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1. Introduction
In the last decades, the interest in olive tree (Olea europaea L.), an important crop for Mediterranean countries, has been extended to other regions of the world, such as Australia, North and South America, due to its valuable products; olive oil and table olive [1]. Olea europea L. is an evergreen plant-derived from tropical and subtropical species. It is native to the Mediterranean region, tropical and central Asia, and other parts of North Africa. Fossil remains of olive species have been found in Italy, France, and many other countries. Olive tree includes many clusters and more than 2600 cultivars, many of which may be ecotypes. Native olive O. oleaster and cultivated olive O. sativa are the main species in the Mediterranean [2].
The geography of Albania has shaped the climate characteristics, with South and Western regions typical of the Mediterranean climate while the Eastern and Northern regions with typical continental climate (Figure 1). Olive tree is cultivated mainly in the regions with Mediterranean climate, by penetrating the mainland through the river valleys, up to 560 m altitudes. Genetic studies have found 22 native olive cultivars strictly distributed into six regions - Berat, Elbasan, Kruja, Lezha, Tirana and Vlora. Native cultivars, namely: Boç, Frëng, Kalinjot, Karre, Kushan, Kotruvs, Kokërrmadh Berati, Mixan, Kokërrmadh Elbasani, Micka, Krips, Managjel, Nisjot, Peperri, Ulli deti, Ulli i zi, Ulli bardhë Lezha, Sterbjak, Ulli i kuq, Bardhi Kruja, Bardhi Tirana (Bianco di Tirana), and Ulli i bardhë Berati [4, 5].
Figure 1.
Land use in Albania [3].
According to their area of plantation, they are classified as ‘Principal’ and ‘Secondary’ cultivars. Kalinjot is the most distinguished native olive cultivar and is distributed in over 50% of the country’s plantation area. Other native cultivars important for the local economies are Bardhi Tirana and Mixan. Kokërrmadh Berati cultivar is the primary representative and consequently the most abundant table olive in Albania. The remaining cultivars presented in the study were classified as Secondary cultivars [5]. Olive cultivation is closely linked with local comunities for a long period. Olive cultivar names are conected with regions, as well as the olive fruit name, in albanian (ulli).
1.1 Olive tree cultivation and production
The olive tree dominates the country’s permanent crops with 10.28 million in a total of 13.82 million fruit trees, or 74.4%. The main regions where the olive tree is cultivated are Vlora, Fieri, Berat, and Elbasan (Table 1) [6, 7].
The entire agriculture sector and especially permanent crops suffered in the last in the alternation of the 20th century with the 21st the consequences of economic transition (Figure 2). The arable land reform distributed the entire area to the small farms. This was a big reverse step toward the permanent crop’s cultivation, which suffered the most, with negative consequences such decrease in tree numbers, and productivity. Only around 2010 because of the central government policy, focusing the priority on agriculture, and especially to crops that countries already have high productivity, the interest in olive culture highly increased. A steady increase was observed in the number of trees and the area planted. Currently, over 47000 ha are planted with olive tree, or 7.6% of the arable land [6, 8].
Figure 2.
Area of olive trees during 1989–2019 (in ha) [6].
FAO statistics on olive fruit production ranks Albania the 20th in the world, with 98313 tons. The world production during 2019 harvesting year reached 19.46 million tons, with Albania’s contribution of 0.51% [8]. A total of 8.23 out of 10.28 million olive trees are under production [6]. The olive oil production was calculated to as 20,038 tons, contribution up to 95% of domestic demands. Data on olive oil consumption increased to five liters per capita, being the highest level among the non-European Union member countries [9]. With an average production varying to 40,000 tons olive fruit, a sharp increase was evident in 2008 as well as in the following years (Figure 3) [10]. A key role to this positive trend was the application of support schemes subsidizing local farmers. Currently the annual production fluctuates in 100000 tons of olives. Intensive production belongs to three regions: Berat (38,000 tons), Fier (33,000 tons) and Vlora (17,000 tons), with figures belonging to 2019 [6].
Figure 3.
Annual production for olive fruits during 1989–2019, in Albania [6].
1.2 Table olive production
The olive fruits are exploited in 79 percent for olive oil production, while the remaining goes to table olives production. Country holds the global record for table olive consumption per capita. According to International Olive Council, table olive consumption was 10.8 kilograms per capita [9]. Kokërrmadh Berati cv is the most distinguished native cultivar used as table olive. It is mainly present in the Berati region. Other olive cultivars used as table olive are not industrially processed but used only locally by families. Another important olive cultivar, Kalinjot is used both to extract olive oil, as well as table olive. Their nutritional profiles show small differences regarding to the main fatty acids (Table 2). Their n/6/n-3 ratio is around 10, showing very good profiles of unsaturated FA, compared to other distinguished olive cultivars worldwide [11]. Both are classified as High-Content Oleic Acid cultivars.
Formula
Kalinjot
Kokërrmadh Berati
16:0
10.92
10.41
16:1(n-9)
0.09
0.13
16:1(n-7)
0.48
0.61
17:0
0.04
ND
17:1 (n-7)
0.14
ND
18:0
2.31
2.10
18:1(n-9)cis
75.11
76.26
18:1(n-7)
1.88
2.20
18:2 (n-6)cis
7.56
6.92
20:0
0.36
0.40
18:3 (n-3)
0.72
0.67
20:1 (n-9)
0.31
0.33
22:0
0.08
ND
n-6/n-3
10.47
10.31
Σ-SFA
13.36
12.92
Σ-MUFA
78.01
79.53
Σ-PUFA
8.29
7.59
Table 2.
Fatty acid profiles and nutritional interest of two main table olive cultivars (%).
1.3 Olive oil extraction industry in Albania
OO extraction is organized in small extraction mills, with only 1/3 of their extraction capacity exploited. OO production is reached mainly in Southern and Central parts of the country, comprising Vlora, Fieri, Berati, Elbasani and Tirana regions. These regions, in total they comprise more than 80% of the olive trees in production [12, 13]. The extraction process produces high amounts of Olive Husk (OH) and Olive Mill Wastewaters (OMWW). Their disposal in the environment is a critical issue to the Mediterranean countries. It has been shown that the OMWW disposal into surface waters influence negatively in their biodiversity due to high organic load and toxic substances. The OMWW composition varies qualitatively and quantitatively according to the olive variety, climate condition, cultivation practices, the olive storage time and olive extraction process. Composed of 83–92% water, 4–16% organic matter, and 1–2% minerals, constitute a potential for exploitation as irrigation source and fertilizer in arable lands [13, 14]. Solid residues show high interest if they are used in soil enrichment with potassium (K) and other minerals. Up to 254.85 mg/kg of K, 20 mg/kg magnesium on dry weight basis is found [14, 15].
Regions where the extraction lines are stationed face the deteriorating situation in the environmental conditions. OMWW discharge to surface waters, solid waste disposal produces bad odors on a large perimeter, disturbing the community. The OMWW amounts produced is 125–137 × 106 kg, while the OH approximately to 60 × 106 kg with a fluctuation in a yearly basis [15]. Traditionally, olive husk is used as feedstuff to animals or burned to farmers’ houses. Recently, showing the high interest for exploitation of OH by-products, an investment in processing plant is operating at capacity 2.5 ton/hour for production of pellets.
2. Olive oils characterization and authenticity
2.1 Kalinjot cv. Olive oils
Unique in its nutritional and sensory characteristics [16], VOO plays a vital role as the primary source of fats in the traditional Mediterranean diet [1, 17].
Kalinjot, the most important olive cultivar, gives the main contribution to the national level on the OO production. It covers 70% of the plantations’ structure, to Vlora and Mallakastra regions, and relatively resilient to drought and cold weather (Figure 4). Fruit and stone weight, respectively to approximate values of 3.6 g and 0.5 g, with the extractability rate that varies up to 28% w/w. Fatty acid composition for olive oils obtained from different locations from Vlora and Mallakastra regions, in different harvesting years the last decade (Table 3) [18, 19, 20, 21, 22].
Figure 4.
(A) Olive tree cultivation regions in Albania; (B) Vlora region, classifyed as: traditional, intensive and superintensive groves. Olive tree cultivation regions in Albania, Vlora region [12].
Mean
SDev
Max
Min
C14:0
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
C16:0
10.43
1.45
13.62
8.54
C16:1
0.74
0.53
2.91
0.42
C17:0
0.11
0.04
0.16
0.00
C17:1
0.18
0.04
0.23
0.07
C18:0
2.69
0.29
3.39
2.04
C18:1n9tr
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
C18:1n9c
72.44
2.34
76.83
68.03
C18:1n6c
1.81
0.71
3.16
0.00
C18:2n6c
9.79
1.47
14.22
7.85
C20:0
0.47
0.03
0.53
0.40
C18:3n3
0.77
0.06
0.89
0.63
C20:1
0.38
0.03
0.43
0.30
C21:0
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
C22:0
0.13
0.01
0.18
0.12
C24:0
0.06
0.03
0.09
0.00
Table 3.
Fatty acid mean, maximum and minimum values to Kalinjot OO.
The main fatty acid, Oleic acid, interval is 68.03–76.83%; with linoleic acid interval 7.85–14.22% and palmitic acid interval 8.54–13.62%. The Linolenic acid content range is 0.63–0.89% lying under the value established by EU legislation to olive oil (Table 3).
Olive cultivar
Mean
Mixan
139.24 ± 6.56
Frëng
42.78 ± 7.04
Bardhi Kruja
322.05 ± 5.61
Kalinjot
285.16 ± 3.29
Bardhi Tirana
445.03 ± 16.83
Karren
89.74 ± 0.47
Nisjot
203.07 ± 7.51
Kotruvs
226.97 ± 1.40
Kokërrmadh
125.60 ± 6.09
Table 4.
Total phenolic content in OO from native cv (mg gallic acid/kg).
As expected, no statistically significant differences were observed between fatty acids of Kalinjot olive oils, and therefore the data presented refer to all samples analyzed. The distribution of fatty acid composition of the oil samples studied is shown in Table 1 and covers the normal range expected for olive oil. The Kalinjot OO has a high percentage of oleic acid, with an average value of 74.25 and an interquartile range of 1.899 (the difference between samples percentiles), and a low percentage of linoleic acid, with an average value of 9.788 and an interquartile range of 1.471.
Principal component analysis given in Figure 5 displayed the distribution of Kalinjot OO samples from different location within regions of Vlora and Mallakastra. As it can be seen in the chart, according to the PCA biplot, the samples were well categorized. The samples coded with numbers 1, 2, 6, 7, 12, 13, 16, 19, 21, 22, 23 and 24 were positioned on the positive F1 axis while the remaining were on the negative F1 axis. In addition to those, samples coded as 29 and 30 were positioned on the negative F1 axis and clearly separated from other OO samples. OO sample (29) belong to Nisjot olive cv., another olive cv of the Vlora and Mallakastra region, while the OO sample (30) belonged to the same olive cultivar, Kalinjot, but from a different geographical region, Central Albania.
Figure 5.
Sample distribution for Kalinjot OO samples from different locations within regions of Vlora and Mallakastra.
2.2 Fatty acid composition
Fatty acid profiles from twenty-six different olive cv are presented in Table 6. Oleic (C18:1), palmitic (16:0), linoleic (C18:2), and stearic (C18:0) acids, are primary FA in decreasing order. Results revealed that the fatty acid content falls in the average percentage intervals described by FAO and IOOC [23]. These olive varieties presented a significant variation in oleic acid (OA). They are clustered into two groups containing Oleic acid, low-OA cultivars: Krips Kruja (66.24%) and Peperri (66.27%); and high-OA cultivars: Kalinjot, Bardhi Tirana, Mixan, Frëng, Bardhi Kruja, Managjel, Ulli deti (from 70.87 to 76.58%) [24]. Aparacio and Luna [25] have suggested a correlation between the cultivars’ chemical composition and the pedo-climatic conditions. These variations are probably more related to genetic factors than to environmental conditions.
Phenolic compounds
Kalinjot (Himara)
Kalinjot (Vlora)
Bardhi Tirana
Ulli-i-zi
Krips Kruja
Bardhi Kruja
Phenolic alcohols
61.44
84.91
72.31
72.12
34.10
15.68
Phenolic acids
0.95
0.53
1.04
1.21
6.23
12.48
Secoiridoids
135.72
162.50
146.61
170.16
61.70
22.36
Flavonoids
0.19
0.32
0.23
15.85
2.33
0.60
Phenolic aldehydes
0.24
0.08
0.27
0.31
1.64
3.07
Total phenolics
198.54
248.34
220.46
259.65
106.00
54.20
Table 5.
Total phenolic compounds of OO from Albanian olive cultivars (mg/kg).
Palmitic acid is found at concentrations five to eight-fold lower than OA, i.e., between 9.41% (Kalinjot) to 12.87% (Ulli deti), with no considerable differences among them. The content of linoleic acid (LA) varied from 5.73% (Frëng) to 15.19% (Krips Kruja), whereas the content of alfa-linolenic acid showed a small variation from 0.38% (Ulli deti) to 0.94% (Sterbjak) [11, 24].
Results showed a similarity among Albanian studied cultivars and other cultivars from Italy and Greece [25]. Comparison of olive cultivars from this region with data of cultivars from the Southern Mediterranean showed a profile with a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids [26, 27]. Statistical analyses revealed differences among the cultivars for individual fatty acids (p < 0.05) (Table 6): only the primary fatty acids, C16:0, C18:1 (n-9), and C18:2 (n-6), presented differences among each other statistically.
Foreign olive cultivars were introduced last century during sixties, with two Italian cv. Frantoio and Leccino. Nowadays this olive cultivars are well adopted. Palmitic acid concentrations are higher 13,09% (Leccino) and 14.16% (Frantoio) compared to OO from native olive cv. There is a similarity in respect to OA among two foreign cv and others, while their LA concentrations were very low 4.68% (Leccino) and 6.64% (Frantoio), compared to OO from Albanian olive cultivars. The content of alfa-LA acid was 0.52% from both foreign cultivars [19].
A similarity was found in FA profiles among Albanian OO from native cultivars and OO from Italy and Greece [24]. In our study, the comparison of olive cultivars with cultivars’ data from the Southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea showed a profile with a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids [26, 27]. Statistical analyses reveal differences among the cultivars for individual fatty acids (p < 0.05) (Table 6): only the primary fatty acids, C16:0, C18:1 (n-9), and C18:2 (n-6), presented differences among them statistically.
Different authors suggest the ratio C18:1/C18:2 on evaluating VOO’s oxidative stability, with a proposed minimum accepted value of 7.0. Among Albanian OO, two olive cultivars, Frëng, and Nisjot exhibited higher values, 13.37 and 19.54, respectively, while the remaining cultivars produced monovarietal olive oil with good oxidative stability. Only two olive cultivars, Krips, and Peperr, exhibited lower values, 4.4 and 4.5, respectively [11, 19].
Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied in order to determine the relations between fatty acid compositions in the OO samples. Based on the results of the PCA, two different principal components were determined, and these two components described 95% of the total variability of the experimental data. The PCA biplot of the fatty acids detected in the OO samples is shown in Figure 6. According to the PCA biplot, OO samples were well categorized. As seen in Figure 6 and Table 6, the OO samples coded as 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 26, 28 and 31 were positioned on the positive F1 axis while the other OO samples were on the negative F1 axis.
Figure 6.
PCA of FA profiles obtained from OO of different olive cultivars present in Albania.
Figure 7.
PCA of phenolic compounds in six OO from Albanian native olive cv.
Regarding the cultivar Kalinjot, OO samples have been taken from some regions of the country, because this cultivar is more widespread and more productive for olive oil. OO Kalinjot cv from Vlora region, no 2, and Kalinjot cv from Mallakastra region, no 33, fall very close, indicating the opportunity to produce OO with designated origin. OO samples no 24, 27 and 30, belonging to Kalinjot cv, fall together, telling the possibility yo produce OO from this cultivar and to authenticate them (Table 7). The same interesting picture belong two samples belonging to Bardhi Tirana cv, no 3 and 25, harvested from the region with the same name. OO samples respectively olive cultivars Boç (1), Ulli i kuq (6), Peperr (7), Ulli deti (8) belonging to coastal regions of Durres fall together with the olive cv from Kruja region, no 20 (Krips Kruja). Another interesting conclusion is similarity among OO samples belonging to olive cv from Tirana region Ulli i zi Tirana (11), Micka (12) with the olive cv Bardhi Kruja (21), from region with the same name. Three regions Tirana, Kruja and Durres, fall very close, Central Albania, while the olive cv show their expansion route. Through PCA box plot is found another connection among olive cv from Berat and Lezha regions. There are similarities among OO samples coded 5 (Sterbjak, Lezha region and 18, Kokerrmadh Berati, as well as OO no 4, Ulli bardhe Lezha, and 17, Kotruvs, Berati. OO no 9 belonging to Mixan cv., that belongs to Elbasan geographical region si different compared to other monocultivar OO. Very interesting is the isolation of two introduced Italian olive cv Leccino (19) and Frantoio (28).
2.3 Phenolic compounds in Albanian OO
Phenolic compounds in Olive oils usually range between 50 and 1000 ppm (mg/kg) depending on the cultivars, pedoclimatic conditions, maturity stage of the fruit, and extraction conditions [28]. OO is celebrated not only for its nutritional value but also for the content of minor compounds of pharmacologically active principles, belonging to the nutraceutical family, otherwise known as functional foods, such as polyhydroxylated phenolic and catecholic species [17] (Figure 7). A variety of over 230 chemical compounds, approx. 2% of the weight found in the VOO’s unsaponifiable fraction, such as polyphenols, tocopherols, sterols, flavors [29, 30, 31]. Polyphenols present in VOO, are classified into two groups: lipophilic phenols (tocopherols) and hydrophilic or polar phenols [32, 33]. The hydrophilic phenols (HP) present in the VOO belong to different classes: phenolic acids, phenyl ethyl alcohols, secoiridoids, hydroxy-isochromans, flavonoids, and lignans [31]. Phenolic compounds show many health benefits, including reducing the risk factors of coronary heart disease, the prevention of several chronic diseases (for example, atherosclerosis), cancer, chronic inflammation, strokes, and other degenerative disorders [29, 34]. EFSA has concluded that polyphenols in olive are the health claims’ subject. The claimed effects are “reduces oxidative stress,” “antioxidant properties,” “lipid metabolism,” “antioxidant activity, they protect body cells and LDL from oxidative damages.” An amount of 5 mg hydroxytyrosol and its derivatives (e.g., oleuropein complex and tyrosol) in olive oil should consume daily to bear the claim [35].
Results on Total Polyphenol Content (TPC) indicate that Bardhi Tirana variety presented the highest values, 445.03 ± 16.83 mg/kg Gallic Acid in olive oil. In contrast, Frëng cultivar shows the lowest levels, 42.78 ± 7.04 mg GAE/kg olive oil (Table 4). Results also show significant differences among cultivars, which may correlate to the cultivar, rather than agriculture practices or other factors. The comparison of TPC content in the ten studied cultivars with different cultivars, already published from Albania [18], and neighboring countries reveal that these cultivars are like cultivars from the Toscana Region (Italy) and Dalmatian Coast (Croatia) [26]. Montedoro et al. [36] have grouped the monovarietal olive oils according to the three groups’ total phenol content. A classification for studied VOO is: “low” (50–200 mg/kg) Ulli i Zi, Frëng, Krips, Mixan, and Peperri cultivars; “medium” (200–500 mg/kg) Bardhi Tirana, Bardhi Kruja, Managjel, Kalinjot, and Ulli deti cultivars. The results obtained for the studied cultivars relate mainly to the cultivar differences. The results show that the studied olive oils’ polyphenol content had significant differences (p < 0.05) among the cultivars. The actual stage of agriculture in Albania does not have a premise for irrigation of the olive plantations. Furthermore, concerning the maximum and minimum temperature values in the different regions, respectively, gives evidence that differences are not significant; hence, differences reported on the TPC content do not come due to climatic conditions. The TPC values of Bardhi Tirana are comparable with Koreiniki (Greece), Picual (Spain), and Frantoio (Italy) cultivars [25, 26].
Data on Total Polyphenol Content (TPC) indicate that OO from Bardhi Tirana cv present high values, 445.03 ± 16.83 mg GA/kg OO. In contrast, Frëng cv OO has the lowest levels, 42.78 ± 7.04 mg GA/kg (Table 4) [18, 19]. Total phenolic content in OO compared with OO from neighboring countries reveals that these cultivars are similar to cultivars from the Toscana Region (Italy) and Dalmatian Coast (Croatia) [26]. TPC values among studied cultivars resulted in statistically different. Montedoro et al. (1992) have grouped the monovarietal olive oils according to the three groups’ total phenol content. The studied cultivars are classified as: “low” (50–200 mg/kg) Frëng and Mixan cultivars; “medium” (200–500 mg/kg) Bardhi Tirana, Bardhi Kruja, and Kalinjot olive cultivars. The results obtained can be related mainly to the cultivar differences. The results show that the studied olive oils’ polyphenol content had significant differences (p < 0.05) among the cultivars. Bardhi Tirana samples are comparable with Koreiniki (Greece), Picual (Spain), Frantoio (Italy) and Memecik, Ayvalik and Gemlik (Turkey) cultivars [25, 26, 36].
No.
Sample name
16:0
16:1(n-9)
16:1(n-7)
17:0
17:1 (n-7)
18:0
18:1(n-9)c
18:1(n-7)
18:2(n-6)t
18:2 (n-6)c
20:0
18:3 (n-3)
20:1 (n-9)
22:0
1
Boç
13.05
0.15
0.63
0.12
0.22
2.11
67.65
2.24
0.00
12.46
0.354
0.64
0.2375
0.12
2
Kalinjot (Mkaster)
10.92
0.09
0.48
0.04
0.14
2.31
75.11
1.88
0.00
7.56
0.36
0.72
0.3059
0.08
3
Bardhi Tirana
10.88
0.07
0.35
0.13
0.19
2.83
74.61
1.53
0.00
8.00
0.43
0.58
0.2801
0.07
4
Bardhi Lezha
12.85
0.12
0.97
0.00
0.00
2.53
70.84
2.49
0.00
8.69
0.42
0.86
0.1758
0.04
5
Sterbjak
10.89
0.15
0.64
0.00
0.00
2.21
75.12
2.10
0.00
7.23
0.36
0.94
0.24
0.04
6
Ulli I kuq
12.95
0.10
0.83
0.15
0.24
2.64
66.26
2.28
0.00
13.29
0.41
0.45
0.25
0.12
7
Peperr
12.32
0.09
0.61
0.11
0.17
2.26
66.27
2.09
0.046
14.76
0.39
0.49
0.25
0.13
8
Ulli deti
12.87
0.09
1.17
0.03
0.08
2.29
70.87
2.84
0.02
8.60
0.31
0.38
0.24
0.18
9
Mixan
12.38
0.08
0.51
0.12
0.17
2.88
71.91
1.76
0.01
8.77
0.46
0.51
0.25
0.18
10
Managjel
10.15
0.09
0.34
0.14
0.22
2.72
75.22
1.48
0.05
8.29
0.38
0.50
0.23
0.19
11
Ulli i zi Tirana
11.01
0.09
0.51
0.09
0.16
2.76
70.99
2.03
0.05
10.80
0.38
0.72
0.22
0.14
12
Micka
10.80
0.02
0.61
0.08
0.17
2.30
73.47
2.27
0.03
9.10
0.35
0.54
0.21
0.05
13
Karre
11.17
0.00
0.36
0.14
0.18
3.22
73.94
1.44
0.00
8.35
0.50
0.45
0.24
0.00
14
Kamza
9.27
0.00
0.56
0.12
0.19
2.79
80.32
1.41
0.00
4.08
0.38
0.80
0.07
0.00
15
Kushan
9.12
0.10
0.41
0.05
0.15
3.17
77.15
1.73
0.00
6.95
0.42
0.52
0.22
0.00
16
Nisjot Pobrati
9.93
0.12
0.41
0.00
0.00
2.56
80.07
1.55
0.00
4.10
0.45
0.50
0.31
0.00
17
Kotruvs
12.21
0.09
0.82
0.00
0.00
1.96
71.53
2.87
0.00
9.31
0.37
0.51
0.34
0.00
18
Kokërrmadh Berati
10.41
0.13
0.61
0.00
0.00
2.10
76.16
2.20
0.00
6.92
0.40
0.67
0.33
0.12
19
Leccino
13.09
0.10
1.17
0.00
0.00
1.83
75.12
2.98
0.00
4.68
0.27
0.52
0.22
0.08
20
Krips Kruje
12.09
0.15
0.61
0.12
0.24
2.16
66.23
2.19
0.00
15.19
0.29
0.50
0.19
0.07
21
Ulli i Bardhë Kruje
11.16
0.09
0.55
0.13
0.22
2.35
72.59
1.97
0.00
9.90
0.35
0.43
0.25
0.04
22
Frëng Kruje
9.62
0.12
0.60
0.00
0.00
3.87
76.57
2.14
0.00
5.73
0.54
0.51
0.28
0.04
23
Ulli bardhë Pobrati
11.99
0.07
0.38
0.11
0.16
3.18
70.72
1.57
0.00
10.49
0.49
0.47
0.25
0.12
24
Kalinjot (Marikaj)
9.41
0.10
0.26
0.13
0.18
2.98
74.58
1.30
0.00
9.80
0.39
0.56
0.29
0.03
25
Bardhi Tirana (Priskë)
10.71
0.08
0.36
0.12
0.18
3.23
75.62
1.48
0.00
6.99
0.49
0.48
0.24
0.00
26
Ulli I kuq
15.21
0.00
0.94
0.13
0.20
2.37
64.70
2.20
0.00
12.92
0.34
0.64
0.11
0.18
27
Kalinjot (Vlorë)
9.57
0.14
0.26
0.10
0.15
3.02
73.61
1.48
0.00
10.11
0.46
0.75
0.34
0.09
28
Frantoio
14.16
0.05
1.42
0.00
0.00
2.23
71.65
2.90
0.00
6.64
0.29
0.52
0.06
0.14
30
Kalinjot (Panaja)
8.94
0.14
0.22
0.14
0.20
3.27
75.41
1.28
0.00
8.85
0.48
0.72
0.34
0.07
31
Nisjot
15.22
0.00
0.94
0.13
0.20
2.38
64.71
2.20
0.00
13.24
0.34
0.54
0.11
0.01
33
Kalinjot (Mallakastra)
10.38
0.11
0.50
0.09
0.15
2.80
74.41
1.78
0.00
8.36
0.42
0.69
0.30
0.00
Mean
11.44
0.09
0.61
0.08
0.13
2.62
72.69
1.99
0.01
9.04
0.40
0.58
0.24
0.08
Max
15.22
0.15
1.42
0.15
0.24
3.87
80.32
2.98
0.05
15.19
0.54
0.94
0.34
0.19
Min
8.94
0.0
0.22
0.0
0.0
1.83
64.7
1.28
0.0
4.08
0.27
0.38
0.06
0.0
Table 6.
Fatty acid profiles for OO rom different cultivars (%).
Sample nr.
Location
Harvesting season
Geographical coordinate
1
Hoshtim
2014
40° 32′ 28” North, 19° 29′ 9″ East
2
Drashovice
2014
40° 26′ 49” North, 19° 34′ 52″ East
3
Tragjas
2014
40° 19′ 32” North, 19° 30′ 36″ East
4
Trevellazer-2
2014
40° 34′ 46” North, 19° 30′ 40″ East
5
Vezhdanisht
2014
40° 29′ 11” North, 19° 36′ 37″ East
6
Kanina
2014
40° 26′ 23” North, 19° 31′ 8″ East
7
Kanina
2015
40° 26′ 23” North, 19° 31′ 8″ East
8
Panaja
2014
40° 32′ 13” North, 19° 28′ 20″ East
9
Kerkove
2014
40° 31′ 49” North, 19° 30′ 6″ East
10
Rromes
2015
40° 31′ 11” North, 19° 40′ 1″ East
11
Bestrove
2015
40° 31′ 4” North, 19° 29′ 3″ East
12
Babice
2015
40° 29′ 5” North, 19° 30′ 51″ East
13
Lubonje
2015
40° 30′ 28” North, 19° 34′ 20″ East
14
Bestrove-1
2014
40° 31′ 4” North, 19° 29′ 3″ East
15
Bestrove-2
2014
40° 31′ 4” North, 19° 29′ 3″ East
16
Himare
2014
40° 6′ 6” North, 19° 44′ 41″ East
17
Panaja
2015
40° 32′ 13” North, 19° 28′ 20″ East
18
Peshkepi
2014
40° 28′ 22” North, 19° 35′ 8″ East
19
Kanina-3
2014
40° 26′ 23” North, 19° 31′ 8″ East
20
Qeparo
2014
40° 3′ 25” North, 19° 49′ 19″ East
21
Kerkove
2014
40° 31′ 49” North, 19° 30′ 6″ East
22
Trevellazer
2014
40° 34′ 46” North, 19° 30′ 40″ East
23
Armen
2014
40° 32′ 11” North, 19° 35′ 46″ East
24
Vllahine
2014
40° 27′ 25” North, 19° 38′ 37″ East
25
Kanina-2
2014
40° 26′ 23” North, 19° 31′ 8″ East
26
Rromes
2014
40° 31′ 11” North, 19° 40′ 1″ East
27
Kanina
2015
40° 26′ 23” North, 19° 31′ 8″ East
28
Panaja
2015
40° 32′ 13” North, 19° 28′ 20″ East
29
Nisjot cv
2014
40° 33′ 32” North, 19° 40′ 53″ East
30
Marikaj-Vorë
2014
41° 22′ 20” North, 19° 37′ 56″ East
Table 7.
Sampling sites for OO Kalinjot cv. to the Vlora and Mallakastra regions..
Studying of Albanian OO from different cultivars by LC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS of has found the presence of 18 phenolic compounds. Based on their chemical structure, they were grouped as secoiridoids (6), phenolic alcohols (5), phenolic acids (4), flavonoids (2), and phenolic aldehyde (1) [37]. The highest amount of phenolic compounds was determined in Ulli-i-Zi cv. from Tirana region (259.65 mg/kg) followed by Kalinjot cv. from Vlora region (248.34 mg/kg), Bardhi Tirana cv. from Tirana region (220.46 mg/kg), Kalinjot cv. from Himara region (198.54 mg/kg), Krips Kruja cv. from Kruja region (106.00 mg/kg) and Bardhi Kruja cv. from Kruja region (54.20 mg/kg) (Table 5) [38].
In the study conducted by Topi et al., (2020), the results on phenolic compounds agreed with the same concentration pattern of all VOO in the literature with the highest being 3,4-DHPEA-AC (76.03 mg/kg), followed by 3,4-DHPEA (11.36 mg/kg), p-HPEA (7.01 mg/kg), oxidized hydroxytyrosol (1.53 mg/kg) and the last as hydroxytyrosol quinone (1.21 mg/kg). The highest values for 3,4-DHPEA-AC (76.03 mg/kg) belonged to Kalinjot cv. from the Vlora region, followed by Ulli-i-Zi cv. (65.17 mg/kg). Phenolic alcohol pattern in Albanian VOOs is consistent with published data from Spanish cv. Picual [39], Turkish cv. Halhali [40] and Croatian olive oils [41]. Hydroxytyrosol levels (3.97–11.36 mg/kg) in the Kalinjot cv. VOO samples, in both regions, were observed higher when compared with different Greek olive cvs. [40], yet exhibited a lower value compared to Croatian olive oils Krvavica cv. (14.9–21.9 mg/kg) [41].
Additionally, PCA was applied to generate models for the classification of OO samples in terms of total phenolic contents. It can be observed that three groups were mainly formed on the plot, of these, Krips Kruja and Bardhi Kruja cv. as a group were positioned on the positive F1 axis, while the remaining samples were located on the negative axis. The formation of this group is expected as these two cvs. Had the lowest values of total phenolic content. On the other hand, Ulli-i-Zi cv. is seen to be clearly separated from the others, expectedly as it had the highest content of phenolics.
2.4 Olive oil aroma compounds
Aroma compounds are the main criteria affecting consumer acceptance and preference and also their purchasing power remarkably. Investigation on aroma compounds in Kalinjot and Bardhi Tirana OO indicate the aroma differences between oils obtained from two main Albanian olive varieties from different regions. (E)-2-hexenal is found as the principal compound in both these olive cvs. [13]. A total of 24 aroma compounds in Kalinjot cv. comprising: aldehydes, alcohols, ketones, esters, terpenes, phenols, and alkenes were detected; meanwhile, in Bardhi Tirana cv. 17 aroma compounds including aldehydes, alcohols, esters, and phenols. The aroma compounds in Kalinjot OO varied from 36700 to 40411 μg/kg, much higher compared to Bardhi Tirana cv. OO (27542.7 μg/kg). Different regions and varieties play a key role in the concentration and profile of volatile compounds in the samples under study. (E)-2-Hexanal in Kalinjot (37.2–39.1%) and Bardhi Tirana OO (55.5%) is found lower comparing with Italian Leccino cv. (73%) [41], but higher compared to Croatian OO from Masnjaca cv (27.6–28.9%) [42]. Volatile compounds present in high concentrations to Kalinjot cv. OO were hexanal (6.6–9.8%), 3-hexenal (4.6–9.8%), 3-penten-2-ol (7.7–9.4%), (E)-3-hexenyl acetate (4.0–8.8%), (Z)-3-hexenol (2.9–4.1%), (E)-2-hexenol (1.4–3.1%), β-ocimene (n.d-4.2%) and hexanol (n.d-4.2%) [13].
Total alcohols in Kalinjot OO vary between 6903 and 9375 μg/kg, and in Bardhi Tirana OO 6874 μg/kg. The main C-5 alcohol resulted is 3-penten-2-ol in the range 2504–3442 μg/kg. This alcohol was found in higher levels compared to olive oils from Greek, Italian and Spanish olive cultivarssuch as Croatian cv. Coratina [43], Italian cv. Leccino, Spanish cv. Cornicabra and Arbequina, Greek cv. Koroneiki and Adramytini [39], and Turkish cv. Halhali, [44]. Total content of terpenes in Kalinjot OO varies 1895–2941 μg/kg, while the presence of β-ocimene may serve to distinguish OO both in olive cv and region. Terpene compounds give olive oils characteristic floral odors. (E)-3-Hexenyl acetate and methyl salicylate are two esters found in OO from both Kalinjot and Bardh Tiranai cultivars. Another ester found only in OO from Kalinjot is 2-butoxyethyl acetate. (E)-3-hexenyl acetate concentrations vary between 2705 and 3555 μg/kg in Kalinjot OO, while are found in lower levels to Bardhi Tirana OO (1107.7 μg/kg). The esters concentration compared with Greek cultivars is lower, however, higher when compared with Italian and Spanish cv. [42]. This ester compound gives olive oils pleasant and fruity odor notes. In conclusion, 2-butoxyethyl acetate may use as molecular marker to distinguish OO from these two cultivars.
3. Conclusions
Despite the modest contribution in global OO production, world ranking 20th, olive tree comprises an important permanent crop with considerable potential for the Albanian economy. OO with certified origin will increase the value of the final product. With a contribution of 0.51% to total world production, OO production reached 20,038 tons contributing almost to 95% of domestic demands. Interestingly, table olive consumption ranks the country the 1st in world. Principal component analyses (PCA) for OO samples from Kalinjot cv. displayed the differentiation with OO samples. The authenticity of OOs originating from Vlora region constitutes an opportunity for domestic production. In parallel, PCA of OO from different native and foreign olive cv. displayed differentiation regarding fatty acids.
Phenolic compounds found to be significantly different among the olive oil samples of different cultivars. 3,4-DHPEA-AC was determined as the main phenolic compound. Secoiridoids are found in abundance, 3,4-DHPEA-EDA and p-HPEA-EDA as dominant compounds, especially in Kalinjot OO. It was found that Albanian VOOs had lower levels of flavonoids consisting of luteolin and apigenin. Studies in OO aroma compounds from main cv indicate that Albanian OO is considered with high content OO with aroma compounds. (E)-2-hexenal is found as the principal aroma compound. Kalinjot OO concentrations vary between 36700 and 40411 μg/kg, much higher compared to Bardhi Tirana OO (27542.7 μg/kg).
\n',keywords:"Olive oil, Kalinjot, Bardhi Tirana, Phenolic compounds, Albania",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76754.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/76754.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76754",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76754",totalDownloads:191,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"February 25th 2021",datePrePublished:"June 9th 2021",datePublished:"January 19th 2022",dateFinished:"May 13th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Olive tree is present to the Western and Southern regions of Albania, alongside Adriatic and Ionian Sea, two body waters of the Mediterranean basin. Genetic studies have revealed the existence of 22 native olive cultivars, while several introduced foreign olive cultivars are present. Two most important olive cultivars respectively, exploited in the olive oil production, and table olive, are Kalinjot and Kokërrmadh Berati. Olive fruit production ranks the country 20th in the world. Olive tree comprises an important permanent crop with considerable potential for the Albanian economy. Principal component analyses (PCA) of fatty acids in OO displays their differentiation according to the cultivar and their region. Chemometric analysis gives support to the differentiation of OO according to the olive cv. in terms of phenolic compounds. Secoiridoids are found in abundance, 3,4-DHPEA-EDA and p-HPEA-EDA as dominant compounds, especially in Kalinjot olive oils. Albanian OO shows high levels of aroma compounds with (E)-2-hexenal as the principal aroma compound. Its concentrations reach up to 40411 μg/kg in Kalinjot cv., much higher compared to Bardhi Tirana cv (27542.7 μg/kg). The authenticity of OOs constitutes an opportunity for domestic production and certification according to the geography or origin and present an important resource to the development of a sustainable economy.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76754",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76754",signatures:"Dritan Topi, Gamze Guclu, Hasim Kelebek and Serkan Selli",book:{id:"9710",type:"book",title:"Olive Oil",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Applications",fullTitle:"Olive Oil - New Perspectives and Applications",slug:"olive-oil-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"January 19th 2022",bookSignature:"Muhammad Akram",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9710.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-415-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-414-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-251-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"215436",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Akram",slug:"muhammad-akram",fullName:"Muhammad Akram"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"88186",title:"Dr.",name:"Serkan",middleName:null,surname:"Selli",fullName:"Serkan Selli",slug:"serkan-selli",email:"sselli@cu.edu.tr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Cukurova University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"260916",title:"Prof.",name:"Dritan",middleName:null,surname:"Topi",fullName:"Dritan Topi",slug:"dritan-topi",email:"dritan.topi@unitir.edu.al",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"355740",title:"Dr.",name:"Gamze",middleName:null,surname:"Guclu",fullName:"Gamze Guclu",slug:"gamze-guclu",email:"gguclu@cu.edu.tr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"355741",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasim",middleName:null,surname:"Kelebek",fullName:"Hasim Kelebek",slug:"hasim-kelebek",email:"hkelebek@atu.edu.tr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Olive tree cultivation and production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Table olive production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3 Olive oil extraction industry in Albania",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"2. Olive oils characterization and authenticity",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.1 Kalinjot cv. Olive oils",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.2 Fatty acid composition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.3 Phenolic compounds in Albanian OO",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.4 Olive oil aroma compounds",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"3. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Tous J: The influence of growing region and cultivar on olives and olive oil characteristics and their functional constituents. In: Olives and olive oil as functional foods: bioactivity, chemistry, and processing. Edited by: A. Kiritsakis, F. Shahidi. Chichester, UK, Hoboken, NJ. John Wiley & Sons, 2017'},{id:"B2",body:'Therios I: Olives. CABI, UK; 2009. pp. 425'},{id:"B3",body:'Map of Land Use in Albania. http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/atlas_east_europe/albania-landuse.jpg) University of Texas. 1990'},{id:"B4",body:'Kafazi N: Vecorite morfologjike dhe agrobiologjike te varieteteve te Ullirit. Tirana: ILB, 1980'},{id:"B5",body:'Thomaj F. Panajoti Dh. Olive cultivars (1 ed). Tirana: ILB; 2003. ISBN 99927 941 86'},{id:"B6",body:'Agriculture Statistical Yearbook; 2020. Source of information: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. http://www.instat.gov.al/media/3658/statistical-yearbook-2020.pdf'},{id:"B7",body:'FAO (2018): Accessed on the web address: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC'},{id:"B8",body:'Wordbank; 2020. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.HA?locations=AL. (Access on 19/01/2021)'},{id:"B9",body:'OLIVE COUNCIL; 2020. https://www.internationaloliveoil.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/OT-W901-23-11-2020-C.pdf'},{id:"B10",body:'MACP (Ministry of Agriculture and Consumer Protection). Study on the actual olive tree cultivation and its perspectives in Albania. 2009. (in Albanian)'},{id:"B11",body:'Topi D, Thomaj F, Shabani M, Carvalho AP, Gomes AM: The analytical and nutritional study of the Albanian autochthonous table olive Kokërmadh Berati. Proceedings of 6th Central European Congress on Food-CEFood Congress. 2012a. Novi sad, Serbia'},{id:"B12",body:'MAFCP; 2009: Study on actual Olive cultivation and its developing perspectives. Ed: Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Consumer Protection. Tirana. Albania'},{id:"B13",body:'Topi D, Amanpour A, Kelebek H, and Selli S: Screening of aroma profiles in Albanian cvs. Kalinjot and Bardhi Tirana olive oils using purge and trap extraction technique. RISG Rivista Italiana Sostanze Grasse; 2019;96(2):101-108'},{id:"B14",body:'Dermeche S, Nadour M, Larroche C, Moulti-Mati F, Michaud P: Olive mill wastes: Biochemical characterization and valorization strategies. Process Biochemistry; 2013; 48:1532-1552'},{id:"B15",body:'Topi D, Beqiraj I, Seiti B, Halimi E: Environmental impact from olive mills waste disposal, chemical analysis of solid wastes and wastewaters. Journal of Hygienic and Engineering Design. 2014; 7:44-48'},{id:"B16",body:'Bendini A, Cerretani L, Carrasco-Pancorbo A, Gómez-Caravaca A. M, Segura-Carretero A, Fernández-Gutiérrez A: Phenolic Molecules in Virgin Olive Oils: A Survey of Their Sensory Properties, Health Effects, Antioxidant Activity, and Analytical Methods. An Overview of the Last Decade. Molecules; 2007; 12:1679-1719'},{id:"B17",body:'Sindona G: A marker of Quality of Olive oils: The Expression of Oleuropein. In: Olives and Olive oil in Health and Disease Prevention. Editors V. R. Preedy and R. R. Watson. Elsevier. London, UK. 2010. pp. 95-100'},{id:"B18",body:'Topi D, Thomaj F, Carvalho AP. Gomes A: Analytical Evaluation of Six Monovarietal Virgin Olive Oils from Kruja Region in Albania. 2nd International ISEKI_FOOD Conference. 2011a. Milano, Italy'},{id:"B19",body:'Topi D, Thomaj F, Halimi E: Virgin Olive Oil production from the major olive varieties in Albania. Poljoprivreda i Sumarstvo; 2012b; 58(2):87'},{id:"B20",body:'Velo S. and Topi D: Study of Kalinjot extra virgin olive oil, fatty acids profiles, and trans-isomers. Journal of Hygienic and Engineering Design, 2015;12:129-135'},{id:"B21",body:'Velo S. and Topi D: Analytical study of Kalinjot olive cultivar in the southern regions of Albania. III International Congress, “Food Technology, Quality, and Safety,” 2016. 25-27'},{id:"B22",body:'Velo S. and Topi D: Characterization of Kalinjot and Nisiot Monocultivar Virgin Olive Oils produced in Albania. Asian Journal of Chemistry; 2017; 29 (6), 1347-1350'},{id:"B23",body:'Angerosa F, Campestre Ch, Giansante L: Analysis and Authentication. In Boskou B. 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European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology; 2008; 110(10):905–913'},{id:"B28",body:'Kiritsakis AK, Nauos GG, Polymenoupoulos Z, Thomai T, Sfakiotakis EY: Effect of fruit storage conditions on olive oil quality. Journal of American Oil Chemists Society; 1998; 75:721-724'},{id:"B29",body:'Servili M. Sordini B. Esposto S. Urbani S. Veneziani G. Di Maio I. Selvaggini R. Taticchi A: Biological Activities of Phenolic Compounds of Extra Virgin Olive Oil. Antioxidants, 2014;3:1-23. doi:10.3390/antiox3010001'},{id:"B30",body:'De Medina V, Priego-Capote F, de Castro L: Characterization of monovarietal virgin olive oils by phenols profiling. Talanta; 2015; 132:424–432'},{id:"B31",body:'Del Monaco G, Officioso A, D\'Angelo S, La Cara F, Ionata E, Marcolongo L, Squillaci G, Maurelli L, Morana A: Characterization of extra virgin olive oils produced with typical Italian varieties by their phenolic profile. Food Chemistry. 2015; 184:220–228'},{id:"B32",body:'Seguera-Carretero A, Memendez-Menendez J, Fernandez-Gutierrez A: Polyphenols in Olive Oil: The importance of phenolic compounds in the chemical composition of olive oil. In: In Olives and Olive oil in Health and Disease Prevention. Editors: V. R. Preedy and R. R. Watson. Elsevier. London, UK. 2010; Pp. 167-175'},{id:"B33",body:'El Riachy M, Priego-Capote F, Leon L, Rallo L, Luque de Castro MD: Hydrophilic antioxidants of virgin olive oil. Part 1: Hydrophilic phenols: A key factor for virgin olive oil quality. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology. 2011; 113:678–691'},{id:"B34",body:'Cicerale S, Conlan X.A, Sinclair AJ. Keast RS: Chemistry and health of olive oil phenolics. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2009; 49(3):218-236. DOI: 10.1080/10408390701856223'},{id:"B35",body:'EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA), EFSA Journal, 2011;9(4):2033 (25 pp.). doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2033. Available online: www.efsa.europa.eu/efsajournal'},{id:"B36",body:'Kelebek, H., Kesen, S., & Selli, S. Comparative study of bioactive constituents in Turkish olive oils by LC-ESI/MS/MS. International Journal of Food Properties, 2015; 18(10), 2231-2245'},{id:"B37",body:'Montedoro, G, Servilli, M, Miniati, E: Simple and hydrolysable Phenolic Compounds in Virgin Olive oil. 1. Their extraction, separation, and quantitative and semi quantitative evaluation by HPLC. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry. 1992;40:1571-1576'},{id:"B38",body:'Topi D, Guclu G, Kelebek H, Selli S: Comparative elucidation of phenolic compounds in Albanian olive oils using LC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS. Journal of Liquid Chromatography & Related Technologies; 2020; 43(5-6):203-212'},{id:"B39",body:'Oliveras-Lopez J, Innocenti M, Giaccherini C, Ieri F, Romani, A, Mulinacci N: Study of the phenolic composition of Spanish and Italian monocultivar Extra Virgin Olive Oils: Distribution of lignans, secoiridoidic, simple phenols, and flavonoids. Talanta. 2007; 73:726–732'},{id:"B40",body:'Bayram B, Esatbeyoglu T, Schulze N, Ozcelik B, Frank J, Rimbach G: Comprehensive Analysis of Polyphenols in 55 Extra Virgin Olive Oils by HPLC-ECD and Their Correlation with Antioxidant Activities. Plant Food Hum Nutr. 2012; 67:326–336'},{id:"B41",body:'Kulisić-Bilusić T, Melliou E, Giacometti J, Causević A, Corbo S, Landeka M, Magiatis P: Phenolics, fatty acids, and biological potential of selected Croatian EVOOs. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology. 2017; 119(10):1700108'},{id:"B42",body:'Luna, G, Morales, MT, & Aparicio, R: Characterization of 39 varietal virgin olive oils by their volatile compositions. Food Chemistry. 2006;98:243–252'},{id:"B43",body:'Sarolić M, Gugić M, Tuberoso G, Jerković I, Suste M, Marijanović Z, & Kuś M: Volatile Profile, Phytochemicals and Antioxidant Activity of Virgin Olive Oils from Croatian Autochthonous Varieties Masnjaca and Krvavica in comparison with Italian Variety Leccino. Molecules. 2014;19:881–895'},{id:"B44",body:'Kesen S, Kelebek H, & Selli S: Characterization of the volatile, phenolic and antioxidant properties of monovarietal olive oil obtained from cv. Halhali. Journal of American Oil Chemists’ Society. 2013;90:1685–1696'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Dritan Topi",address:"dritan.topi@unitir.edu.al",affiliation:'
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Tirana, Albania
Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Cukurova University, Turkey
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It scavenges reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and increases antioxidant defenses, thus it prevents tissue damage and blocks transcriptional factors of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Due to its small size and amphiphilic nature, it increases the efficacy of mitochondrial electron transport chain and reduces electron leakage. Melatonin prevents degenerative changes in the central nervous system in models of Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease and reduces free radical damage to DNA which may lead to cancer and many other situations. Consequently, melatonin has beneficial effects including stimulation of antioxidant enzymes, inhibition of lipid peroxidation, and so it contributes to protection from oxidative damages.",book:{id:"7328",slug:"melatonin-molecular-biology-clinical-and-pharmaceutical-approaches",title:"Melatonin",fullTitle:"Melatonin - Molecular Biology, Clinical and Pharmaceutical Approaches"},signatures:"Aysun Hacışevki and Burcu Baba",authors:[{id:"248612",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Aysun",middleName:null,surname:"Hacışevki",slug:"aysun-hacisevki",fullName:"Aysun Hacışevki"},{id:"248614",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Burcu",middleName:null,surname:"Baba",slug:"burcu-baba",fullName:"Burcu Baba"}]},{id:"42117",title:"The Role of Copper as a Modifier of Lipid Metabolism",slug:"the-role-of-copper-as-a-modifier-of-lipid-metabolism",totalDownloads:4480,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:38,abstract:null,book:{id:"2552",slug:"lipid-metabolism",title:"Lipid Metabolism",fullTitle:"Lipid Metabolism"},signatures:"Jason L. Burkhead and Svetlana Lutsenko",authors:[{id:"139755",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Lutsenko",slug:"lutsenko",fullName:"Lutsenko"}]},{id:"71882",title:"Chronic Limb-Threatening Ischemia (CLTI) in Diabetic Patients: Looking at the Big Picture beyond Wound, Ischemia and Foot Infection (WIfI) Classification System",slug:"chronic-limb-threatening-ischemia-clti-in-diabetic-patients-looking-at-the-big-picture-beyond-wound-",totalDownloads:1013,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"During the 1990s, most diabetic ulcers were considered neuropathic, but the Eurodiale study showed that more than 50% of these were non-plantar (neuro-ischaemic and ischaemic). According to the International Guidelines, the neuro-ischaemic and ischaemic diabetic foot ulcer (DFU) outcomes are connected to factors related to the wound, leg-associated factors and patients’ comorbidities. We used wound, ischaemia and foot infection (WIfI) classification system; Trans-Atlantic Inter-Society Consensus-II (TASC-II) arterial lesion score; and Kaiser Permanente pyramid (stratification of patients according to their complexity) for assessing these parameters. From February 2011 to June 2012, we collected 124 episodes of neuro-ischaemic and ischaemic active ulcer in 100 patients: 18 required major amputation, 14 of them were in WIfI stage 4 and 4 in WIfI stage 3. Ten patients (over 14 in WIfI stage 4) were classified as TASC-II D. Eight patients (over the same 14) were classified as the higher risk of Kaiser Permanente pyramid. In line with other studies, our data support that the WIfI classification correlates well regarding risk of amputation at 1 year. 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It has been shown to have a hypnotic action in animals and humans and it has been used as an agent for restoring circadian rhythms, disturbed by jet-lag, shift-work or aging. The physiological actions of melatonin in regulating seasonal and circadian rhythms are mediated through a family of specific, high affinity G protein-coupled membrane receptors. The beneficial effect of fast-release formulations on sleep initiation may come from the high amount of melatonin released immediately after administration, while the benefit of the sustained release systems comes from the release of melatonin in small dosages during the entire night period. This chapter covers the recent scientific work on melatonin modified release formulations.",book:{id:"7328",slug:"melatonin-molecular-biology-clinical-and-pharmaceutical-approaches",title:"Melatonin",fullTitle:"Melatonin - Molecular Biology, Clinical and Pharmaceutical Approaches"},signatures:"Marilena Vlachou and Angeliki Siamidi",authors:[{id:"246279",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Marilena",middleName:null,surname:"Vlachou",slug:"marilena-vlachou",fullName:"Marilena Vlachou"},{id:"246280",title:"Dr.",name:"Angeliki",middleName:null,surname:"Siamidi",slug:"angeliki-siamidi",fullName:"Angeliki Siamidi"}]},{id:"31314",title:"Synthetic and Plant Derived Thyroid Hormone Analogs",slug:"synthetic-and-plant-derived-thyroid-hormone-analogs",totalDownloads:13833,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"1258",slug:"thyroid-and-parathyroid-diseases-new-insights-into-some-old-and-some-new-issues",title:"Thyroid and Parathyroid Diseases",fullTitle:"Thyroid and Parathyroid Diseases - New Insights into Some Old and Some New Issues"},signatures:"Suzana T. 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Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. 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International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. 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His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. 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Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. 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He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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