin-molina",fullName:"Francisco Martín-Molina"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1406",title:"Antimicrobial Agents",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"716194563847e4c8e0f4a7c07ff858ed",slug:"antimicrobial-agents",bookSignature:"Varaprasad Bobbarala",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1406.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"90574",title:"Dr.",name:"Varaprasad",surname:"Bobbarala",slug:"varaprasad-bobbarala",fullName:"Varaprasad Bobbarala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"364",title:"Gene Duplication",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79e1de88c46f703c92c157b80d886221",slug:"gene-duplication",bookSignature:"Felix Friedberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/364.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62782",title:"Prof.",name:"Felix",surname:"Friedberg",slug:"felix-friedberg",fullName:"Felix Friedberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5090",title:"RNA Interference",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9edcfa43c752e926f9e51ecb610e34db",slug:"rna-interference",bookSignature:"Ibrokhim Y. 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\r\n\tThe development and use of nuclear energy goes back to less than a hundred years ago. Today, according to a report of international atomic energy agency, nuclear energy provides about 20 percent of worldwide electricity. Fission and fusion are two major sources of nuclear energy. Since the first reactor was built, several countries have tried to replace fossil fuels with nuclear power plant. Different types of power reactors are constructed to generate electricity by various countries. Nuclear power reactors include light-water moderated reactors, heavy-water moderated reactors, CANDU pressurized reactors, graphite moderated reactors, gas colled and sodium-cooled fast reactors and future pebble-bed nuclear reactors that are constructed by different technologies. About thirty years ago, the average efficiency of nuclear reactors was barely 50 percent, however, today by improving technology this efficiency has claimed 94 percent. Although nuclear energy produced by fission interaction has advantages over fission as well as fossil energies, despite much efforts and investments in the generation of nuclear energy produced by this method, it is not economically viable.
\r\n\r\n\tThe purpose of this book is to provide an appropriate reference for nuclear energy research that can be used by researchers and students interested in nuclear energy and technology. Therefore, we invite all researchers and scientists working in this field to assist us in this project.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"202f7cb4b62a094f404b3cc8e54ac848",bookSignature:"Prof. Mohammad Reza Pahlavani and Dr. Mehdi Joharifard",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7730.jpg",keywords:"Thermonuclear Fusion, Nuclear Fission, Nuclear Reactors, Fission Cycle, Light-Water Moderated Reactors, Heavy-Water Moderated Reactors, Magnetic Confinement Fusion, Inertial Confinement Fusion, Neutron Induced Fission, Spontaneous Fission, Application in Industry, Medical Applications",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 10th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 1st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 30th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 18th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 17th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor in the Department of Nuclear Physics at Faculty of Basic Sciences - the University of Mazandaran, author of more than 100 journal and conference papers inter/nationally, member of the Physical and Nuclear Societies of Iran.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"101263",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Pahlavani",slug:"mohammad-reza-pahlavani",fullName:"Mohammad Reza Pahlavani",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101263/images/system/101263.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohammad Reza Pahlavani was born on March 1958 in Daregaz, a city in the North of Khorasan Razavi Providence. He received his BSc from the Ferdowsi University of Mashad, MSc from the Tehran University and PhD from the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay-Mumbai India in experimental nuclear physics. He occupied the faculty member position in August 1991 and continued his duties as a professor in the Department of Nuclear Physics, Faculty of Basic Sciences - University of Mazandaran, Iran since. He has published more than 100 papers in ISI journals, mostly in Physical Review C, European physical journal A, International journal of modern physics A, Journal of physics G. He presented about 100 papers in national and international conferences and has written 5 books (one in Persian language) as author and 4 as editor in English language.",institutionString:"University of Mazandaran",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"University of Mazandaran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"320763",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehdi",middleName:null,surname:"Joharifard",slug:"mehdi-joharifard",fullName:"Mehdi Joharifard",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002vaTOoQAM/Profile_Picture_1587471462201",biography:"Born in Zavareh Isfahan, Mr. Mehdi Joharifard received his BSc in Physics from Lorestan University (Khorramabad Iran) in 2002 and his MSc in Bionuclear Engineering from Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University (Teheran Iran) in 2007. His Ph.D. in Nuclear Physics was completed in 2019 from Mazandaran University (Babolsar Iran) under guidance of Prof. M. R. Pahlavani. The thesis title was ‘Dynamical study of Spontaneous fission of Super-heavy nuclei’. 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These ancient organisms are ubiquitous photoautotrophic microorganisms found in fresh, brackish, marine or wastewater [2]. They are able to adapt to a wide range of conditions (salinities, temperatures, pH factors, light intensities, and so on). Oxygenic photosynthesis is believed to have started with these microbes, making them a big contributor to the oxygen-rich atmosphere we enjoy today. Cyanobacteria are by far, the only known prokaryotes that perform oxygen-evolving photosynthesis [3] and the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere would be twice as high had it not been for cyanobacteria [4]. Thus, cyanobacteria have helped to shape the evolutionary trajectory of the earth. It has been suggested that the oil-producing gene in plant chloroplasts originated from cyanobacteria. According to [5] a primordial plant cell “engulfed” a cyanobacterium about a billion years ago. The bacterium lived in the cell and supplied it with photosynthetic products. Thus, implying that the oil synthesis enzyme (acyltranferase) of the chloroplasts originated from cyanobacteria. Similarly, according to [6] ethylene production existed before land plants colonized the earth as evidenced by unambiguously homologous ethylene-signaling pathways in
Nearly 2,700 species of cyanobacteria have been described, however, prediction models suggest that between 2,000 and 8,000 cyanobacteria species exist in nature [7]. Some of the described species have been studied and known to have potential applications in agriculture, energy, food and pharmaceutical industries because of their ability to produce oil, fix atmospheric nitrogen, and also have high vitamin, mineral and protein contents among others [8].
Eutrophic water bodies facilitate the proliferation of cyanobacteria cells into blooms. Some of the blooms consist of cyanotoxin-producing species. The cyanotoxins are poisonous to humankind, animals and aquatic life. This has led to the closure of recreational centres and caused huge economic losses [9]. It is, therefore, imperative to understand the actions of these metabolites, their biosynthesis and possible applications in industry. This review will discuss the mechanisms involved in the cellular production of important metabolites and address the far-reaching industrial applications of these cyanobacteria compounds. Commercial products and companies producing cyanobacteria products are highlighted.
The composition of the earth’s earlier environment may have influenced the evolution of the metal resistance features and the metal-utilizing proteins in cyanobacteria during a period when the atmosphere was limited in oxygen. Thus, some cyanobacteria still thrive in low oxygen conditions and some strains are highly tolerant to free sulfide [10]. Additionally, cyanobacteria have a high tolerance to ultraviolet-B and -C radiations along with high temperature tolerance, as high as 73°C [10]. Their tolerance to radiation is likely to have been crucial in the early evolution of the cyanobacteria.
Morphologically, cyanobacteria cells are coccoid, filamentous (filamentous non-heterocyst forming, and heterocyst forming) forms [10, 11]. Cyanobacterial cells have an outermost peptidoglycan layer composed mainly of proteins and lipopolysaccharides. Other minor components of the peptidoglycan cell wall include carotenoids and lipids that enhance permeability, mechanical stability and resistance toward chemical substances [12]. Despite their overall gram-negative structure, the peptidoglycan layer in cyanobacteria is significantly thicker than that of most gram-negative bacteria [12]. Outside the cell wall is a carbohydrate-rich glycocalyx with varying proportion of three distinct layers; a closely associated sheath, a well-defined capsule, and loosely attached slime [13]. These three layers protect cyanobacteria cells from desiccation and possibly from predators and phages, making their applications in biotechnology more feasible due to their robust nature.
Cyanobacteria cells divide by fission (binary or multiple), fragmentation or spore-formation processes. The doubling time of cells can occur between 2.1 hours and 72 hours under optimal conditions and as long as 10,000 years under stress conditions such as
In addition to their fast growth rate, cyanobacteria possess superior photosynthetic capabilities that enables them to convert about 10% of the solar energy received, into biomass which is relative to the 1% conversion done by traditional energy crops like sugarcane or corn, grown for biofuel production [14]. Some cyanobacteria cells possess gas-filled cavities that allow them to float on water surfaces, enhancing light capture for better photosynthetic efficiency. Internal thylakoid membranes are the site of photosynthetic reactions in cyanobacteria. The presence of chlorophyll and phycobilins increase the capture and conversion of light energy during photosynthesis. Other pigments including xanthophylls, carotenes, c-phycoerythrin and c-phycocyanin are present in cyanobacteria. C-phycoerythrin and c-phycocyanin are unique to blue-green algae.
Circadian rhythms are very important in cyanobacteria. These rhythms are fundamental adaptations to the earth’s daily light and temperature fluctuations that lead to proper metabolic activity [15]. For example, nitrogen fixation is common in many species of cyanobacteria. However, oxygenic photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation are discordant processes because the nitrogenase enzyme is inactivated by oxygen. Two mechanisms are used to separate these activities. First, a biological circadian clock separates them temporally and cellular differentiation separates them spatially. For instance, a unicellular species such as
Fluctuation in environmental conditions causes oxidative stress to cells which inevitably lead to increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. As a form of defense, photosynthetic microorganisms including cyanobacteria have developed several mechanisms to evade the negative effects of ROS. Antioxidants and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are known to provide protection to the cell against oxidative stress by stabilizing free radicals [17]. Among the many fatty acids, PUFAs are of great interest due to their numerous health benefits and increasing global demand [18]. Additionally, they help regulate various cellular processes such as oxygen and electron transport, membrane fluidity, and heat adaptation [19]. Cyanobacteria lack organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, chloroplasts and Golgi apparatus typically found in eukaryotic cells. However, ribonucleic acid (RNA)-containing organelles known as ribosomes are widespread in cyanobacterial cells. Ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis that enables cells to perform efficient metabolic activities.
Cellular metabolic processes lead to the production of valuable primary and secondary metabolites. Photosynthesis and carotenogenesis are examples of metabolic processes that lead to the production of primary metabolites like lipids (e.g., PUFAs), antioxidants (e.g., carotenoids) and some proteins (e.g., primary proteins). Primary metabolites are directly involved in normal developmental processes such as cell division, growth and reproduction [20]; and can also be transformed into products such as bio-fertilizers, bio-plastics, nutrient supplements, and dyes. These are beneficial in industrial applications (Figure 1). Secondary metabolites on the other hand, are not utilized by the cells for their primary needs. These include hormonal compounds and antibiotics, or toxins [21].
Industrial applications of cyanobacteria from laboratory to up-scaled production and the extraction of metabolites of commercial value for the production of pharmaceuticals, biofertilizers, biofuels, biopolymers and cosmetics.
Cyanobacteria possess a relatively simple genome [14], making it easy for gene modification and manipulations for the exploration of novel metabolites. From a nutritional perspective, microbes can alter their cellular metabolism naturally through stress response such as nutrient deficiency [22]. Growth conditions can be manipulated to promote the production of biomass rich in valuable secondary metabolites of economic value. This is usually achieved through a two-stage culture technique where in the first step the cells are grown under optimal conditions to maximize biomass production. The second step involves the introduction of stress factors, such as nutrient deprivation or high light intensity, to induce the production of valuable secondary metabolites. Although a deficiency in nitrogen is known to inhibit cell cycle processes and the production of several cellular components, surprisingly, lipid and biopolymer (PHB) syntheses rather increase under these conditions [23]. This leads to the accumulation of oil droplets and starch granules in starved cells [22, 24]. These adaptive responses help to ensure the cell’s survival during stressful conditions. Both metabolites (lipids and starch granules) serve as energy stores coupled with the special role of the starch granules in osmotic balance, heat, freezing, and ultraviolet (UV) rays [22, 23].
The methylerythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway, known to occur in algae, bacteria, and plants, is a classic example of a metabolic pathway that is exploited for drug discoveries. In cyanobacteria, the MEP pathway leads to chlorophyll and hormone production [17]. It is observed that secondary metabolite production is species-specific and environmental conditions can influence their production. For instance, microalgae growing under stress conditions are more likely to produce secondary metabolites with antibacterial activity. In cyanobacteria, fatty acid synthesis (FAS) is performed by a type II fatty acid synthase complex and these fatty acids have anticarcinogenic, antibiotic, antifungal, and antiviral [25] properties that facilitates their use in pharmaceutical applications.
The shikimate pathway has been proposed to be responsible for mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) and scytonemin biosynthesis [26, 27]. These compounds have the potential to be used as natural UV blockers in product formulations such as cosmetic creams or paints, and varnishes (Figure 1).
Cyanobacteria, have the potential to produce renewable biopolymers from natural resources such as, solar energy, water and CO2, reducing the need for fertile soils, fertilizers, herbicides and potable water for crop production. Biodegradable polymers such as PHAs are produced as inclusion bodies within cells via the beta-oxidation pathway [28].
Cyanobacteria are known to play a key role in maintaining the stability of the surface crusts of dry lands. Thus, to combat desertification, cyanobacteria can be used in conjunction with bacteria, algae, mosses, lichens, or fungi, which form the biological soil crusts in unique geographical regions [32]. These biological soil crusts help primary succession in arid regions by improving the nutrient and moisture contents [32]. Cyanobacteria help to form a complex of heavy metals and xenobiotics to limit their mobility and transport in plants. Additionally, they offer protection to plants from disease-carrying insects, act as bio-control agents as well as enhance the mineralization of simpler organic molecules for easy assimilation. Additionally, cyanobacteria have been extensively applied in the area of environmental bioremediation through wastewater treatment processes [33, 34].
Cyanobacteria also have other agriculture potential. Some cyanotoxins demonstrate biocidal activity. These biocides inhibit the growth of microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria and fungi; they also affect invertebrates including crustaceans, bivalves and vertebrates such as fish, birds, and mammals [40, 41, 42, 43, 44]. Thus, cyanobacteria toxins could be developed into active biological compounds and applied in crop fields as algaecides, fungicides, herbicides and insecticides because of their allelopathic effects [17, 43, 44]. Biocides have low environmental risks and are thus preferable to synthetic pesticides negatively affect the environment [17].
Our reliance on petroleum products has resulted in polluting the environment. Aside the release of toxic fumes including green-house gasses, into the atmosphere, the process of obtaining the fuel in itself presents potential environmental hazards. Cyanobacteria hold great promise as sources of renewable by-products (biodiesel) especially for the energy sector [45]. Cyanobacteria cells can be engineered to convert CO2 and water into biofuels through photosynthesis. In a study [46] four modules were optimized to achieve high titer values (4.8 g/L−1) of a petroleum substitute, 1-butanol. Firstly, 1-butanol biosynthesis was introduced and re-cast by systematic screening of genes and pathways. Module 2 involved the optimization of the 5′-regions of expression units to tune protein expression levels. Module 3 rewired carbon flux by editing acetate metabolism. In module 4, photosynthetic central carbon metabolism was rewritten by installing a phosphoketolase (PK) pathway. Several other biofuels have been produced from engineered cyanobacteria e.g., acetone, 2,3-butanediol ethanol, ethylene, isobutanol, 2-methyl-1-butanol from
Numerous cyanobacteria species have been used in the cosmetics industry for many decades because of their anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and detoxifying properties [15, 17]. The cosmetic industry has evolved from just topical skin products to a more invasive approach of beautifying from within. This booming industry seeks to address skin-related issues by resolving internal problems at the cellular level. Skin aging, wrinkling, drying and other skin conditions occur as a result of loss of elasticity to the skin. In the cosmetic industry, for instance, a novel extract, extracellular polysaccharide (EPS), extracted from
Again, microalgae strains with high amino acid content are great for improving skin texture and elasticity. Other strains rich in lipids help soothe and moisturize skin tissues, while antioxidant-rich algae with chlorophyll are ideal for detoxifying. Many Spirulina-infused cosmetic products are already on the market in the form of tablets, lotions and facial masks. Skin perfection has garnered so much attention in recent years. For instance, skin whitening has become a common practice world-wide, with a booming market in Asia and Africa [47]. Tyrosinase inhibition is the most common approach to achieving skin hypo-pigmentation as this enzyme catalyzes the rate-limiting step of pigmentation. Tyrosinase inhibitors have been isolated from numerous marine macroalgae species such as
Food supplements, animal feed, food additives, and colorants produced from cyanobacterial carotenoids such as canthaxanthin, beta-carotene, nostoxanthin, and zeaxanthin are on the rise.
Natural products have become important contributing sources of semi-synthetic and synthetic drugs in all major disease fields; predominantly in antibiotic therapies, immunoregulation and oncology [54, 55, 56]. Most of these bio-medical natural products or metabolites have been derived from cyanobacteria. These cyanobacterial metabolites have exhibited both interesting and exciting biological activities including antibacterial, anticancer, antifungal, antimicrobial, and antiviral activities. Others are anticoagulant, anti-HIV, anti-inflammatory, anti-malarial, antiprotozoal, antituberculosis, antitumor, and immunosuppressant activities [54, 55]. Some of these bioactive compounds are Borophycin from
Phycobilisomes are phycobiliproteins accumulated by cyanobacteria and these include phycocyanin (blue), phycoerythrin (red), and allophycocyanin (blue-gray). They are major light-harvesting complexes in cyanobacteria [58, 59]. These compounds are used as bio-pigments in industrial applications.
Company/Country (founding year) | Focus area | Industrial applications | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
LG Sonic/Netherlands (1999) | Algal blooms | Effective ultrasonic frequencies for algae control on large water surface areas | [62] |
Cyano Biotech/Germany (2004) | Development of novel cyanobacteria products | Discovery and development of novel structures based on cyanobacterial natural products | [63] |
Photanol/Netherlands (2008) | Genetic modification of cyanobacteria | Produces broad range of biochemicals from cyanobacteria | [64] |
Algae Biotechnologia/Brazil (2009) | Technological development of microalgae and cyanobacteria cultivation systems | Treatment of liquid and gaseous agro-industrial effluents. Production of ingredients and additives for animal nutrition. Production of human food supplements and production of biofuels. | [65] |
Algenuity/United Kingdom (2009) | Synthetic biotechnology | Produces lab scale photobioreactor for algae and cyanobacteria research and also harness specific microalgal strains for synthetic biology applications | [66] |
Living Ink Technology/USA (2013) | Production of ecofriendly ink products | Develops a variety of ink products and colors, including digital ink | [67] |
Spira Inc./USA (2016) | Incorporation of algae-based ingredients into everyday products | Extract high-value compounds from algae. | [68] |
Major industrial companies involved in the production of cyanobacterial metabolites.
Other applications of cyanobacterial extracts include their use in scientific research experiments. For instance, phycobiliproteins have fluorescent properties that can be used in flow cytometry and in immunoassay techniques [61]. Among these numerous bioactive compounds are terpenoids such as terpenes, diterpenes and sesquiterpenes. These organic compounds are widely found in cyanobacteria and are used as natural ingredients in flavors and perfumes. Such applications are recently gaining grounds in therapeutic and pesticide industries [17]. Terpenoid type compounds such as carotenoids and phytols are crucial for chlorophyll and hormone biosynthesis through the methylerythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway in cyanobacteria that was discussed in Section 3.
The rapid development of molecular tools for whole genome sequences promotes the use of omics technology i.e. transcriptomics, proteomics, and system biology approaches to manipulate metabolic pathways for producing valuable products [8].
Experimental approaches that require fluorescent probes such as fluorescence microscopy for diagnostics and biomedical research utilizes the autofluorescent properties of cyanobacteria pigments such as phycobiliproteins. Among these, the most widely exploited fluorescent probe is phycoerythrin utilized in biomedical research [8].
Bioactive compounds synthesized by cyanobacteria are innumerable coupled with their vast industrial applications. More of these natural compounds are being discovered on a regular basis through research and development. There also exists an untapped pool of bioactive compounds that genetic engineering techniques can unfold. Current process engineering strategies in cyanobacteria research is centered on the regulation of metabolic pathways for the production of bioactive compounds. Such exploitations are feasible due to the small and simple genome of cyanobacteria species. Considering the fact that cyanobacteria are a promising feedstock for a circular economy, it is important to develop robust strains suitable for industrial applications.
The possibility of producing novel biopolymer blends, biofuel components, and pharmaceutical compounds that are capable of meeting the demands of a biotechnologically-driven society is vast. Thus, cyanobacteria will continue to play crucial roles in terms of health, energy, food, and many other aspects of our lives.
To achieve great strides in the cyanobacteria production sector, a synergistic approach should be adopted by cyanobacteria-related companies. Collaboratively, companies dealing in products such as biofuels, and bioplastics that involve extraction of compounds from cyanobacteria cell biomass, could supply their waste biomass to other companies that require the waste biomass as raw materials for production, such as algae ink or biochar for wastewater treatment. Thus, forming a biorefinery supply chain network that will essentially benefit both the producers and consumers from an economic and environmental point of view. Cyanobacteria industrial harmonization will ensure the valorization of production processes.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Social policy is an inclusive disciplinary, which means to provide solutions to address needs of social life. Social problems change based on economic and environmental factors. These changes also differ based on social structure and state policies.
\nThe historical background of social policies is in parallel with important events in the human history. An important cornerstone in the world history, industrial revolution, is an economic revolution on one side, but it increased the social problems on the other side. From industrial perspective, societies can be regarded as preindustrial society, industrial society, and postindustrial society. It is also possible to say that social policies that provided solutions to social problems also changed based on the conditions of the period.
\nIt is seen that traditional methods were used to satisfy social needs, and the groups in need of protection were tried to be protected through social aid and services in the preindustrial period.
\nThe period which began with the industrial revolution caused varied social problems as from the second half of eighteenth century. Seeking solutions to address the poverty and social imbalance, which were caused by the industrialization, social policy tried to make balance between economy and social policies. The migrations to industrialized regions with the impact of industrialization caused new professions, negative life and work conditions, and poverty. In the face of this change in the demographic structure, states adopted the liberal economic understanding as a solution. Free market economy that emerged as a result of concerns that state interventions would damage economic and social balances helped a part of society to have welfare but caused workers who constituted the majority of society to impoverish. Liberal economy understanding’s failure to ensure social welfare resulted in criticisms and the rise of neoliberal approaches.
\nThe fact that liberal state understanding’s limited approach caused negative results on social policies led adopting a more interventionist and regulating state model. Because social expectations that the state should meet social needs increased, the state got a new character to solve social problems. Affected by the wars which broke out in the first half of twentieth century and 1929 economic crisis, the concept of state changed in favor of social policies. With Keynesian economic approach, it paved the way for more inclusive interventions and adopted “welfare state” approach. However, also affected by globalization, the interventionist approach of welfare state to ensure economic and social welfare failed to ensure economic growth, and the position of state was discussed again.
\nIn this new period, where the increase of social expenditures and taxes was perceived as a threat, it was suggested that the social responsibilities of the state should be reduced. The crises beginning in 1970s and the problems which increased with the effect of globalization led to a transformation in the welfare state. The crisis of welfare state and the constantly increasing discussion about the role of state to determine social policies caused states to plunge into new quests.
\nAlthough the quests for the welfare state of Golden Age were different, it is possible to say that the basic attitudes were neoliberal attitudes like increasing the effectiveness of local administrations, leaving ensuring welfare ton on profit organizations, and leaving social services to private sector. Therefore, the Welfare State mode that emerged with industrial revolution was restructured with the “Information Age” and globalization which emerged in the last quarter of twentieth century. In this period, social policies are determined by civil society, international, and supranational organizations instead of traditional means, and social policy understanding turns into new forms.
\nIn spite of all criticisms, welfare state still regulates and implements social policies today. Exposed to some transformations and to some extent replaced by neoliberal policies as a result of changes caused by the globalization and information age, the welfare state is predicted to continue its existence in new forms and remains as an important power to regulate social policies in future.
\nIn this study which has been made under the light of this information and predictions, first of all, the conceptual foundations, targets, and means of social policy will be explained with the factors which paved the way for its emergence in the historical process. After that, the concept of welfare state and the effects and events, which paved the way for its emergence, will be handled in the historical process. Welfare state crisis and globalization will be explained under different headings and determinations, and predictions will be made about today and future, discussing their impact on the social policy.
\nSocial policy is referred to as “social policy” in Continental Europe, but it is referred to as “social welfare policy” in the North American literature. Some authors argue that these two concepts have the same meaning but some others argue that social policy is a frame concept which encompasses various policies, including social welfare policy [1].
\nDifferences regarding the definition of social policy also arise from periodic conditions. To Wagner, social policy means the measurements taken by state to protect workers, while to Kessler, it means the movements and struggles of social class and state’s attitude against this struggle. To Lauber, social policy is a set of measurements taken at national level in order to change and regulate the financial and cultural life conditions in a definite period of time. Albrech defines social policy as all measures and institutions that are taken to protect the part of society which is in need of economic protection and to ensure social security and peace [2]. Marshall defines social policy as a set of policies developed by state to ensure welfare in order that it obtains service and income. Hagenbuch asserts that social policy is an effort to make sure that individuals have minimum standards and opportunities.
\nIn narrow sense, social policy is an attitude to address the disputes, imbalances, and conflict of interests between employers and employees and to ensure harmony between classes in capitalist systems [3, 4, 5]. In narrow sense, the aim of social policies is to find solutions for the problems emerging in industrials societies. From this perspective, it serves ensuring the social justice for ending the social inequalities that have been caused by the industrial revolution in social policy. In narrow sense, it represents the policies for making a balance between labor and capital because it encompasses only problems of worker and labor classes [6]. These policies also include the provision of social justice.
\nIn narrow sense, political policy approaches the working life as the basic element that can explain the society. In this context, it also deals with issues such as wages, working conditions, trade unionism, and collective bargaining [7].
\nIn a broad sense, the concept of social policy means comprehensive practices which address not only the problems and needs of working class but also those of the other segments of society [8]. With a definition from this perspective, it is possible to say social policy discipline addresses the problems of urbanization, environment, health, and education and those of all segments of society such as workers, the disabled, the elders, children, and immigrants. In a board sense, social policy emerged together with the concept of welfare state after World War II. Therefore, social policy includes health services, social security, city, environment, and struggling against unemployment and poverty that affect social welfare. In a broad sense, the final target of all these practices is to ensure social peace, social justice, and equality between different groups [9].
\nSocial policy is determined on the basis of redistribution. The regulatory and distributive view of policies serves to ensure that everyone living in society has social freedoms and equal opportunities [10]. Ensuring the welfare of each individual is the main objective of the state and other organizations that are social policy practitioners.
\nThe members of society have such needs as education, social security, health services, and housing. Social policy aims to ensure the welfare of individuals through legislative regulations. Because social policy is affected by social developments, it changes based on the needs of individuals. State makes new regulations based on needs. It is possible to make separate regulations for those who are in need of protection from social policy perspective for children and youth, for the disabled, for families with low income, and for the elders.
\nThe factors which affect and determine social policy are not only the needs of society and individuals but also are ideological movements, crime rates, unemployment, media, politics, industrial groups, and violence, such economic factors as debit and recession and the nature of welfare state (social democratic, liberal, etc.) [11].
\nSocial policy can be defined as an area consisting of decisions taken with the participation of many individuals and parties, which is put in force after the state determines its basis [12]. There is a mutual interaction between social policy and economic policies [3]. Thus, the development of a country is not possible only through economic growth but also by achieving a fair and balanced growth to solve social problems. From this perspective, the problems in economy and those in social policy need to be handled together.
\nTo achieve its goals, social policy needs to have some principles regarding the policies it will determine.
\nThe social policy, which is put in force by the state and other institutions, affects the welfare of society directly. A state’s regulations regarding welfare need to be determined by analyzing its social policies. The subjects and basic principles related with social policies are social needs and social problems, equal rights and social justice, efficiency, equity and choice, altruism, reciprocity and obligation, and division, difference, and exclusion [13].
\nWelfare state should provide some rights to the people. These are elaborated below.
All of these rights are provided by welfare state. The individuals who live in society are bound to state through the bond of citizenship. He/she has the right to request the state to which he/she is a citizen to make policies which pave the way to provide him/her the rights he/she has. From this perspective, the citizenship concept plays an important role in determining the state’s obligations and rights of individuals as a part of social policies.
\nThe main goal of social policies is to ensure that everyone in society lives in harmony, afar from conflicts. Thus, the target is to ensure social justice, social development, social balance, social integration, and social peace [7].
Thanks to
Ensuring the
Achieving the goal of
The social policy, which is considered to have emerged as a result of the economic and social developments in the nineteenth century, started to become meaningful with the industrial revolution. As a result of the change in economic relations with the industrial revolution, social changes became inevitable. With the industrial revolution, increased production gave rise to the need for more labor. The dominance of capital owners on the labor market increased even further through the liberalization of trade.
\nIn a period when the liberal market economy approach (Laissez-faire) was adopted, the dominant opinion was that government interventions would negatively affect the free market [14]. The belief that a market created without intervention would enrich the people, on the one hand, ensured the enrichment of the owners of capital and, on the other hand, caused the labor sector to become poor. The poverty faced by children and women hurts humanitarian feelings [15]. Increasing poverty during this period when no intervention was made to workers’ wages and working conditions caused the social problems to increase and thus the rapid development of social policies.
\nAs a result of liberal approach in the economy, two opposing sections have emerged in society: the bourgeois class who are the capital owners and working class who are the labor holders. The reduced of wages, poor working conditions, and long working hours have led to social problems in the labor class and to class conflicts. In the nineteenth century, social policies were applied to solve the social problems created by the liberal economy understanding of the state. Providing social peace and justice through the intervention of the state in the working life, working relations, and wages is inevitable.
\nWith the social reform movements that began in England and Canada between 1880 and 1920, social policies turned into a descriptive approach from the prohibitive approach [1]. In this approach, the state was criticized that its role in the work life was limited and rigid, and it was suggested that the state should regulate social conditions in order to eliminate the negativities in the work life. In this period, there was an opinion that the role of the state in social policies should increase, in the capitalist developed countries, such as France, Germany, and the USA.
\nConsequently, the emergence of social policy in the modern sense is attributed to social conditions created by French Revolution in intellectual-political sphere and those created by industrial revolution in the social and economic spheres [16].
\nAfter World War II, liberal economic approaches in developed countries were abandoned, and Keynesian policy approach was adopted with the belief that the state should intervene in social policies. Another important factor in the adoption of this approach is the 1929 economic crisis and its negative consequences. After the industrial revolution, the scope of social policies expanded, and not only the problems of labor sector but also those of the whole society were addressed. All of the issues such as health services, elderly and child care, struggle against unemployment and poverty, participation of women in working life, protection of the environment, and gender discrimination became issues for which the state struggled under social policy.
\nThe concept of welfare state emerged in 1930s and 1940s. Unlike the concept of state which was adopted during World War II and which aimed for providing sufficient money to cover the need of army in far, welfare state aims at providing social policy, health services and thus providing social needs [17].
\nWelfare state concept gains different aspects in different countries according to their cultural, social, political, and economic legacies and historical developments. Welfare state aims at providing welfare of the individual citizens. According to the demands of labor market and civil society, welfare state intervenes in the economy.
\nAlthough there are many definitions about the welfare state, Asa Brigg defines it as follows: “It is a kind of state in which consciously organized public power is used to reduce the role of market forces.” It is accepted within the scope of the role of the welfare state to provide a minimum income guarantee to individuals and families, to facilitate the prevention of certain social risks, and to offer good living conditions to individuals in society through social welfare [18].
\nAnother definition of the welfare state is that “it is a contemporary state understanding that undertakes the duty to ensure a fair income distribution, protect the groups and classes in need of protection, direct the social security practices and employment policies, practice the politicize to meet the basic requirements of society such as education, health, and housing and takes measures for regulating the working life, thanks to the tax and wage policies it follows” [19].
\nThe difficulties were faced with regard to making definition of the welfare state and justifying its historical development. As mentioned above, each and every state has a different national social security system, a different social structure, and thus, different needs. Moreover, welfare state determines the policies that are required by the economic, social, and cultural conditions and put in force the legislative regulations accordingly.
\nThe development process of welfare state can be handled by categorizing in three periods. The first period was between 1870 and 1913, in other words from the late seventeenth century when the industrial revolution took place to early nineteenth century. The next period was the time between World War I and World War II and the time period between 1950 and 1973 when is referred to as the “Golden Age of Welfare States.” Welfare state changed with the economic crises which realized after 1973. This period is referred to as “Welfare State Crisis” and refers to the period up today.
\nThe emergence of welfare state dates back to 1601, when Poor Laws were put in force in UK. In this period, most of men were recruited for war. When they turned back home, they lived the rest of their life without any social security or protection but under risks. 1601 Poor Law was the first legislative initiative to protect the elders, patients, and wounded people in the society. However, this legislative regulation was not sufficient because the rest of society was also in need of protection. Another legislative regulation was made in 1834 as a result of economic and social pressure and because of the developments at the time. This is the beginning of the stigmatizing effects of social policy. In the following periods, the effects of Adam Smith’s free market economy started to change the state policies and legislative regulations not only in UK but also in other countries.
\nWelfare state really emerged after World War II. Along World War I, all countries spent all of their resources for war. After World War I, it was understood that John Maynard Keynes approach was not sufficient for creating job opportunities and reviving public economy. After the war, it was believed that a second war could be prevented by means of creating job opportunities and providing new working and life standards.
\nWith 1942 Social Security report (Social Insurance and Allied Services), Lord William Beveridge aimed at creating a health system, providing minimum income and decreasing employment rates. After the war, Beveridge’s opinions were evaluated together with Keynes approach for creating a national welfare for UK [20]. Distrustfulness of liberalism urged countries for plunging into new quests.
\nStates faced new social risks between 1870 and 1913. These risks were increase of aging population, pension payments, diseases, occupational diseases, and accidents. In 1880s, Bismarck made some efforts in order to provide social security. Reform efforts made by Bismarck aimed at providing a protection through social security against the risks of industrial revolution, low income, and population movements. The long working hours and heavy working conditions increased poverty and socialist movements. With these developments, the regulations covering disease insurance in 1883, work accident insurance in 1884, and old-age and disability insurance in 1889 were put in force.
\nBismarck’s reform movement aimed at establishing a system not only under the state but also with support of employers and employees. According to this, the system had three dimensions: employer’s responsibilities, individual investments, and private insurance. This system also accepted the intervention by state. Therefore, it possible to say that the economic and political structures and, consequently, social policies of other countries started the change after Bismarck’s reform.
\nFollowing Bismarck’s reform, many legislative regulations were put in force for the diseases and injuries caused by industrialization. No similar regulations and rules had been put in force in Western European Countries until 1913.
\nBecause of industrialization, the changes in social demographic structure, and increasing pressures in nineteenth century in European states, the realization of welfare state gained speed. Public sector and economy had a rapid development in China, Brazil, and Russia. Between 1950 and 1973, when it is known as the golden age of welfare state, the intervention of state gradually increased with the Keynesian approach which was adopted for solving the problems caused by the free market economy. However, Keynesian policies caused states to go into crises after 1970s. High tax rates, increasing public expenditures, and states’ intervening markets were cited as the reasons for the crisis. In this period, when the proportion of social expenditures to public expenditures was gradually increasing, old-age, motherhood, injury, and death insurances were accepted in many countries. In addition, unemployment insurance and family aids were also regulated in more developed countries [21].
\nThe welfare state has been undergoing a transformation since 1975. The state intervention which increased with 1929 economic crisis was replaced with a system in which the state shrined after the oil crisis between 1973 and 1979. In this period, states adopted the opinion that states should be less interventionist with regard to making economic and social policies. It is observed that the budget deficit which was caused by the pressure of social expenditures increased in this period when unemployment became chronic, inflation rate increased, and economic growth decreased especially in Western European countries.
\nNeoliberal approach which emerged in this period was adopted as a new form of liberalism, a result of solution seeking against Keynesian policies [22]. As a result of fierce competition caused by economic crises, a new period started in late 1970s, and in that period, Keynesian welfare state went through a crisis.
\nWith globalization, welfare state that had stability in economic growth as well as good work conditions and price offers ended, and a new period in which nation states had less authority started. These developments which also affected social policies led to adoption of neoliberal approach for decreasing social expenditures. States started restructuring and new reforms in order to re-start economic growth. In the last 20 years, many countries have made regulations to decrease social expenditures. Yet again, in many countries, public expenditures have not decreased, instead, they have increased. The reasons of this condition are not only economic reasons and developments but also the reasons caused by the change of demographic structure like aging population and the changing family structure. As mentioned above, economic policies and social policies have mutual interactions. It is obvious that the changes in economic policies also affect social policies, and no one is independent of the other.
\nOn the other hand, the economic condition of welfare state is not only related with individual behaviors but also related with social security system to be accepted for labor market and social welfare. The contradiction between labor market and state intervention has yet to be solved [17].
\nWelfare state continues to develop. State still plays an important role in determining social policies. It is possible to say that not only economic indicators but also the changes taking place in demographic and social structure play role in determining the policies of welfare state.
\nThe welfare state aims at redistributing income and thus plays an interventionist and regulatory role. It takes measures to eliminate negativity in working life. It determines the minimum wage, undertakes social security and welfare services, and intervenes by taxes and other expenditures to eliminate injustices in income distribution [23, 24].
\nThe welfare state is expressed as the deepened and extension of the classic protective state [25]. The welfare state, whose last stage reached has been by the modern state, is no longer a “spectator state,” but it is a “player state” [19].
\nAll of the definitions regarding welfare state include the mentality to protect those who have poor economic and social conditions. This protection can be done through social policies. Therefore, welfare state’s intervention for the sake of eliminating the negative conditions, which is required to be done by the welfare state and achieve the goals of social policies, is appropriate and required.
\nAlthough the duties and scope of each welfare state change based on each country’s social, cultural, economic and demographic conditions; basically, they include ensuring the protection of children, the disabled, families, the elders and women, creating jobs, providing education and vocational training, struggling against poverty and low income, and improving the working conditions.
\nConsidering the practices of the welfare state, various distinctions have been made on the basis of services and expenditures to ensure social welfare. The most important study about this issue has been made by Gosta Esping-Andersen. Esping-Andersen classifies welfare state systems as follows:
Liberal welfare model which is practiced by USA and UK
Conservative and Continental Europe model which is practiced by Germany, France, and Belgium
Social Democratic Scandivian Model which is practiced by Sweden and Denmark [26, 27].
The welfare state, emerging as a response to the search for solutions to address the inequalities and negativities created by the industrial revolution, is a new form of the liberal state. Because the liberal approach threatening social interests due to the fact that capital and markets were not interfered and the socialist approach that kept the interests of the working class at the highest level were not sufficient to meet the social needs, the welfare state emerged as a system to overcome the problems of both of these systems.
\nRegarding the welfare state, it is possible to make the following determinations regarding the period until the beginning of the process of globalization and neoliberalism [28].
The residual approach evolved and replaced by with an institutional approach.
Demanding social welfare has turned into a human right arising from being a citizen.
While it was an understanding of service to meet the needs of only poor, it has turned into universal service to meet the needs of the whole society.
It left from a limited welfare budge to large welfare expenditures.
The understanding that such problems as poverty and unemployment are not because of the mistakes done by individuals but because of inadequacy of the state and its institutions.
Making efforts to take responsibility for providing social welfare has shifted from volunteer individuals and institutions to public institutions.
The economic crises experienced after the 1970s caused problems and criticized the Keynesian welfare state. Budget deficit was one of the problems that were faced due to the increase in unemployment, the decrease in economic growth, and the increase in retirement age and health expenditures due to the aging of the population. The criticism and debate about the welfare state are that all the negative, economic, social, and political problems are caused by the social policy practices of the welfare state.
\nLong-term consideration of demographic changes and the impact of globalization on the welfare state have opened new avenues for debate and discussion about the welfare state’s future development [17]. The important point is providing people welfare for the welfare states.
\nCriticisms about the welfare state are:
Poverty and unemployment rates have not been reduced, and social welfare policies have not been successful
The opportunities provided for welfare cause negative effects on family structure, increase divorce rates, and deteriorate moral values
It has increased the taxes put on income and capital
Welfare states have begun to develop new policies and restructure due to the problems that constitute the source of criticisms of social policy. Although it is claimed that the welfare state has a tendency to go back due to economic and financial pressures, it is possible to say that the welfare state continues to make efforts to adapt with the new conditions.
\nThe transformations which have taken place in social policy and welfare state can be explained under the shade of globalization. In 1998s and 1990s, privatization and marketization had an impact for some of conservative governments. The governments had more liberal approach to civil society and economy policy.
\nGlobalization reveals a free market economy, liberal democracy, and cultural differences in the process leading to a holistic world economy [30]. Globalization process gained momentum after 1980. In this process which was based on economic liberalization, the neoliberal model became dominant and the idea that state should abandon its active role in social policies was adopted. In some developed countries, which had been practicing the neoliberal model, social policy implementations began to lose their importance, and they were completely neglected in less developed countries.
\nThe effects of globalization became more evident at the end of the twentieth century, and the welfare state had less intrusive character with regard to taking measures for social protection due to the pressure caused by social expenditures and increased taxes. With the adoption of the dominant view that social expenditures hampered economic growth, the shrinking of welfare states and reduction of its role on social policies gained momentum. Due to the increasing competition between the welfare states, poverty and unemployment have increased, and injustices have emerged in the distribution of income [21].
\nThe narrowing of social welfare state practices in the process of globalization caused social rights to be restricted. Liberal understanding limits the state’s duties with the provision of security, justice, and infrastructure. State shrinks through liberalization. The possibility of the deterioration of the balance between capital and labor, which was tried to be established after the industrial revolution, threatens those who are in need of social protection. The increasing unemployment rate is one of the most important threats.
\nIn the process of globalization, contrary to their liberal philosophy, the states that turned into neoliberal models needed to further develop their social policy practices. Developments show that, contrary to expectations, the model adopted in the process of globalization deepens the problems of social policies further.
\nThe impacts of globalization on the welfare state model and social policies are evaluated from four different perspectives, which are:
According to Mishra; globalization eliminates the independence of nation states. Economic growth is the sole target. International wage inequality and poverty increase due to economic pressures, and social protection is weakening. Welfare of nation states decreases with neoliberal policies [31].
According to Pierson, globalization alone is not the reason for the reduction of the power of welfare states. As an external power, globalization may require renewal in the structuring of states, but this restructuring should not be a reduction of social policies. In this process, states should also take into account the internal effects such as demographic, migration, and social developments and decide on the restructuring process accordingly [32].
According to Esping-Anderson, nation states should prefer more balanced practices on the axis of globalization. Nation states with strong economic and political structures should prefer the most harmonious practices for their own future while guiding globalization [27].
According to Rieger and Leibfried, globalization emerged as a result of efforts of the nation states to reduce the negative effects of war with the liberal model. The economies of nation states are independent of the global economy; therefore, the restructuring process and the establishment of relevant policies should be evaluated in this respect [33].
The causes of the crisis of the welfare state in developed countries are globalization which is an external factor and internal variables which are related to the social structures of states. One of these reasons is the demographic structure, which has changed because of the aging population, prolongation of life, and decreasing birth rates. In addition, family structure has changed, divorces have increased, public expenditures, pension and health expenditures, and taxes have increased, and economic growth has declined. The competitive power of the countries in the international arena has decreased due to the increase in the expenditures of the welfare state to ensure social welfare. Having been in search of providing solution for the elimination of the financial pressures caused by the expenditures related to increased welfare, the welfare states have entered into a restructuring process.
\nIn the restructuring and surviving process, the financial pressure was tried to be eased through the privatization of the pension system, raising the retirement age, increasing the premiums, and reducing the financial pressure.
\nWith the shrinkage in the welfare state, the provision of welfare services has also changed. The service provision which had been performed by the state has been given through local administrations at local level, and it has been left to the nonprofit organization, which means it has been “privatized” [28].
\nIt seems hard to foresee the future state of welfare state clearly because of variables. Welfare state changes based on social, economic, cultural, and demographic structures of states. It does not seem possible to provide financing of welfare statement with traditional methods. Especially 2008 financial crisis, welfare state had a view that a system in which the main player is the state is not sufficient for economic growth. The increasing unemployment is an obstacle for the welfare state growth. Moreover, the population of many states is getting older, and the demographic structure is changing. Labor markets need to be supported, new jobs need to be created, and employment needs to be increased. Therefore, states determined their policies. Public expenditures are increasing due to increasing pension payments with the aging population.
\nThe expectations that welfare state provides welfare are increasing more and more. The approaches for providing welfare are different. Some states adopt liberal approaches, some states adopt corporatist and some others adopt universal approaches. In recent years, the belief that economic policies are not sufficient for achieving a welfare state but that welfare state needs to be achieved through social policies has been increasing.
\nAlthough many arguments have been raised in discussions on the future of the welfare state, it is possible to say that the rightist and leftist views are more dominant.
The rightists argue that the welfare state can overcome the crisis only by shifting to neoliberal policies. They also argue that the obligatory change that took place in the industrial revolution is also valid for the Information Age which emerged in the last quarter of the twentieth century and that social policies need to be developed by the supranational organizations after the change of welfare state.
For the leftists, they argue that welfare states have the ability to adapt themselves changing conditions; and therefore, they can overcome the crisis through reforms and restructuring. It is suggested that the neo-Keynesian approaches should be adopted instead of the neoliberal approach in the reform process.
As an alternative to these views, neoliberals and conservatives have made new initiatives under the name of “New Right,” and social democrats and social liberals have made new initiatives under the name “The Third Way” [21].
\nFurthermore, the legitimacy of the welfare state was questioned by both The New Right and The New Left. The New Left criticized the state’s role was too weak compared to the markets, and a reformulation of the state’s role in societal development was needed. The New Right is focused on the role of bureaucracy and pressure groups. According to their opinion, society’s welfare is more important than bureaucracy and pressure groups’ interests [17].
\nThe globalization, which has been cited as a reason for the transformation of the welfare state and social policies, increases its influence with the participation of international organizations such as World Bank, World Health Organization, and International Monetary Fund [13, 34, 35]. Nation states should implement policies in economic and social spheres not based on external processes but based on internal dynamics. As stated above, although they have similar features, each country has different applications for social protection. Here, the main important thing is to determine the impacts of change on demographic and cultural structures of the countries and make intervention properly. In summary, it is the choice of national political authorities to present the effects of globalization as the only reason for their national policies. Instead of this perspective, it would be a more realistic approach to try to benefit from the positive impacts of globalization for reducing problems at the national level. By this way, it would be possible to develop more effective tools to prevent the increasing social problems.
\nWelfare states are still developing. States are in search for better work and life conditions. They want to have social security systems which cover all social risks. From this perspective, it is possible to say that there is not a real crisis in welfare states, but there are efforts to remove obstacles before the economic growth.
\nWelfare states need to make regulations to decrease unemployment rates, taxes, and public expenditures because of the decline in economic growth [17]. There seems to be a tendency for narrowing in social policies because the proportion of social expenditures in public expenditures is high.
\nReform initiatives to reduce the welfare crises in the welfare states have led to giving more importance to “active social protection” understanding in social policy implementations [36]. These practices, which were put into practice in 1990s and which aimed to be active in the labor market, were based on regulations that encourage working and restricting passive expenditures. In order to reduce the passive expenditures, the period of benefiting from social benefits was shortened, and their conditions were made difficult. When the impact of the reform implementations on social expenditures is evaluated, it is seen that poverty of children has increased and the works for giving family aids and providing vocation education have been insufficient. It is obvious that retirement age and health expenditures will continue to increase due to the aging population. It is possible to say that the increase of passive expenditures due to the aging of the population constitutes an obstacle before realization of active and passive reforms [37].
\nAs a result, welfare states continue to exist in different ways. The developments show that the view that social rights, freedoms, and ideological thoughts are not sufficient to achieve the economic growth. It is possible to say that the welfare states having this view will follow impartial policies about making social expenditures in future years.
\nIn this study, the social policy and the welfare state are handled with their goals, scopes, types, and problems from their historical development up to today.
\nSocial policy is a set of measures developed to protect workers against the dangers arising as a result of industrialization, in parallel to the historical development, after the industrial revolution. Its emergence in this way has caused the social policies to be defined in a narrow sense. After World War II, the narrow perspective on social policy began to change. The reason of this change was the fact that the measures to protect the interests of the working class were not sufficient to solve social problems. Therefore, it was concluded that social policy should be extended to cover all segments of society. In a broad sense, social policy is a set of measures taken to ensure that all segments of the society live in peace and harmony to prevent unemployment, to improve working conditions, to provide a minimum wage, to provide social security and benefits, to eliminate injustice in income distribution, and to ensure social justice. Social policy refers to all policies that ensure the welfare of the state and individuals and the dynamic practices that constantly change.
\nThe main goal of social policies is to ensure that everyone in society lives in peace and harmony away from conflicts. With social policies, it is aimed to ensure social justice, social development, social balance, social integration, and social peace.
\nThe goal of social justice is to create equality of opportunity for every individual without eliminating the freedoms and to ensure a fair distribution of income. In particular, objective of justice is to provide services such as education, tax, social security, equal opportunities, and fair and adequate wages. Providing social balance is possible by eliminating social and regional differences. For the establishment of social peace, the factors that hinder social reconciliation must be eliminated. The aim of social integration is to ensure that measures are taken to prevent social disintegration. Social democracy, which has been adopted as the main objective of social policy, refers to the protection of individuals’ interests in the environment of democratic freedoms by taking into account the balance of equality.
\nThe industrial revolution played an important role in the historical development of social policies. After the industrial revolution, the increased capital ensured the formation of a powerful and rich bourgeoisie. On the other hand, the need for manpower was met by means of the working class. The gap between these two segments in society gradually increased. With the power from capital, the bourgeoisie class began to impose low wages, poor working conditions, and working hours of up to 16–20 hours on workers. The working class was left totally unprotected with the adoption of a liberal approach which argues that interference with market conditions adversely affects welfare. The increasing social problems led to the formation of social policies. The liberal market economy, which was replaced with Keynesian policies after World War II and 1929 economic crisis, was given up, and thus, the state could interfere with market by means of social policies.
\nAlthough there are many definitions of the welfare state, it is possible to say “It is a kind of state in which consciously organized public power is used to reduce the role of market forces.” Shifting from a liberal model to Keynesian model of welfare state, states adopted a more interventionist character from economic, social, and legal points of view. Dating back to 1880s, the welfare state continued to strengthen until the mid-1970s due to the increased unemployment and spread of poverty in all countries.
\nThe concept of welfare state entered into literature with the Beveridge Report, which was created in 1942. Looking at the foundations of the concept of welfare state, it is possible to say that it dates back to social security practices introduced by Bismarck in 1883. Welfare state emerged first in Germany and then in Western Europe, North America, and Australia. The common feature of these countries was that they had industrialization and developed market economies and democratic systems. South Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Taiwan, which underwent a further industrialization process, started to be accepted as welfare states in the 1970s. Japan had completed this process earlier. While there were attempts to become a welfare state in the Soviet Union after the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, the efforts to become a welfare state began later in China, Cuba, and Eastern Europe but they did not achieve an accomplishment with this regard because they had no industrialization.
\nSocial policy, which emerged as a result of failure of the social problems created by the liberal economy approach, was replaced with the concept of welfare state after the adoption of social security practices introduced by Bismarck in Germany.
\nThe social state developed policies not only in the areas of health, education, social security, distribution of income, and housing but also sought solutions to environmental and urban problems in order to ensure social welfare. The welfare state varies from country to country according to the level of welfare they have. According to the classification made by Esping-Anderson, liberal welfare model belongs to conservative Continental Europe, while the social democratic model belongs to Scandinavians.
\nIt is possible to say that the welfare state, which was developed to eliminate the deficiencies of the liberal and socialist understanding in welfare, is a new form of liberal model. In this sense, it acts with an interventionist approach to solve the problems that may arise in the field of social policy.
\nThe Keynesian welfare state stated to have a tendency to narrow social expenditures due to the decrease of economic growth, unemployment, and increased budget deficits after the economic crises seen in the 1970s.
\nThe criticism that the welfare state’s practices for welfare were unsuccessful was justified based on allegations that poverty and unemployment increased, tax and social expenditures constituted a big burden, and the family and moral structure in the society changed unfavorably.
\nWelfare state’s tendency to turn back retrogressively is most likely to have a negative impact on social policies. The financial pressures caused by social expenditures may cause the welfare state to take on a passive character as in the liberal period in the face of social problems and cause social policies to regress.
\nThis retrogression in the welfare is justified with globalization process, which has started to show its effects since the late 1970s. The understanding of globalization which is accompanied by liberalization suggests the limitation of the duties of the state. This situation may cause deeper problems in the social field. Although globalization had an impact on the welfare state as an external factor, it is also necessary to evaluate the internal factors related to the socioeconomic and demographic structures of the states in the emergence of the crisis.
\nDemographic structure that changed because of the aging of the population, prolongation of life span, and decreasing birth rates can be shown as a reason for the crisis of the welfare state in developed countries. In addition, the family structure changed, public expenditures, pension and health expenditures, and taxes increased, and economic growth decreased. The competitive power of the welfare state decreased due to the increase in expenditures made to ensure social welfare. The welfare states, which are in search of a solution for the elimination of the financial pressures caused by the expenditures related to increased prosperity, have entered into a restructuring process. In the process of restructuring and surviving, the financial pressure was tried to be eased through the privatization of the retirement system, raising the retirement age, and increasing the premiums. During the restructuring process, the privatization initiatives were accelerated by providing the social welfare service through local administrations at local level.
\nThere are many views on the future of the welfare state. Rightists who provide solutions to overcome the crisis argue that the neoliberal approach should be adopted, while leftists argue that neo-Keynesian approaches should be adopted.
\nIn today’s world, the concept of welfare state is transforming and the economic pressures created by globalization have a tendency to narrow social policies. Based on the fact that the reason for the transformation in the welfare state is not just globalization, each state should develop policies and tools that are the most appropriate for its social structure to adapt it to the transformation process. In fact, when we look at the practices of the welfare states in the world, it is possible to say that the effects of the crisis differ according to the level of development and welfare. Some of the welfare states continue to undertake initiatives to reduce public expenditures but they fail to satisfy the expectations especially because of the demographic structure. It is impossible to reduce the health and retirement expenditures because of the increasingly aging population.
\nThe reform initiatives to reduce the crisis in the welfare states in the 1990s adopted the “active social protection” understanding, which aimed at activation by keeping the work force in labor market active in social policy practices. In order to reduce the passive expenditures, the period of benefiting from social benefits was shortened, and their conditions were made difficult. Considering OECD data, it is seen that the activation efforts fail short to satisfy the expectations. On the other hand, it is seen that family and care support are not provided enough, and child poverty increases. Activation of practices is implemented by many countries. It can be said that the time passed is not enough to give a decision whether the activation efforts have positive effects. However, it is clear that retirement and health expenditures will continue to increase due to the aging population.
\nInflation, tax, and public expenditures need to be reduced in order that the welfare state continues its existence and economic growth and increases its competitiveness. In Europe, where there is tradition of social solidarity, there is a tendency that the welfare state continues. With the support of international organizations such as IMF, OECD, and World Bank, welfare states transfer the distribution of social services to the private sector. However, welfare services are still planned by the state, and many services are still provided by the state.
\nDespite all these developments, it is possible to say that the welfare state has an active role on social policies and welfare states are resistant to the economic negativities experienced. In our opinion, reducing social expenditures should be the last resort in the reform initiatives of states to achieve growth in the future periods of transformation of the welfare state. The strategies to be established in this way should be determined in light of the following points:
Not deviating from the goal of achieving ultimate welfare in the transferring of services to the private sector and preserving the regulatory, descriptive character of the state
Encouraging the private sector with regard to distribution of social services
Making use of the increasing of voluntary organizations and local governments with regard to the provision of social services
Restructuring to reduce expenditures other than social assistance expenditures
Attaching importance to giving child care money to families and importance to young people’s vocational education, considering the obstacles caused by the demographic structure
Reducing the burden of unemployment in public social spending by producing solutions that can prevent the increasing and deepening unemployment in the world
Reducing the inflation and tax
Not considering decreasing the spending on social welfare as a tool for economic growth and determining the economic strategies on this basis
Utilizing the developments on a global scale in favor of the social welfare state and adopting strategies in line with the positive effects of globalization and making cooperation with international and supranational organizations in this process
In the light of all these points, it is possible to say that in the future, the governments adopting approaches compromising social policies in order to achieve economic growth will lead to the reaction of the society who has the expectation of social welfare. On the other hand, achieving welfare without deviating from the goals of social policy will also vary according to the states’ ability to adapt themselves to changes and developments and reconstructing accordingly.
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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"351158",title:"Prof.",name:"David W.",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"david-w.-anderson",fullName:"David W. Anderson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Calgary",country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"41",type:"subseries",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"