\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9215",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Progress in Fine Particle Plasmas",title:"Progress in Fine Particle Plasmas",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In the field of plasma physics, plasmas (including charged fine particles) have been actively studied for more than 40 years, and special features of wave phenomena, self-organizations of the particles, potential formations, fluid-like motions of the particles, generations of fine particles in the plasmas, etc. have been investigated. Here, these plasmas are called “fine particle plasmas”, which are also called “dusty plasmas” and “complex plasmas”. This book intends to provide the reader with the recent progress of studies of fine particle plasmas from the viewpoints of wide and interdisciplinary directions, such as self-organized fine particles, Coulomb crystal formation, behaviors of fine particles, their stability, and syntheses of nano-sized particles in reactive plasmas. Further, the phenomena of dense grain particles and the effects of massive neutrinos in galaxy clustering are included.",isbn:"978-1-83880-471-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-470-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-341-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83211",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"progress-in-fine-particle-plasmas",numberOfPages:226,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"42c9a3b34a54b24180ac3b1fe5c544b3",bookSignature:"Tetsu Mieno, Yasuaki Hayashi and Kun Xue",publishedDate:"August 26th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9215.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6810,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:8,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 24th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 24th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 23rd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 11th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 11th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"209593",title:"Dr.",name:"Tetsu",middleName:null,surname:"Mieno",slug:"tetsu-mieno",fullName:"Tetsu Mieno",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/209593/images/system/209593.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Tetsu Mieno studied plasma physics for 5 years under the\nsupervision of Prof. Noriyoshi Sato in Tohoku University, Japan\n(Dept. Electronic Engineering), and he was awarded Doctor\nof Engineering by Tohoku University in 1984. He became an\nAssociate Professor of Shizuoka University (Dept. Physics) in\n1992. He studied plasma science (helicon discharge, fine-particle-plasmas, plasma etching, arc discharge, etc.), and nano materials (production of fullerenes, single-walled carbon nanotubes and other carbon\nnano-materials by the arc discharge method, etc.). In 1999, he became a Professor\nof Shizuoka University. He is currently studying plasma science and technology,\nproduction of functional nano-materials, and utilization of plasma technology for\nthe future.",institutionString:"Shizuoka University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Shizuoka University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"27787",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasuaki",middleName:null,surname:"Hayashi",slug:"yasuaki-hayashi",fullName:"Yasuaki Hayashi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27787/images/system/27787.jpeg",biography:"Yasuaki Hayashi received his B. Eng. and M. Eng. degrees in nuclear engineering and the D. Eng. degree from Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan. He first joined the Institute for Super Materials, ULVAC Japan Ltd., and worked on vacuum engineering and plasma processing. Then he had been with the Department of Electronics and Information Science, Kyoto Institute of Technology, where he was an Associate Professor. He later became a Professor at the Department of Electronics and is now an Emeritus Professor. His research interests include plasma science, fine particle plasmas, nanocarbon technologies and ellipsometry.",institutionString:"Kyoto Institute of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Kyoto Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"44315",title:"Dr.",name:"Kun",middleName:null,surname:"Xue",slug:"kun-xue",fullName:"Kun Xue",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/44315/images/system/44315.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Kun Xue received her PhD degree from Tsinghua University in 2009 and joined Beijing Institute of Technology the same year as associate professor. Her current research focuses on multiphase flows laden with particles, especially the interface instability of particulate systems and particle laden shock/blast waves by combining laboratory experiments, theoretical approaches and numerical simulations. She also works on hazard assessment and shock protection related with particulate fire and explosion.",institutionString:"Beijing Institute of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Beijing Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1169",title:"Condensed Matter Physics",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-material-science-condensed-matter-physics"}],chapters:[{id:"70826",title:"Observation and Analyses of Coulomb Crystals in Fine Particle Plasmas",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90759",slug:"observation-and-analyses-of-coulomb-crystals-in-fine-particle-plasmas",totalDownloads:770,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Observations of crystal-like ordering of fine particles in plasmas were first reported in 1994, when we succeeded to observe it by growing carbon fine particles in a methane plasma. Video cameras and Mie-scattering ellipsometry were applied for the analyses of fine particles and their crystal ordering. 3D and 2D crystal structures were observed for smaller and larger particles, respectively. The former structures were fcc, fco, and bct, but bcc structure was not observed. The result is due to the fact that the rearrangement from fcc to fco or bct occurs with both constant particle density in horizontal planes and constant interplane vertical distance. Behaviors of fine particles under microgravity were observed and analyzed using ready-made and injected fine particles. Its experimental result showed that the resultant force composed of electrostatic and ion drag forces pushes fine particles outward from the center forming a void.",signatures:"Yasuaki Hayashi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70826",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70826",authors:[{id:"27787",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasuaki",surname:"Hayashi",slug:"yasuaki-hayashi",fullName:"Yasuaki Hayashi"}],corrections:null},{id:"69200",title:"Basic Properties of Fine Particle (Dusty) Plasmas",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89205",slug:"basic-properties-of-fine-particle-dusty-plasmas",totalDownloads:560,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Beginning with typical values of physical parameters, basic properties of the system of fine particles (dusts) in plasmas are summarized from the viewpoint of statistical physics. Mutual interactions and one-body shadow potential for fine particles are derived, and, by analytic treatments and numerical solutions of drift-diffusion equations, it is shown that one of their most important characteristics is the large enhancement of the charge neutrality in fine particle clouds. This observation leads to simple models for the structures of fine particle clouds under both microgravity and usual gravity. Due to large magnitudes of their charges and relatively low temperatures, fine particles are often in the state of strong coupling, and some interesting phenomena possibly expected in their system are discussed with concrete examples. Also reviewed is the shell model, a useful framework to obtain microscopic structures in strongly coupled Coulomb and Coulomb-like systems with specific geometry.",signatures:"Hiroo Totsuji",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69200",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69200",authors:[{id:"305060",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Hiroo",surname:"Totsuji",slug:"hiroo-totsuji",fullName:"Hiroo Totsuji"}],corrections:null},{id:"70519",title:"Microgravity Experiments Using Parabolic Flights for Dusty Plasmas",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90530",slug:"microgravity-experiments-using-parabolic-flights-for-dusty-plasmas",totalDownloads:730,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter is dedicated to descriptions of the microgravity experiments, which were done by using parabolic flights and for analyzing behaviors of dust particles in plasmas, i.e., dusty plasmas under microgravity. There are projects of the microgravity experiments of the dusty plasmas using the International Space Stations, where time for microgravity is long and has a scale of hours. Conversely, it is significant to find out phenomena of the dusty plasmas in the short time scale of a few 10 s including the transition from gravity to microgravity, which is performed by parabolic flights of aircrafts on the earth. Methodology and results of the experiments are shown here for further investigations of the dusty plasmas in future.",signatures:"Kazuo Takahashi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70519",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70519",authors:[{id:"304804",title:"Dr.",name:"Kazuo",surname:"Takahashi",slug:"kazuo-takahashi",fullName:"Kazuo Takahashi"}],corrections:null},{id:"68897",title:"Dynamic Behavior of Dust Particles in Plasmas",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88787",slug:"dynamic-behavior-of-dust-particles-in-plasmas",totalDownloads:612,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Experimentally observed dynamic behavior, such as a particle circulation under magnetic field, a bow shock formation in an upper stream of an obstacle, etc., will be reviewed. Dust particles confined in a cylindrical glass tube show a dynamic circulation when strong magnetic field is applied from the bottom of the tube using a permanent magnet. The circulation consists of two kinds of motions: one is a toroidal rotation around the tube axis, and the other is a poloidal rotation. Dust particles are blown upward from near the bottom of the tube against the gravity neighborhood of the tube axis. A two-dimensional supersonic flow of dust particles forms a bow shock in front of a needlelike-shaped obstacle when the flow crosses the obstacle. The slower flow passes the obstacle as a laminar flow. A streamline-shaped void where dust particles are not observed is formed around the obstacle.",signatures:"Yoshifumi Saitou and Osamu Ishihara",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68897",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68897",authors:[{id:"305715",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Yoshifumi",surname:"Saitou",slug:"yoshifumi-saitou",fullName:"Yoshifumi Saitou"},{id:"309382",title:"Prof.",name:"Osamu",surname:"Ishihara",slug:"osamu-ishihara",fullName:"Osamu Ishihara"}],corrections:null},{id:"68825",title:"Integral Photography Technique for Three-Dimensional Imaging of Dusty Plasmas",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88865",slug:"integral-photography-technique-for-three-dimensional-imaging-of-dusty-plasmas",totalDownloads:596,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The integral photography technique has an advantage in which instantaneous three-dimensional (3D) information of objects can be estimated from a single-exposure picture obtained from a single viewing port. Recently, the technique has come into use for scientific research in diverse fields and has been applied to observe fine particles floating in plasma. The principle of integral photography technique and a design of a light-field camera for dusty plasma experiments are reported. The important parameters of the system, dependences of the size of the imaging area, and the spatial resolution on the number of lenses, pitch, and focal length of the lens array are calculated. Designed recording and reconstruction system is tested with target particles located on known positions and found that it works well in the range of dusty plasma experiment. By applying the integral photography technique to the obtained experimental image array, the 3D positions of dust particles floating in an RF plasma are identified.",signatures:"Akio Sanpei",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68825",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68825",authors:[{id:"209945",title:"Dr.",name:"Akio",surname:"Sanpei",slug:"akio-sanpei",fullName:"Akio Sanpei"}],corrections:null},{id:"68718",title:"Dusty Plasmas in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88768",slug:"dusty-plasmas-in-supercritical-carbon-dioxide",totalDownloads:792,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Dusty plasmas, which are systems comprising plasmas and dust particles, have emerged in various fields such as astrophysics and semiconductor processes. The fine particles possibly form ordered structures, namely, plasma crystals, which have been extensively studied as a model to observe statistical phenomena. However, the structures of the plasma crystals in ground-based experiments are two-dimensional (2D) because of the anisotropy induced by gravity. Microgravity experiments successfully provided opportunities to observe the novel phenomena hidden by gravity. The dusty plasmas generated in supercritical fluids (SCFs) are proposed herein as a means for realizing a pseudo-microgravity environment for plasma crystals. SCF has a high and controllable density; therefore, the particles in SCF can experience pseudo-microgravity conditions with the aid of buoyancy. In this chapter, a study on the particle charging and the formation of the plasma crystals in supercritical CO2, the realization of a pseudo-microgravity environment, and the outlook for the dusty plasmas in SCF are introduced. Our studies on dusty plasmas in SCF not only provide the pseudo-microgravity conditions but also open a novel field of strongly coupled plasmas because of the properties of media.",signatures:"Yasuhito Matsubayashi, Noritaka Sakakibara, Tsuyohito Ito and Kazuo Terashima",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68718",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68718",authors:[{id:"188199",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazuo",surname:"Terashima",slug:"kazuo-terashima",fullName:"Kazuo Terashima"},{id:"304887",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasuhito",surname:"Matsubayashi",slug:"yasuhito-matsubayashi",fullName:"Yasuhito Matsubayashi"},{id:"304888",title:"MSc.",name:"Noritaka",surname:"Sakakibara",slug:"noritaka-sakakibara",fullName:"Noritaka Sakakibara"},{id:"304889",title:"Prof.",name:"Tsuyohito",surname:"Ito",slug:"tsuyohito-ito",fullName:"Tsuyohito Ito"}],corrections:null},{id:"71477",title:"Tungsten Nanoparticles Produced by Magnetron Sputtering Gas Aggregation: Process Characterization and Particle Properties",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91733",slug:"tungsten-nanoparticles-produced-by-magnetron-sputtering-gas-aggregation-process-characterization-and",totalDownloads:433,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Tungsten and tungsten nanoparticles are involved in a series of processes, in nanotechnology, metallurgy, and fusion technology. Apart from chemical methods, nanoparticle synthesis by plasma offers advantages as good control of size, shape, and surface chemistry. The plasma methods are also environmentally friendly. In this chapter, we present aspects related to the magnetron sputtering gas aggregation (MSGA) process applied to synthesis of tungsten nanoparticles, with size in the range of tens to hundreds of nanometers. We present the MSGA process and its peculiarities in the case of tungsten nanoparticle synthesis. The properties of the obtained particles with a focus on the influence of the process parameters over the particle production rate, their size, morphology, and structure are discussed. To the end, we emphasize the utility of such particles for assessing the environmental and biological impacts in case of using tungsten as wall material in thermonuclear fusion reactors.",signatures:"Tomy Acsente, Lavinia Gabriela Carpen, Elena Matei, Bogdan Bita, Raluca Negrea, Elodie Bernard, Christian Grisolia and Gheorghe Dinescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71477",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71477",authors:[{id:"197742",title:"Dr.",name:"Raluca",surname:"Negrea",slug:"raluca-negrea",fullName:"Raluca Negrea"},{id:"296503",title:"MSc.",name:"Lavinia",surname:"Carpen",slug:"lavinia-carpen",fullName:"Lavinia Carpen"},{id:"296559",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomy",surname:"Acsente",slug:"tomy-acsente",fullName:"Tomy Acsente"},{id:"296563",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",surname:"Matei",slug:"elena-matei",fullName:"Elena Matei"},{id:"296565",title:"Prof.",name:"Gheorghe",surname:"Dinescu",slug:"gheorghe-dinescu",fullName:"Gheorghe Dinescu"},{id:"312471",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",surname:"Grisolia",slug:"christian-grisolia",fullName:"Christian Grisolia"},{id:"318227",title:"Dr.",name:"Bogdan",surname:"Bita",slug:"bogdan-bita",fullName:"Bogdan Bita"},{id:"318231",title:"Dr.",name:"Elodie",surname:"Bernard",slug:"elodie-bernard",fullName:"Elodie Bernard"}],corrections:null},{id:"69939",title:"Turbulence Generation in Inhomogeneous Magnetized Plasma Pertaining to Damping Effects on Wave Propagation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89706",slug:"turbulence-generation-in-inhomogeneous-magnetized-plasma-pertaining-to-damping-effects-on-wave-propa",totalDownloads:446,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The damping phenomenon is studied due to the collisions of ions and neutral particles and Landau approach on the turbulent spectra of kinetic Alfvén wave (KAW) in magnetized plasma which is inhomogeneous as well. The localization of waves is largely affected by inhomogeneities in plasma which are taken in transverse as well as parallel directions to the ambient magnetic field. There is significant effect of damping on the wave localization and turbulent spectra. Numerical solutions of the equations governing kinetic Alfvén waves in the linear regime give the importance of wave damping phenomena while retaining the effects of Landau (collisionless) damping and ion-neutral collisional damping. A comparative study of the two damping effects reveals that the Landau damping effect is more profound under similar plasma conditions.",signatures:"Ravinder Goyal and R.P. Sharma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69939",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69939",authors:[{id:"223038",title:"Prof.",name:"R P",surname:"Sharma",slug:"r-p-sharma",fullName:"R P Sharma"},{id:"263119",title:"Dr.",name:"Ravinder",surname:"Goyal",slug:"ravinder-goyal",fullName:"Ravinder Goyal"}],corrections:null},{id:"69744",title:"Flow and Segregation of Granular Materials during Heap Formation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89650",slug:"flow-and-segregation-of-granular-materials-during-heap-formation",totalDownloads:649,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Segregation during flow of granular materials is important from an industrial point of view. Granular materials segregate during flow due to their physical properties (such as size, shape, and density). A considerable work has been done on granular segregation in the past (two decades). This chapter is divided into three parts. In the first part, a review of work done on heap formation is presented. Experimental work during heap formation by intermittent feeding is reported in the second part. The system used is a simplified model for the feeding of raw materials to a blast furnace, which is widely used for the manufacture of iron and steel. Experiments carried out using 2-D system and steel balls of size 1 and 2 mm are used as model granular materials. Image analysis is done to detect the position of each particle using an in-house computer code. Accuracy and efficiency of image analysis techniques were found to be good enough as we have used 1 and 2 mm spherical steel balls for all the cases studied. The chapter ends with concluding remarks.",signatures:"Sandip H. Gharat",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69744",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69744",authors:[{id:"304011",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandip",surname:"Gharat",slug:"sandip-gharat",fullName:"Sandip Gharat"}],corrections:null},{id:"69910",title:"Kinetic Equations of Granular Media",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90027",slug:"kinetic-equations-of-granular-media",totalDownloads:425,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Approaches to the rigorous derivation of a priori kinetic equations, namely, the Enskog-type and Boltzmann-type kinetic equations, describing granular media from the dynamics of inelastically colliding particles are reviewed. We also consider the problem of potential possibilities inherent in describing the evolution of the states of a system of many hard spheres with inelastic collisions by means of a one-particle distribution function.",signatures:"Viktor Gerasimenko",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69910",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69910",authors:[{id:"211077",title:"Prof.",name:"Viktor",surname:"Gerasimenko",slug:"viktor-gerasimenko",fullName:"Viktor Gerasimenko"}],corrections:null},{id:"72588",title:"Comparison of Concentration Transport Approach and MP-PIC Method for Simulating Proppant Transport Process",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92227",slug:"comparison-of-concentration-transport-approach-and-mp-pic-method-for-simulating-proppant-transport-p",totalDownloads:413,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this work, proppant transport process is studied based on two popular numerical methods: multiphase particle-in-cell method (MP-PIC) and concentration transport method. Derivations of governing equations in these two frameworks are reviewed, and then similarities and differences between these two methods are fully discussed. Several cases are designed to study the particle settling and conveying processes at different fluid Reynolds number. Simulation results indicate that two physical mechanisms become significant in the high Reynolds number cases, which leads to big differences between the simulation results of the two methods. One is the gravity convection effect in the early stage and the other is the particle packing, which determines the shape of sandbank. Above all, the MP-PIC method performs better than the concentration transport approach because more physical mechanisms are considered in the former framework. Besides, assumptions of ignoring unsteady terms and transient terms for the fluid governing equations in the concentration transport approach are only reasonable when Reynolds number is smaller than 100.",signatures:"Junsheng Zeng and Heng Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72588",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72588",authors:[{id:"303576",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Junsheng",surname:"Zeng",slug:"junsheng-zeng",fullName:"Junsheng Zeng"}],corrections:null},{id:"72273",title:"Massive Neutrinos and Galaxy Clustering in f(R) Gravity Cosmologies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92205",slug:"massive-neutrinos-and-galaxy-clustering-in-em-f-em-em-r-em-gravity-cosmologies",totalDownloads:386,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cosmic neutrinos have been playing a key role in cosmology since the discovery of their mass. They can affect cosmological observables and have several implications being the only hot dark matter candidates that we currently know to exist. The combination of massive neutrinos and an adequate theory of gravity provide a perfect scenario to address questions on the dark sector that have remained unanswered for years. In particular, in the era of precision cosmology, galaxy clustering and redshift-space distortions afford one of the most powerful tools to characterise the spatial distribution of cosmic tracers and to extract robust constraints on neutrino masses. In this chapter, we study how massive neutrinos affect the galaxy clustering and investigate whether the cosmological effects of massive neutrinos might be degenerate with f(R) gravity cosmologies, which would severely affect the constraints.",signatures:"Jorge Enrique García-Farieta and Rigoberto Ángel Casas Miranda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72273",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72273",authors:[{id:"266715",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",surname:"García-Farieta",slug:"jorge-garcia-farieta",fullName:"Jorge García-Farieta"},{id:"318441",title:"Prof.",name:"Rigoberto",surname:"Casas",slug:"rigoberto-casas",fullName:"Rigoberto Casas"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5093",title:"Plasma Science and Technology",subtitle:"Progress in Physical States and Chemical Reactions",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"441abcff2a740995204fdfc7d3dd9d1b",slug:"plasma-science-and-technology-progress-in-physical-states-and-chemical-reactions",bookSignature:"Tetsu Mieno",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5093.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"209593",title:"Dr.",name:"Tetsu",surname:"Mieno",slug:"tetsu-mieno",fullName:"Tetsu Mieno"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"397",title:"Nanofibers",subtitle:"Production, Properties and Functional Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"934fe33b73b2ecba961c67d5a90021ec",slug:"nanofibers-production-properties-and-functional-applications",bookSignature:"Tong Lin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/397.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49937",title:"Dr.",name:"Tong",surname:"Lin",slug:"tong-lin",fullName:"Tong Lin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1045",title:"Nanocomposites and Polymers with Analytical Methods",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"65d477e855685ea85913e5aba0c5217e",slug:"nanocomposites-and-polymers-with-analytical-methods",bookSignature:"John Cuppoletti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1045.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49991",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Cuppoletti",slug:"john-cuppoletti",fullName:"John Cuppoletti"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3200",title:"Nanofibers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"97487143b896780afaf08cfd67cd1eec",slug:"nanofibers",bookSignature:"Ashok Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3200.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7718",title:"Professor",name:"Ashok",surname:"Kumar",slug:"ashok-kumar",fullName:"Ashok Kumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"191",title:"Advances in Nanocomposite Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4dc3407e602cdd348af663727baebe3d",slug:"advances-in-nanocomposite-technology",bookSignature:"Abbass Hashim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/191.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. 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\r\n\tThe description of possible chemical or physical techniques available nowadays will be enriched by biological methods. Methods with a high potential for commercialization are of particular importance, that is why some of the material presented in this book will relate to this aspect.
When patients with acute respiratory failure recovery from the respiratory insufficiency, they are transitioned to assisted modes of ventilation to start the weaning process. The most common assisted modes are volume assisted ventilation in which the ventilator delivers the same tidal volume during every inspiration, and Pressure support ventilation (PSV) in which the ventilator delivers the same delta pressure assistance during every inspiration. The fixed deliver tidal volume or pressure assistance are the main reason for the occurrence of patient-ventilator asynchrony in these modes of ventilation. In PSV, the inspiratory flow is variable resulting in less asynchrony than in volume assisted ventilation, however asynchrony can still be present in cases of patients with obstructive lung disease and ineffective efforts or under assistance with insufficient tidal volume, can also occur especially in patients with low respiratory system compliance or high respiratory resistance. In these cases, the patients’ tidal volume cannot be guaranteed and the patient can generate a huge inspiratory effort that is often under detected. During PSV, the same assistance is independent of the patient’s demand, allowing under or over-assistance and the occurrence of patient-ventilator asynchrony [1]. The advanced modes of mechanical ventilation emerged from the need of greater control of the ventilator by the patient, the possibility of better synchrony and monitoring of the respiratory mechanics during the assisted modes of mechanical ventilation [1].
Volume assured pressure support ventilation (VAPSV) is a dual mode of mechanical ventilation that associates pressure support ventilation to volume assisted ventilation. This combination optimizes the inspiratory flow, decreasing the patient’s work of breathing while assuring the set tidal volume. Compared to volume assisted ventilation, VAPSV can decrease the patient’s respiratory drive (a lower measure P0.1), the pressure -time product and the patient’s work of breathing. This advanced mode of ventilation extends the benefits of PSV to unstable patients with acute respiratory failure, assuring a pre-set tidal volume (Figure 1) [1].
Volume assisted ventilation (VAV) compared to volume assured pressure support ventilation (VAPSV): note the decrease of the esophageal pressure and the better inspiratory flow synchrony during VAPSV [
Proportional modes deliver assistance in proportion to the patient’s demand, allowing variation of inspiratory pressure and avoiding diaphragm excessive loading and atrophy by disuse. Proportional assist ventilation (PAV) is a form of synchronized ventilator support in which the ventilator generates pressure in proportion to the instantaneous patient effort, or in proportion to flow and volume generated by the same [2, 3, 4]. Therefore, the ventilator allows at any time during inspiration, airway pressure in proportion to the pressure generated by inspiratory muscles (Pmus) and respiratory mechanics [4].
Initially described by Magdy Younes in 1992, PAV amplifies inspiratory efforts with the goal of the patient comfortably attain whatever ventilation and breathing pattern that the control system desires [2].
There is no target tidal volume, mandatory rate and airway pressure preset [5]. The ventilator is able to automatically adapt to changes in ventilatory demand of the patient. The pressure delivered by the ventilator follows the Pmus profile, usually with a progressive increase from the beginning of inspiration, with gradual pressurization, to the end of inspiration [4]. Maximal assistance is achieved until the end of inspiration [4].
Unlike PSV, in which a constant preset level of pressure assists each inspiration, regardless of the patient’s inspiratory effort, PAV allows assistance proportional to the patient’s demand, avoiding under-assistance or over-assistance [4], frequently observed during PSV. Under-assistance can induce respiratory distress and over-assistance can cause overdistension, and both may generate patient-ventilator asynchrony, that are associated with poor outcomes [5].
Therefore, PAV is designated for patients with stable respiratory drive, and can be used in any patient who is being ventilated under pressure support ventilation (PSV) or during weaning from mechanical ventilation [2, 6]. PAV is also designated to improve synchronism, while generating proportional assistance [2, 6].
PAV plus (PAV+) or Proportional Pressure Support (PPS) represent an upgrade to PAV [4] and are the clinically available versions of PAV.
During assisted ventilation, both the patient and ventilator contribute to the pressure required to overcome the elastic and resistive load during tidal breathing, according to the equation of motion [6]:
where Pmus is the pressure generated by respiratory muscles, Pvent is the pressure provided by the ventilator, V′ is the instantaneous flow, V is the volume, R and E are the resistance and elastance of the respiratory system respectively, and finally, PEE, is the elastic recoil pressure at end-expiration [7].
During PAV+, the ventilator software calculates elastance or compliance of the respiratory system and airway resistance using a brief end-inspiratory occlusion performed randomly every four to ten breaths [7, 8]. During each end-inspiratory occlusion, a 300 ms pause allows the ventilator to measure compliance (Crs) or elastance of the respiratory system (Ers) [9] and airway resistance (Raw). Based on inspiratory effort and respiratory mechanics, the ventilator adjusts inspiratory pressure, according to the equation of motion. As patient demand changes, PAV can also change proportionally inspiratory pressure above positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) level.
During Proportional Pressure Support (PPS), a combination of two parameters, generate inspiratory pressure: flow assist (FA) and volume assist (VA).
Airway occlusion pressure (P 0.1) can be monitored during PPS and PAV+, but the work of breathing (WOB) cannot be monitored during PPS.
The transition from inspiration to expiration, or the cycling off criteria occurs when inspiratory flow decreases to a pre-set level between 1 to 10 liters per minute. Cycling of criteria in PAV+ should be adjusted around 10 liters per minute in obstructive patients, while around 1 liter per minute in restrictive and around 3–5 liters per minute in those without respiratory abnormalities.
If apnea occurs, the apnea ventilation is automatically activated as in other spontaneous modes.
In PAV+, the percentage support can be adjusted between 5 to 95%, usually between 10 and 20 to 70–80%. When percentage support is 50%, ventilator amplifies Pmus by two times, while when in 90%, Pmus is amplified by ten times. When the percentage support is set, patient and ventilator are sharing WOB, as defined by the operator. If the percentage support is 60%, the patient will be responsible by 40% of total WOB. The percentage support can be adjusted according to WOB, that can be kept between 0.3 to 0.7 joules/liter. However, WOB is considered normal between 0.2 to 1.0 J/L [10], and eventually, if others criteria are normal, like respiratory rate and P 0.1, percentage support not necessarily should be changed in case of WOB between 0.7 to 1.0 J/L (Figure 2). As the patient improves the percentage support is decreased to 20–30%; if the tidal volume remains 5–6 ml/kg/predicted body weight, respiratory rate less than 28, FIO2 less than 40%, PEEP less than 10 cmH20 and WOB less than 1.0 J/L, the patient can be extubated.
PAV+ adjustments in clinical practice: parameters to set: % of assistance, tube ID, tube type, maximal pressure, maximal spontaneous tidal volume. Monitored parameters: compliance, resistance, auto-PEEP, work of breathing (J/liters). (Obtained from a simulator of the authors laboratory).
During Proportional Pressure Support (PPS), initially, the flow assistance (FA) should be set around 80% of airway resistance and volume assistance (VA), around 80% of elastance of the respiratory system, and then, changed according to the respective variations in these criteria. As higher FA and VA values, highest will be airway pressure and probably, tidal volume. PEEP and fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) should preferably be set in less than or equal to 10 cmH2O and 50% respectively.
PAV can also be used during noninvasive ventilation (NIV). As PAV requires clinical estimation of resistance and elastance, and measurements of these criteria with short end-inspiratory occlusions cannot be accurately performed in presence of leaks, it can, however, be of limited reliability [5]. Therefore, PAV as NIV did not present any evidence for daily routine.
Synchronism, proportional assistance and WOB monitoring seem to be the main advantages of PAV as well as to improve the patient-ventilator synchrony. Several studies and reviews evaluated PAV in comparison to PSV [7, 11, 12, 13, 14] showing results favorable to PAV regarding synchronism, weaning success, sleep quality, duration of mechanical ventilation, lung and diaphragm protection and lower proportion of patients requiring reintubation [7, 11, 12, 13, 14]. Although mortality seems to be generally favorable with PAV [11], this hypothesis has not been confirmed and more studies are necessary for this issue. One systematic review and meta-analysis that evaluated 14 randomized controlled studies, involving 931 patients [15] showed no difference on intubation risk (as noninvasive PAV), weaning time, hospital mortality, reintubation, or tracheostomy.
Neurally adjusted ventilatory assist (NAVA) is a mode of mechanical ventilation delivering pressure in response to the patient’s respiratory drive, measured by the electrical activity of the diaphragm (EAdi) [16, 17, 18]. Initially described in 1999, by Christer Sinderby et al. [16], NAVA introduced a new dimension to mechanical ventilation, in which the patient’s respiratory center can assume full control of the magnitude and timing of the mechanical support provided, regardless of changes in respiratory drive. This technology helps to decrease the risk of hyperinflation, respiratory alkalosis and hemodynamic impairment [16].
NAVA captures the EAdi, and uses it to assist the patient’s breathing in synchrony with, and in proportion to respiratory drive [17, 18, 19]. Normal EAdi generally ranges between a few and 10 μV, while patients with chronic respiratory insufficiency may demonstrate signals 5–7 times stronger [17]. Although there is no cutoff for weaning outcome, EAdi above 26 μV can be related to failure [20].
Like PAV, there are no target tidal volume, mandatory rate and airway pressure preset. Ventilator support is proportional to a combination of EAdi, and NAVA level, which defines the magnitude of pressure delivered for a given EAdi [18]. NAVA depends of the captured signal of EAdi via sensing electrodes on a nasogastric tube [17] so, in case of damage on phrenic nerve or alterations on its activity, NAVA cannot be used.
Therefore, NAVA, like PAV, is also designated for patients with stable respiratory drive, and can be used in patients who are ventilated on PSV (as long as EADi is detected), or during weaning from mechanical ventilation. NAVA is also designated to improve synchronism, while generating proportional assistance to EAdi.
A specialized nasogastric feeding catheter with electrodes should be inserted until the electrical activity of the crural diaphragm is observed [17, 21]. Correct positioning of the catheter is checked using the transesophageal electrocardiographies signal recorded by the electrodes as a guide [4], observed on the screen of the ventilator at second and third tracings. The absence of detectable EAdi is a contraindication of NAVA [17].
Ventilator support begins when EAdi starts [18]. As EAdi increases, assistance increases proportionally, and pressure delivered is cycled-off when EAdi is ended by the respiratory center (Figure 3) [17]. Application of a respiratory load, agitation, pain, respiratory distress or other causes that increase respiratory drive, can result in an increased EAdi, while over assistance should reduce EAdi [17].
NAVA curves in the clinical practice: pressure, flow, volume & EAdi (drawn by the author Carmen Barbas).
NAVA trigger is not pneumatic as other ventilatory modes, but utilizes EAdi, a reflection of neural respiratory output to the diaphragm, as its primary source to trigger [17]. Pneumatic trigger is available, but electrical trigger of NAVA allows faster response to inspiratory effort than traditional pneumatic trigger.
When NAVA level is changed, the resulting pressure depends on how respiratory afferents modulate neural output to diaphragm [18]. If the response to an increase in NAVA level is not a reduction in EAdi, delivered pressure increases [17, 18]. In the presence of high inspiratory efforts (inspiratory pressures higher than 7 cmH20), when EAdi is at its highest, pressure delivered could reach extreme levels and may cause lung injury [18]. In this situation, NAVA and other spontaneous modes should be avoided.
Inspiratory pressure above PEEP level is adjusted automatically multiplying the EAdi by a proportionality factor, called NAVA level, expressed as cmH2O/μV [17, 22].
For example: a NAVA level of 1 cmH2O/ μV will give an inspiratory pressure (above PEEP level) of 7 cmH2O when EAdi is 7 μV. Increasing NAVA level to 2 cmH2O/μV with the same EAdi will give an inspiratory pressure of 14 cmH2O.
The transition from inspiration to expiration, or the cycling off criteria occurs when EAdi decreases automatically to 70–40% of the peak inspiratory flow value observed at the same breath, and cannot be modified by the operator [4, 17]. If apnea occurs, the apnea ventilation is automatically activated as in other spontaneous modes.
During NAVA, minimal and maximum EAdi are monitored constantly. The NAVA trigger detects increases in EAdi and should be set to a level where random variation in the background noise does exceed the trigger level. The neural inspiratory trigger default of 0.5 μV, or 0.5 μV above the minimal EAdi is adequate in most cases [4]. Auto-triggering is possible due to a too sensitive trigger setting and /or leak. In case of auto-triggering, neural inspiratory trigger can be slightly increased, until this asynchrony disappears.
Frequently, NAVA level is used between 0.5 to 2.0 μV/cmH2O [4, 19]. Initial value can be around 1.0 μV/cmH2O in most cases. There is no consensus as to best approach and no definitive recommendations are available how to set NAVA level.” [4, 22]. Even so, some proposals deserve to be highlighted:
Pressure support that obtains 6 to 8 ml/kg predicted body weight during PSV, on ventilator function “NAVA preview” estimates the NAVA level that would achieve the same peak inspiratory pressure [4, 22].
To use NAVA level that generates 60 to 75% of maximal EAdi, observed during minimal inspiratory pressure of 3 to 7 cmH2O [22].
To use the minimal NAVA level associated with the absence of respiratory distress [4].
When inspiratory pressure reaches around 5 cmH2O, either by decreasing EAdi or decreasing NAVA level, weaning should be considered. PEEP and fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) should preferably be set in less than or equal to 10 cmH2O and 50% respectively.
A limitation of NAVA mode is that it requires a specialized nasogastric feeding catheter with electrodes located in the esophagus for its functioning which adds additional costs. The advantages of NAVA mode are that it can monitor the EAdi (eletroactivity of diaphragm), it improves the inspiratory and expiratory synchrony and it can be used as a non-invasive ventilation (NIV) mode too [17]. Since EAdi is a pneumatically independent signal and not affected by leaks, NAVA can deliver assist synchrony during NIV even with leaks [17]. Only a few larger studies [23, 24] compare NIV-NAVA with NIV-PS. No improved clinical outcomes were observed except a decreased incidence of asynchronies in NIV-NAVA.
In a large, multicenter, randomized, controlled clinical trial that included patients with acute respiratory failure (ARF) from several etiologies [19], NAVA was used in 153 patients, while another 153 enrolled in the control group used volume control ventilation, pressure control ventilation, PSV, or pressure-regulated volume control. NAVA decreased duration of mechanical ventilation, although it did not improve survival in ventilated patients with ARF.
Adaptative Support ventilation (ASV) is a closed- loop controlled ventilatory mode, which is designed to ensure optimization of the patient work of breathing, automatically adjusted according to the patient’s requirements. ASV combines passive ventilation with pressure-controlled ventilation with adaptive pressure support if the patient’s respiratory effort is present.
ASV delivers pressure- controlled breaths according to the set minute ventilation, resulting in the best combination of tidal volume and respiratory rate. As the patient’s inspiratory efforts start, ASV delivers pressure-supported breaths according to the set minute ventilation resulting in the best combination of tidal volume, respiratory rate and the patient’s inspiratory effort. In ASV mode FIO2 and PEEP are set manually [25].
Intellivent ASV is also a closed-loop ventilation that adds the monitoring of SpO2 and Pressure End-tidal CO2 to best manage ventilation and oxygenation. In Intellivent ASV mode the clinician sets patients’ sex, height and choice the following respiratory mechanics situations: normal, ARDS, chronic hypercapnia and brain injury. Intellivent ASV determines the target PETCO2 and SPO2 according to the patient’s condition. The ventilator controller adjusts the best tidal volume and respiratory rate to achieve the minute ventilation and PETCO2 set by the clinician combining pressure-control and or pressure support ventilation according to the patient’s inspiratory effort. In Intellivent ASV, FIO2 and PEEP are adjusted according to the patient’s SpO2 following a PEEP-FIO2 table [25].
Smart Care ® is an automatic weaning protocol, designed to stabilize the patient’s spontaneous breathing in a comfort zone of a preset defined ventilation and to automatically reduce the ventilatory support. Smart Care ® ventilates the patient with pressure support which levels are adjusted according to respiratory rate, tidal volume and End tidal CO2 to meet the patient’s demand. Smart Care ® classifies the patient a minimum of every 5 minutes into one of 8 categories and decreases or increases the pressure support levels accordingly. Smart Care® assesses and indicates the readiness for extubation after a successful automatic spontaneous breathing trial [26].
Volume assured pressure support ventilation can guarantee tidal volume with the advantages of pressure support variable inspiratory flow.
PAV+ can monitor the patient’s respiratory compliance, respiratory resistance, auto-PEEP and work of breathing decreasing patient-ventilator asynchrony in comparison to PSV and other ventilatory modes. PAV plus allow lung and diaphragm protection, avoiding under and over-assistance.
NAVA allows the measurement of the patient’s diaphragmatic eletroactivity and NAVA mode decreases patient-ventilator inspiratory and expiratory asynchrony.
ASV adjust pressure support, according to the respiratory rate to maintain the pre-set minute ventilation.
Intellivent-ASV adds the monitoring of PTCO2 and SpO2 and adjusts of pressure support according to respiratory rate to mantain the minute ventilation according to lung pathology.
Smart-care ventilation can automatically wean the patients, according to distinct patients classifications of lung pathology and indicates readiness for extubation.
Arachidonic acid (ARA) is a 20-carbon chain fatty acid with four methylene-interrupted
Central dogma of arachidonic acid metabolism. AA cascade and its destination following three major oxidative pathways: (1) cyclooxygenase (COX), producing prostaglandins and related eicosanoids; (2) lipoxygenase (LOX), forming leukotrienes and related compounds; and (3) CYP450, forming arachidonic acid epoxides.
Phospholipase A2 (EC 3.1.1.4, PLA2) belongs to the group of enzymes, which catalyze the hydrolysis of the ester bond at the sn-2 position of glycerophospholipids and, consequently, are capable of generating free fatty acids, including arachidonic acid (AA). Under physiological conditions, PLA2s are crucial for membrane phospholipid homeostasis, ensuring membrane stability, fluidity, and permeability, and they are involved in the regulation of transport processes through the cell membrane. Phospholipases A2 are enzymes widely diffused in bacteria, plants, venom (of various animals), and mammal cells. Several studies suggest that these enzymes can be classified into 19 groups, which have been identified in mammalian tissues. Besides, many of these groups exhibit significant A2 phospholipase enzymatic activity. At a high level, PLA2s can be classified into two groups: cytosolic PLA2 (cPLA2), and a large and diverse group of secretory PLA2s (sPLA2). Cytosolic PLA2 comprises calcium-dependent cPLA2 (cPLA2), calcium-independent cytosolic PLA2 (iPLA2), lysosomal PLA2 (lPLA2), mitochondrial PLA2 (mPLA2), and, more recently, PAF-acetyl hydrolases (PAF-AHs), which display a small family of phospholipases A2 with high specificity for hydrolysis of the unsaturated fatty acid residue located at the sn-2 position [7, 8, 10]. Several studies suggest that the proinflammatory action induced by mammalian sPLA2 and even snake venom sPLA2 involve a significant increase of both oxidative activity and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the cell. ROS are involved in processes such as lipid peroxidation and protein carbonylation, which, at certain levels, can lead to pathological events [15]. Studies conducted by Chiricozzi et al. (2010) [16] reveal that there is a relationship between the increased enzymatic activity of sPLA2, which belongs to the IIA family, and a significant cellular production of free radicals, which contribute strongly to the development of neurodegenerative diseases. Snake venom sPLA2 shares similar mechanisms of action and the same pathways of action with mammalian sPLA2. Experimental evidence in the literature demonstrates that both sPLA2 isoforms are able to induce inflammation and other similar biological activities [10, 17, 18, 19]. It is noteworthy that literature data demonstrate sPLA2 can activate signaling events that cannot be explained simply by its catalytic activity, and this fact emphasizes that sPLA2 could act essentially as a ligand of a receptor, rather than as an enzyme [20]. In contrast, studies suggest that products generated by sPLA2 may act as second intracellular messengers, and its enzymatic activity provides a crucial point in the biosynthesis pathways of several classes of inflammatory mediators [21]. In addition, studies performed with other sPLA2s suggest that, during the inflammatory process, leukocytes are recruited to the damaged site (via chemotaxis), where there are conditions necessary to produce a “respiratory explosion.” This condition is characterized by high oxygen consumption and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as the superoxide anion radical (O2−•) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which can generate the hydroxyl radical (•OH) directly or indirectly through chemical reactions, such as Fenton and Harber Weiss [22].
Nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids are important targets of ROS, and their attack may lead to an increased risk of mutagenesis due to the modification of these molecules. Moreover, during the inflammatory process, they synthesize soluble mediators, such as arachidonic acid metabolites, cytokines, and chemokines, which lead to the recruitment of more cells that are involved in the inflammatory process to the injured site, thus increasing ROS production. These key mediators may activate signal transduction cascades and induce changes in transcription factors, such as nuclear transcription factor κ-β (NFκ-β) and signal transducer/transcriptional activator 3 (STAT 3), which mediate the response to cellular stress. In addition, induction of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2) was reported to contribute to nitric oxide synthesis by the enzyme inducible nitric oxide synthetase (iNOS), besides the increased expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and alterations in the expression of specific microRNAs [23, 24]. It should be noted that nitric oxide can form reactive nitrogen species (RNS) that are highly damaging to cells [25, 26]. Signaling of inflammation is recognized globally by IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α through Toll-like receptors (TLRs), which belong to the IL-1R family. IL-1 and TNF-α represent the proinflammatory cytokine archetypes that are readily released in response to tissue injury or infection, and they represent a programmed recognition system to trigger inflammation [27, 28, 29]. It is important to note that although nitric oxide (NO−•), generated by iNOS, has been revealed to have an essential role as a cellular marker, in an environment with oxidative stress, it can react with O2−• to generate peroxynitrite (NOO−) and other harmful RNS species [26, 30]. Some authors suggest that preventing the formation of NOO- or inducing its efficient decomposition in inflammatory processes may result in a new therapeutic strategy for the treatment of inflammatory processes [30]. In this context, enzymes such as glutathione peroxidase (Gpx) and peroxiredoxin (Prx) appear to have great importance, since they respond to NOO− decomposition with high efficiency [30, 31, 32, 33].
There is no significant evidence that enzymatic toxins from snake venom are able to increase cellular oxidative stress during inflammation [34]; there has been neither a molecular nor a physiological connection shown between edema and other pharmacological activities induced by secretory phospholipase A2 from
The edema values plotted in Figure 2A were obtained by subtracting the edema values induced by saline (negative control). In this work, we evaluated the activity of COX2 and quantified PEG2 and MDA in blood and tissue samples collected at two different time points—30 and 90 min after sPLA2 administration. Figure 2A shows that the amount of COX2 present in swollen tissue after a 5 μg/site Cdt sPLA2 injection was 18.7 ± 1.23 ng/mL (n = 5), compared to values resulting from saline injection that were close to zero. In Figure 2B, quantification of PGE2 in the blood of animals collected after Cdt sPLA2 injection (5 μg/site) reveals a concentration of 783 ± 32.4 pg./mL (n = 5), while the saline treatment resulted in 65 ± 18.6 pg./mL (n = 5). Thus, the amount of PGE2 was 12-fold higher than the control values. MDA, produced during lipid peroxidation, is widely used for determining oxidative stress, and the results (shown in Figure 2C) indicate that the amount of MDA in plasma was 17.82 ± 8.65 nmol, whereas the amount of MDA released after the saline injection was 0.58 ± 0.22 nmol (n = 5). The results presented in Figure 2A–C were obtained before the edema peak, and they show that COX2, PGE2, and MDA levels were extremely high in comparison with the control. However, the samples from the material collected at 90 min or after the peak of edema showed that the COX2, PGE2, and MDA levels did not significantly vary from the control (saline), as shown in Figure 2D–F.
Edema values induced by Cdt sPLA2 at the adjusted concentration of 10 μg/site (n = 5). Blood and tissue samples were collected from the animals in two phases: at 30 min (B–D) and 90 min (E–F). Measurements of COX2, PGE2, and MDA levels are representative of the analysis of five animals.
The metabolism of AA is a crucial point in the course of proinflammatory secretory phospholipase A2 (sPLA2). These enzymes basically have two distinct molecular domains, one involved in catalysis and the other responsible for receptor interaction, which allows sPLA2 to mobilize other enzymes involved in the production of proinflammatory mediators. In addition, studies indicate that sPLA2 receptors can mediate their activity through G-protein, and therefore, they can trigger the activation of phospholipase C (PLC), activating the phosphokinase C (PKC) signaling pathway and leading to potentialization of cytoplasmic PLA2 (cPLA2) and COX2. In Figure 2A, we show the effect of the different treatments on edema induced by sPLA2 of
The Figures 1 and 2 show that sPLA2 triggers proinflammatory activity by a signaling pathway involving PKC and PLC. In the case of PLC, two products are generated, diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol triphosphate (IP3), which can induce the phosphorylation of several proteins [14, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43]. Thus, the sPLA2 of
Values of edema induced by sPLA2 of Cdt at the adjusted concentration of 10 μg/site (n = 5). (A) The effect of the inhibitor of PKC (PKC inhibitor 30′) and inhibitor of PLC (PLC inhibitor 30′). In (B), we evaluated the edema induced by sPLA2 in the presence of a specific inhibitor of cPLA2 (AACOCF3) and inhibitor of COX2 (NS-398).
A great question that arises for characterizing the pharmacological and biological activity of Cdt sPLA2 is the importance of the enzymatic activity of sPLA2. For many years, several studies concluded that all biological, physiological, pharmacological, and pathological activity depended on the enzymatic activity of sPLA2, and this remained unanimous until the 1990s. In 1984, the structure and function of the basic sPLA2 of
In Figure 3A, we show the effect of 5CQA on edema induced by purified sPLA2 from Cdt. When incubated with sPLA2, 5CQA forms a stable molecular complex and may interact with the catalytic site of the protein and strongly decrease its enzymatic activity, changing the secondary structure and leading to the virtual abolishment of sPLA2 enzymatic activity. The edematogenic assay performed with native sPLA2 and 5CQA incubated with sPLA2 clearly showed that edema induced by sPLA2:5CQA was not abolished, but significantly diminished (Figure 4A). Thus, in part, the anti-inflammatory effect of 5CQA probably involves the downregulation of pharmacological and enzymatic activity of sPLA2 [57, 58]. In Figure 3B, we show the effect of p-bromophenacyl bromide (p-BPB) and umbelliferone (7-HOC) on edema induced by sPLA2. These data reveal that previous treatment with sPLA2/7-HOC highly decreased the proinflammatory effect induced by sPLA2 purified from Cdt, whereas previous treatment with p-BPB abolished this effect.
In (A), we show paw edema induced after the injection of sPLA2 and sPLA2:5CQA (10 μg/paw) into the right paw of Swiss mice. Measurements were performed after 30, 60, 120, 180, and 240 min, and statistical differences were observed with sPLA2 incubated with 5CQA. In (B), we show enzymatic activity analyzed using 4N3OBA as a substrate, then monitored at a wavelength of 425 nm. In this condition, we examined the effect of the substrate on the enzymatic activity of the native and 5CQA-pretreated sPLA2 (sPLA2:5CQA). Chemical treatment of sPLA2 with 5CQA shifts both the Km and Vmax of the native sPLA2. In (C), we show the mouse paw edema induced by untreated sPLA2 and sPLA2 treated with umbelliferone (sPLA2:7-HOC) or with p-bromophenacyl bromide (sPLA2:p-BPB). Doses of 10 μg/paw were used. Observations were conducted at intervals of 30, 60, 90, 120, and 180 min. (D) Results of enzymatic kinetic analysis of untreated (sPLA2) and 7-HOC- or p-BPB-treated sPLA2 (sPLAs:7-HOC) using 4N3OBA as substrate. sPLA2 Vmax; sPLA2:7-HOC Vmax. For the enzymatic assay results in (B) and (D), each point represents the mean ± SEM of n = 12 and *p < 0.05, and in (A) and (C), each point represents the mean ± SEM of five experiments and *p < 0.05.
Unlike flavonoids, both compounds 7-HOC and p-BPB chemically react with the structure of sPLA2 and form highly stable molecular complexes, both inducing large structural modifications that lead to the virtual abolishment of the enzymatic activity of sPLA2. However, the edematogenic experiments conducted with both compounds incubated with sPLA2 did not abolish the proinflammatory effect induced by the protein, as shown in Figure 3B. Thus, in this case, comparison between the results from pharmacological assays suggests that the abolishment of enzymatic activity did not suppress or inhibit the pharmacological effect of sPLA2. This paradox between enzymatic activity and pharmacological effect suggests that at least one more complex pharmacological mechanism is involved in the enzymatic activity, which is independent of the enzymatic activity only. These facts suggest the existence of a distinct pharmacological site, as already proposed by [10, 20].
The authors performed several mutagenesis experiments besides those analyzing its catalytic site; there is another pharmacological site located in the calcium binding loop, and the presence of a second pharmacological site has also been considered by [8, 59, 60]. Thus, the enzymatic activity of sPLA2 from Cdt is not crucial for its pharmacological effect and involves other molecular regions, which are collectively designated as pharmacological sites [51, 61]. Some studies performed with sPLA2 from
Oxidative stress is implicated in numerous proinflammatory responses in mammalian cells. H2O2 is known to trigger the release and metabolism of AA in various cell types, but the mechanisms involved appear to diverge profoundly from one cell to another. Thus, mobilization of AA in response to oxidative stress appears to be a very complex process involving potentially multiple enzymes and pathways. Studies reveal that the pathological actions induced by sPLA2 from snake venom involve the induction of significant increases in proinflammatory mediators that may also induce a significant rise in reactive oxygen species levels, which can effectively lead to the establishment of numerous events. Thus, the decrease or control of the concentration of these reactive oxygen species may contribute to the decrease of several pathological actions induced by the A2 secretory phospholipase venom. This is evidenced in some studies, such as those that used plant extracts with antioxidant action. The increase in the cellular oxidative process resulting from the mobilization of AA is, in short, associated with the mobilization of H2O2 [62, 63, 64]; however, this event is not known to be the case for the sPLA2 found in several snake venoms. Some studies show that there is a direct cause and effect relationship between the increased expression of several calcium-dependent PLA2 isoforms and the increased concentration of hydrogen peroxide. Besides, this mechanism involves the presence of G-protein-bound cellular receptors and the consequent protein kinase activation. In addition, much data support the possible existence of cross talk between cPLA2 and sPLA2 while eliciting a full AA release response [63, 65, 66]. During the action of secretory and cytosolic A2 phospholipases, a large amount of AA is produced, which can be considered one of the major components that may be reduced via enzymatic peroxidation to prostaglandins, leukotrienes, thromboxanes, and other cyclooxygenase-, lipoxygenase-, or cytochrome P-450-derived products. Thus, during the process of oxidative stress, AA and other bioactive lipids can be converted into lipid hydroperoxide (LOOH). LOOHs are the primary products of lipid peroxidation, which are relatively stable and long lasting compared to other ROS. Among the many different aldehydes, which can be formed as secondary products during lipid peroxidation, MDA appears to be the most mutagenic [36, 56, 67].
The most accepted paradigm is that oxidative stress initiates a chain reaction of lipid peroxidation, which can be reduced by the presence of tocopherol (e.g., vitamin E) or some other chain-breaking antioxidant. However, several studies have shown that these antioxidants do not neutralize the oxidized phospholipids that were formed prior to the application of these compounds. Thus, lipid peroxidation is not spontaneously reversible, and enzymatic pathways that return lipids to their reduced states have been described. On the other hand, several authors showed that peroxiredoxins (Prxs), particularly Prx 6, play an essential role in the reduction of H2O2 and short hydroperoxides; besides, they can directly reduce phospholipid hydroperoxides. Prxs are thiol-dependent peroxidases that catalyze the reduction of a wide variety of hydroperoxides, and the catalytic activity is provided by the presence of a highly conserved catalytic cysteine residue, whose oxidation by hydroperoxide generates sulfenic acid (Cys-SOH). The Prx reduction mechanism involving Cys-SOH is a matter of debate, with glutaredoxin 2 (GRX2), thioredoxin 3 (Trx3), thioredoxin reductase 2 (Trr2), and ascorbate being proposed as possible reducers [68, 69, 70]. Several other studies revealed that, during oxidative stress, several Prxs are overexpressed, which can be used as a sensor of oxidative stress in several cells [71, 72, 73]. Thus, Prxs represent a group of antioxidant proteins able to decompose several types of hydroperoxides at rates of 105–8 M/second. These enzymes utilize a cysteine residue, which, after the peroxide decomposition, oxidizes (CP-SOH), forming a disulfide bond with a second cysteine, which is reduced by the enzymes thioredoxin (Trx) and thioredoxin reductase (TrxR). In addition, several drugs have been characterized as peroxiredoxin inhibitors, and their use has been helpful in unraveling the physiological and biological roles of certain peroxiredoxins. Among these Prx inhibitors, the best known is adenanthin (Adn), which inhibits Prxs I, Prx II, and other thiol-dependent antioxidant enzymes [74, 75]. Another commercial drug is MJ33, which is described as a potent inhibitor of Prx 6, an extremely essential enzyme for regulating oxidative stress, inflammation, and NADPH oxidase (NOX)2 activation [76]. In addition, conoidin A (ConA) is characterized as a potent inhibitor of peroxiredoxin II, an antioxidant enzyme that acts in the intracellular signaling and defense against oxidative stress [77]. Enzyme inhibition is one of the ways in which enzyme activity is regulated experimentally and naturally.
In the case of the pharmacological tests, inoculation of 5 μg sPLA2 purified from the total venom of
In (A), we show paw edema induced after the injection of sPLA2 and sPLA2:MJ33 (5 μg/paw) into the right paw of Swiss mice. Measurements were performed after 30, 60, 120, 180, 240 and 480 min, and statistical differences were observed with sPLA2 applied after MJ33 injection 30 minutes before sPLA2 injection. In (B), we show paw edema induced after the injection of sPLA2 and sPLA2:ConA (5 μg/paw) into the right paw of Swiss mice. Measurements were performed after 30, 60, 120, 180, 240 and 480 min, and statistical differences were observed with sPLA2 incubated with ConA (conoidin A) applied 30 minutes before sPLA2. In (C), we evaluate the effect of sPLA2 in comparison with adenanthin (Adn) previously applied 30 min before sPLA2. Each point represents the mean ± SEM of five experiments and *p < 0.05.
Prx 6 shows calcium-independent phospholipase A2 enzyme activity that is also maximal at acidic pH [79]. The determination of its functional and enzymatic properties was recently elucidated. The low MJ33 inhibitory effect observed in our study could have been due to the presence of a calcium-independent PLA2 domain. Some studies showed that Prx 2 appear to be an essential negative regulator of LPS-induced inflammatory signaling through modulation of ROS synthesis via NADPH oxidase activities; therefore, Prx 2 is crucial for the prevention of excessive host responses to microbial products [80]. Although ConA shows the ability to covalently inhibit Prx 2 activity, the results presented in Figure 5B suggest that Prx 2 does not play a relevant role in reducing edema induced by Cdt sPLA2. On the other hand, LPS stimulates monocytes/macrophages through Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), resulting in a series of signaling activation events, which potentiate the production of inflammatory mediators, such as IL-6 and TNF-α [81, 82]. The results presented in Figure 5C clearly show that thiol-dependent antioxidant enzymes play an essential role in edema control and recovery induced by sPLA2 purified from Cdt, and, similar to ConA and MJ33, these enzymes did not exhibit an inhibition or decrease of the edema peaks that occur at 60 min. Figure 5C also reveals that the edematogenic effect induced by sPLA2 diminished after 60–90 min, and the hind paw volume returned to its normal volume after 240 min. However, in animals treated with Adn 30 min before the sPLA2 injection, the edematogenic effect persisted for even 8 h after the experiment.
During inflammation (edema), induced by purified sPLA2, arachidonic acid generation and its metabolization by COX2 during the edema play crucial roles during this pharmacological event. Arachidonic acid can be mobilized by the catalytic activity of sPLA2 from
Another pathway that is initiated during AA mobilization involves the release of platelet aggregation factor (PAF)—another subproduct of the enzymatic hydrolysis of membrane phospholipids that cross through the cell membrane—and its specific receptor (PAF receptor or PAF-R) leads to the stimulation of PLC by G-protein [83, 88]. Thus, it is possible that sPLA2 from snake venom, such as venom from
Summary of possible inflammation mechanism of Cdt sPLA2 action during the inflammatory process.
Several studies have shown that arachidonic acid produced by the action of sPLA2 and cPLA2 can activate NADPH oxidase (NOX) enzymes and induce a significant increase in hydrogen peroxide, which gains entry to the intracellular environment through aquaporins and has a predominant role in increasing cellular oxidative stress [91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96]. This would explain the importance of thiol-dependent antioxidant enzymes playing key roles in the control of edema induced by
On the other hand, several articles have reported that natural antioxidant compounds, such as flavonoids and related substances, when given prior to sPLA2 injection, have significant anti-inflammatory activities. This probably stems from the ability of many of these compounds to partially inhibit the enzymatic and pharmacological activities of sPLA2 from
The present project had the financial support of the FAPESP process no: 2017/20291-0 on the responsibility of Professor M.H. Toyama and the resources coming from the FAPESP process no: 2017/19942-7, to CNPq and UNESP.
The authors have no conflict of interests to declare.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
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",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. 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These cells were first recognized by Elia Metchnikoff in 1882 in the larvae of starfish upon insertion of thorns of tangerine tree and later in Daphnia magna or common water flea infected with fungal spores as cells responsible for the process of phagocytosis of foreign particles. Elia Metchnikoff received the Noble prize (Physiology and Medicine) for his discovery and describing the process of phagocytosis in 1908. More than 130 years have passed and different subtypes and roles of macrophages as innate immune cells have been established by the researchers. In addition to their immunoregulatory role in immune homeostasis and pathogenic infection, they also play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of sterile inflammatory conditions including autoimmunity, obesity, and cancer. The present chapter describes the immunoregulatory role of macrophages in the homeostasis and inflammatory diseases varying from autoimmunity to metabolic diseases including obesity.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Vijay Kumar",authors:[{id:"63844",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"vijay-kumar",fullName:"Vijay Kumar"}]},{id:"67289",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86474",title:"The Pivotal Role of Macrophages in Metabolic Distress",slug:"the-pivotal-role-of-macrophages-in-metabolic-distress",totalDownloads:1230,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Obesity is a prevalent condition with several associated co-morbidities including the development of metabolic diseases. In obesity there is immune cell infiltration into the white adipose tissue and this is associated with the generation of inflammation and insulin resistance (IR). A large majority of the infiltrating leukocytes in obese adipose tissue are pro-inflammatory macrophages, which upon activation induce a switch in metabolism from oxidative phosphorylation, as is utilised by macrophages in lean adipose tissue, towards aerobic glycolysis. The signalling pathways evoked in the recruited macrophages induce the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, in signalling pathways which directly interfere with insulin signalling and thus induce a state of IR. As macrophages appear to play such a pivotal role in the generation of IR and are the largest leukocyte population in the adipose tissue, they provide a promising therapeutic target. Indeed, there are several strategies currently being studied to induce a ‘switch’ in macrophages associated with obese adipose tissue, towards the phenotype of those associated with lean adipose tissue, with arguably the most promising being those strategies designed to target the metabolic pathways within the macrophages. This chapter will discuss the polarisation and activation of macrophages within lean and obese adipose tissue and how these cells can be targeted therapeutically.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Joseph Roberts, Padraic G. Fallon and Emily Hams",authors:null},{id:"64543",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81995",title:"Cannabinoid Receptors as Regulators of Neutrophil Activity in Inflammatory Diseases",slug:"cannabinoid-receptors-as-regulators-of-neutrophil-activity-in-inflammatory-diseases",totalDownloads:1115,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Cannabinoids are compounds present in Cannabis sativa (phytocannabinoids), endogenously produced (endocannabinoids) or synthesized, that bind to G protein-coupled receptors named cannabinoid receptors B1 and B2. They were first described as psychotropic compounds; however, cannabinoids are also potent immunoregulatory agents. Cannabinoids can modulate neutrophil activity in sterile and infectious inflammatory diseases. Concerning sterile inflammatory diseases as arthritis, ischemic diseases, and colitis, the use of CB2 agonist impairs the intracellular signaling pathways involved in the production of inflammatory mediators and expression of adhesion molecules. As a consequence, neutrophils did not release metalloproteinases either to adhere to endothelial cells, resulting in reduced tissue damage. A similar anti-inflammatory CB2 agonist mechanism of action in sepsis and mycobacterial infection models is observed. However, it is not clear if inflammation resolution promoted by cannabinoid treatment during infection is also related to microbial viability. Despite the growing literature showing the effects of cannabinoids on neutrophils, there are still some gaps that should be filled before proposing cannabinoid-based drugs to treat neutrophil-dependent diseases.",book:{id:"7129",slug:"neutrophils",title:"Neutrophils",fullTitle:"Neutrophils"},signatures:"Mariana Conceição Souza and Elaine Cruz Rosas",authors:null},{id:"68678",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88754",title:"Macrophages in the Pathogenesis of Leprosy",slug:"macrophages-in-the-pathogenesis-of-leprosy",totalDownloads:881,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease caused by the intracellular pathogen Mycobacterium leprae. The disease may present different clinical forms depending on the immunological status of the host. M. leprae may infect macrophages and Schwann cells, and recent studies have demonstrated that macrophages are fundamental cells for determining the outcome of the disease. Skin lesions from patients with the paucibacillary form of the disease present a predominance of macrophages with a pro-inflammatory phenotype (M1), whereas skin lesions of multibacillary patients present a predominance of anti-inflammatory macrophages (M2). More recently, it was shown that autophagy is responsible for the control of bacillary load in paucibacillary macrophages and that the blockade of autophagy is involved in the onset of acute inflammatory reactional episodes in multibacillary cells. So, strategies that aim to induce autophagy in infected macrophages are promising not only to improve the efficacy of multidrug therapy (MDT) but also to avoid the occurrence of reactional episodes that are responsible for the disabilities observed in leprosy patients.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Rhana Berto da Silva Prata, Mayara Garcia de Mattos Barbosa, Bruno Jorge de Andrade Silva, Jéssica Araujo da Paixão de Oliveira, Tamiris Lameira Bittencourt and Roberta Olmo Pinheiro",authors:null},{id:"67817",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86433",title:"Wnt Signaling Regulates Macrophage Mediated Immune Response to Pathogens",slug:"wnt-signaling-regulates-macrophage-mediated-immune-response-to-pathogens",totalDownloads:994,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Infection with pathogenic microbes is a global threat. Macrophages play a fundamental role in promoting host resistance to deadly infections from pathogenic microbes by virtue of a well-orchestrated immune defense system. Phagocytosis and obliteration of invading pathogens by macrophages are an innate immune function that not only sustains immune homeostasis but also bolsters adaptive immune response through antigen processing and presentation. Wnt signaling, where Wnt, a secreted glycoprotein which interacts with Frizzled and ROR cell surface receptors to initiate cellular interactions, could be vital for the immune response executed and propagated by macrophages in both innate and adaptive immune responses. The goal of this chapter is to describe how Wnt signaling influences phagocytosis, autophagy, and transcriptional activation to enable the macrophage to exercise its immune response program to resist infection.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Suborno Jati and Malini Sen",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"68185",title:"Macrophages: The Potent Immunoregulatory Innate Immune Cells",slug:"macrophages-the-potent-immunoregulatory-innate-immune-cells",totalDownloads:2173,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Macrophages are ubiquitously present innate immune cells in humans and animals belonging to both invertebrates and vertebrates. These cells were first recognized by Elia Metchnikoff in 1882 in the larvae of starfish upon insertion of thorns of tangerine tree and later in Daphnia magna or common water flea infected with fungal spores as cells responsible for the process of phagocytosis of foreign particles. Elia Metchnikoff received the Noble prize (Physiology and Medicine) for his discovery and describing the process of phagocytosis in 1908. More than 130 years have passed and different subtypes and roles of macrophages as innate immune cells have been established by the researchers. In addition to their immunoregulatory role in immune homeostasis and pathogenic infection, they also play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of sterile inflammatory conditions including autoimmunity, obesity, and cancer. The present chapter describes the immunoregulatory role of macrophages in the homeostasis and inflammatory diseases varying from autoimmunity to metabolic diseases including obesity.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Vijay Kumar",authors:[{id:"63844",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"vijay-kumar",fullName:"Vijay Kumar"}]},{id:"68585",title:"Macrophage Polarization Is Decisive for Chronic Bacterial Infection-Induced Carcinogenesis",slug:"macrophage-polarization-is-decisive-for-chronic-bacterial-infection-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:809,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Macrophages are the special cells of the immune system and play both immunological and physiological role. One of the peculiar characteristics of macrophages is that they are double-edged and highly plastic component of immune system. Due to this characteristic, they are responsible for both progressions as well control of a variety of inflammatory, infectious and metabolic diseases and cancer. These are found in the body in three major phenotypes, which are known as M0 (also known as naïve); M1 (classically activated macrophages); and/or M2 (alternatively activated macrophages) at normal physiological conditions. We have been exploring macrophages in context of bacterial infection and previously demonstrated that M2 polarization of M1 effector alveolar macrophages during chronic/persistent Chlamydia pneumonia, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Helicobacter pylori pathogens are decisive for the infection induced cancer development in host. Since chronic infection with these pathogens has been associated with adenocarcinoma, therefore, we feel that disruption of macrophage plasticity plays crucial role in the host for the development of cancer. On the basis of this, we propose that in such pathological conditions, management of M1/M2 imbalance is paramount for minimizing the risk of developing cancer by chronic and persistent infection.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Mishi Wasson, Sonia Kapoor, Manoj Garg, Sandhya Singh and Hridayesh Prakash",authors:null},{id:"64543",title:"Cannabinoid Receptors as Regulators of Neutrophil Activity in Inflammatory Diseases",slug:"cannabinoid-receptors-as-regulators-of-neutrophil-activity-in-inflammatory-diseases",totalDownloads:1115,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Cannabinoids are compounds present in Cannabis sativa (phytocannabinoids), endogenously produced (endocannabinoids) or synthesized, that bind to G protein-coupled receptors named cannabinoid receptors B1 and B2. They were first described as psychotropic compounds; however, cannabinoids are also potent immunoregulatory agents. Cannabinoids can modulate neutrophil activity in sterile and infectious inflammatory diseases. Concerning sterile inflammatory diseases as arthritis, ischemic diseases, and colitis, the use of CB2 agonist impairs the intracellular signaling pathways involved in the production of inflammatory mediators and expression of adhesion molecules. As a consequence, neutrophils did not release metalloproteinases either to adhere to endothelial cells, resulting in reduced tissue damage. A similar anti-inflammatory CB2 agonist mechanism of action in sepsis and mycobacterial infection models is observed. However, it is not clear if inflammation resolution promoted by cannabinoid treatment during infection is also related to microbial viability. Despite the growing literature showing the effects of cannabinoids on neutrophils, there are still some gaps that should be filled before proposing cannabinoid-based drugs to treat neutrophil-dependent diseases.",book:{id:"7129",slug:"neutrophils",title:"Neutrophils",fullTitle:"Neutrophils"},signatures:"Mariana Conceição Souza and Elaine Cruz Rosas",authors:null},{id:"63248",title:"Neutrophil Activation by Antibody Receptors",slug:"neutrophil-activation-by-antibody-receptors",totalDownloads:1380,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Neutrophils, the most abundant leukocytes in blood, are relevant cells of both the innate and the adaptive immune system. Immunoglobulin (Ig) G antibody molecules are crucial activators of neutrophils. IgGs identify many types of pathogens via their two Fab portions and are in turn detected through their Fc portion by specific Fcγ receptors (FcγRs) on the membrane of neutrophils. Thus, antibodies bring the specificity of the adaptive immune response to the potent antimicrobial and inflammatory functions of neutrophils. Two types of FcγRs with several polymorphic variants exist on the human neutrophil. These receptors are considered to be redundant in inducing cell responses. Yet, new evidence presented in recent years on how the particular IgG subclass and the glycosylation pattern of the antibody modulate the IgG–FcγR interaction has suggested that a particular effector function may in fact be activated in response to a specific type of FcγR. In this chapter, we describe the main types of FcγRs on neutrophils and our current view on how particular FcγRs activate various signaling pathways to promote unique effector cell functions, including phagocytosis, activation of integrins, nuclear factor activation, and formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs).",book:{id:"7129",slug:"neutrophils",title:"Neutrophils",fullTitle:"Neutrophils"},signatures:"Carlos Rosales and Eileen Uribe-Querol",authors:[{id:"192432",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Rosales",slug:"carlos-rosales",fullName:"Carlos Rosales"},{id:"198687",title:"Dr.",name:"Eileen",middleName:null,surname:"Uribe-Querol",slug:"eileen-uribe-querol",fullName:"Eileen Uribe-Querol"}]},{id:"67326",title:"Polarization of Tumor-Associated Macrophages by Chinese Medicine Intervention: Mechanisms and Applications",slug:"polarization-of-tumor-associated-macrophages-by-chinese-medicine-intervention-mechanisms-and-applica",totalDownloads:935,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Macrophage polarization is a spectrum of phenotypes and generally can be classified into two states: (1) classically activated or M1 macrophages, which can be driven by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) alone or in association with Th1 cytokines and produce pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-6 and, IL-12, and (2) alternatively activated M2 macrophages, which can be promoted by Th2 mediators IL-4 and IL-13 and produce anti-inflammatory cytokines such as TGF-β and IL-10. Current studies have found that the phenotypic switch between M1 and M2 macrophages governs the fate of an organ in inflammation or injury. The imbalance of M1/M2 polarization is closely involved in various pathological processes and is becoming a potential target for therapeutic strategies. Traditional Chinese medicine is an integrated healthcare system composed of many practices and is characterized by multi-target, multi-level, and coordinated intervention effects. Chinese medicines nowadays are applied to regulate phenotype polarization of macrophages to improve the microenvironment, thus ameliorating or even eliminating the symptoms. In this chapter, we will discuss the molecular mechanisms of macrophage polarization, their roles in health and disease, and the intervention with Chinese medicines to modulate the polarization of macrophages in tumor microenvironment (TME) for therapeutic purpose.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Yuanjun Lu, Hor Yue Tan, Ning Wang and Yibin Feng",authors:[{id:"14428",title:"Prof.",name:"Yibin",middleName:null,surname:"Feng",slug:"yibin-feng",fullName:"Yibin Feng"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"904",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:50,paginationItems:[{id:"81927",title:"Purinergic System in Immune Response",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104485",signatures:"Yerly Magnolia Useche Salvador",slug:"purinergic-system-in-immune-response",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"80495",title:"Iron in Cell Metabolism and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101908",signatures:"Eeka Prabhakar",slug:"iron-in-cell-metabolism-and-disease",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Iron Metabolism - Iron a Double‐Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81799",title:"Cross Talk of Purinergic and Immune Signaling: Implication in Inflammatory and Pathogenic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104978",signatures:"Richa Rai",slug:"cross-talk-of-purinergic-and-immune-signaling-implication-in-inflammatory-and-pathogenic-diseases",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81764",title:"Involvement of the Purinergic System in Cell Death in Models of Retinopathies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103935",signatures:"Douglas Penaforte Cruz, Marinna Garcia Repossi and Lucianne Fragel Madeira",slug:"involvement-of-the-purinergic-system-in-cell-death-in-models-of-retinopathies",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:27,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science and Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013. She relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the National Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to October 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is currently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology – Kandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI) Ambassador to Sri Lanka.",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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