Sociodemographic characteristics of the sample.
\r\n\tWith a history of over 50 years since their introduction into therapy and formulation of medicinal products, hydrogels remain a challenge for researchers in the field.
\r\n\tVersatile, with high-water content, tunable properties, and mild processing conditions, hydrogels advanced from simple chemically or physically crosslinked networks to complex double network composites or even more sophisticated new developments as shape memory and self-healing hydrogels.
\r\n\tIncreasing knowledge in hybrid or composite hydrogel materials, controlled release of sensitive drugs, or several drugs from the same hydrogel matrix could be achieved. Parallel to targeted efforts aimed to maintain drug micro- or nanoparticle’s distinct three-dimensional structure, synergistic hybrid materials with more than one type of polymer was developed.
\r\n\tBut one of the most challenging tasks remains further and continues to improve the clinical translation of these innovative hydrogels. That is what this book intends to provide the reader: a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art, recent advances, new perspectives, and applications of the hydrogels as valuable platforms for targeted delivery. Driven by the need to ensure proper patient compliance, ease of administration, along with the possibility to modulate release and degradation profiles after administration, numerous non-topical hydrogel formulations had been reported. Smart and supramolecular hydrogels, stimuli-reactive materials, that quickly respond in mild conditions, represent today an attractive approach for minimally invasive treatments.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book will also represent an invitation to discover “new” off-the-shelf hydrogels with highly tunable properties, with low complexity of formulation (environmentally friendly processing), but with adequate features to fulfill clinical requirements and provide desired delivery platforms for therapy.
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Professor POPA LĂCRĂMIOARA (h-index 14) received her Ph.D. in Pharmacy (2000). She has over 28 years of experience in physical pharmacy: Quality by Design (QbD) in the development, analysis, and optimization of pharmaceutical systems; characterization of the raw materials surfaces and pharmaceutical systems; polymeric materials with biomedical applications.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"A pioneering researcher in Taguchi's approach for the development and optimization of biomaterial-based drug delivery systems. Professor Mihaela Violeta Ghica (h-index 16) has over 19 years ‘experience in physical pharmacy: modern methods of experimental statistical design in the development of drug delivery systems and technological processes optimization; biomaterials for tissue regeneration: obtaining, physical-chemical, biopharmaceutical, structural and morphological characterization.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"A pioneering researcher in nanostructures formulation in pharmaceutical sciences. Professor Cristina-Elena Dinu-Pîrvu (h-index 15) is a member of the Romanian National Council for the Attestation of University Titles, Diplomas, and Certificates–Commission Pharmacy. She has over 28 years of experience in physical pharmacy: development of smart, efficient, and safe biocompatible materials; development of bio- and nanostructures for diagnostic and therapy.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"228211",title:"Prof.",name:"Lacramioara",middleName:null,surname:"Popa",slug:"lacramioara-popa",fullName:"Lacramioara Popa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/228211/images/system/228211.jpeg",biography:"Professor POPA LĂCRĂMIOARA received her PhD in Pharmacy (2000). 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In a world of constant change, this process is associated with the individuals’ ability to adapt successfully to the constant transformations in society. Therefore, it is imperative to promote and enhance entrepreneurship and foster an “entrepreneurial culture” in society with a view to achieving social, economic, technological, and organizational development [1, 2].
Everyone can be an entrepreneur, as long as the context provides the necessary stimuli; education is an example par excellence of one way of achieving this goal, while leveraging business and job creation. The teaching-learning process allows combining the acquisition of knowledge and skills, which are of utmost importance for the active integration of young people into society [3]. Hence, the role and importance of entrepreneurship in the academic arena becomes essential in terms of groundwork for skills development, a process that can best prepare students for the job market. To corroborate this statement, the European Commission believes that the increased investment in entrepreneurship must be carried out preferably through education, namely entrepreneurship education, which may contribute to increasing the levels of innovation and economic growth of a nation or country (Comissão das Comunidades [4]). Although structural conditions play a key role in the moment to undertake, individuals’ perception of themselves and their skills is equally important [5].
In this study, we analyzed the role of the predictor variables
In order to provide a framework for this research, a literature review was performed on the concepts and factors associated with the topic. Afterward, data were collected using questionnaires that were designed and validated by the research team for this purpose. Data were analyzed and processed, and the results were interpreted based on the perspectives found in the literature review and the model underlying the Poliempreende project. This study describes these steps, the study limitations, and proposals for future research.
According to Sarkar [10], entrepreneurship is not a recent phenomenon, although it has been used in different contexts throughout history. Nevertheless, the literature suggests that its popularity has been revived, emerging as a “sudden discovery” for economic development, especially in times of crisis. The term
In the twentieth century, this concept changed profoundly when Schumpeter [12] rejected the prevailing terminological definition and argued that the entrepreneur should be the driving force of the economic system, simultaneously playing the role of leader and agent of innovation. In this sense, entrepreneurship can be defined as an innovative act that leads to a new capacity to create wealth [13], or the creation of a new organization [14]. There are many definitions of entrepreneurship in the literature, but the definition of its constitutive elements is not consensual. However, several authors have proposed different definitions with elements in common. These elements will be described later on.
The entrepreneurship movement expanded the most in the 1980s [1], particularly in some countries. In fact, in countries where the academy invested in entrepreneurship education, the increasingly recognized value of entrepreneurship as an engine for development and fight against unemployment has led to an increase in the number of jobs available and the reduction of unemployment rates [1, 15]. According to these authors, these results suggest that entrepreneurs are the real drivers of the market economy. As previously mentioned, if entrepreneurship is considered as the discovery, exploration, and evaluation of opportunities to create goods and services, by creating conditions for the development of an entrepreneurial culture, we are supporting the economic, social, and/or technological development and growth of societies. Therefore, entrepreneurship is very likely to have a positive impact on value creation, as a powerful engine for economic and social development, in which the entrepreneur plays a crucial role [2]. The agents of entrepreneurship are able to take risks and transform ambiguous situations into business opportunities in order to achieve success [16, 17]. Entrepreneurs can then be seen as individuals with the ability to take risks by facing ambiguous situations from an optimistic perspective, seeing them as an opportunity or possibility for business or value creation, who are capable of designing and implementing projects, and encouraging those who collaborate with them, with an attitude of constant challenge and desire to overcome indifference.
According to Volkmann [18], entrepreneurship education began in American universities. The Harvard Business School was the first institution to design and implement a program in this area in 1947. Since then, several business schools and universities have started to offer entrepreneurship education and promoting academic paths in this area based on the premise that entrepreneurship can be taught and learned [19]. In this respect, Gerba [20] sees entrepreneurship education as an educational program that aims to provide students with knowledge, skills, and motivation to boost business success. It is also seen as a means to develop entrepreneurial intentions by raising students’ interest for entrepreneurship. In this way, education on this topic has become increasingly relevant, and some authors even believe that entrepreneurship education goes beyond the mere training for the creation of a new business. For example, Ramayah et al. [21] consider that entrepreneurship allows individuals to learn to be innovative, to have the ability to integrate experiences, to easily improve knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors, which, in turn, will help them to create, innovate, and evaluate business opportunities. In addition, according to the Commission of the European Communities [22], entrepreneurship education has clear benefits, helping students to become more creative and self-confident in their tasks and to act in a socially responsible way toward success.
According to Testas and Moreira [19], there are few entrepreneurs in Portugal, which means that the educational system needs to be restructured to respond to the current crisis and high level of unemployment. According to Duarte and Esperança [17], entrepreneurship in Portuguese higher education faces some barriers, both in relation to students and teachers/researchers: students lack entrepreneurial skills and motivation to undertake and have difficulty in obtaining financial support; teachers and researchers face a clearly weak link between academic/teaching environment, the business world, and the real market needs, as well as difficulties in obtaining funding for projects with the consequent lack of motivation and little investment in this area. Therefore, the financial and governmental support is insufficient to promote entrepreneurship, and the incentives are still poorly and ineffectively managed. In this way, opportunities to support valuable projects are often lost, with an impact on economy and society. As previously said, in the fulfillment of their role to train students, higher education institutions should empower and motivate them for entrepreneurial initiatives, stimulating the creation of companies that simultaneously generate jobs and develop the economy [2, 23].
Many authors believe that there are motivational factors that guide the individual to undertake, making the entrepreneurial process clearer and more understandable [24, 25, 26]. Motivation helps to describe the process that impels individuals to engage in entrepreneurial behaviors (Hornsby & Kuratko, [27]). In addition, it is essential to identify the entrepreneurial motivations so that policy-makers, within their sphere of influence, can suggest more effective programs to support and promote a successful entrepreneurship [28]. Entrepreneurial motivations have been widely discussed, largely due to the wide range of influencing factors. In recent years, several authors have been investigating the influences of the environment and the characteristics of the opportunities to create businesses. In addition to these factors, individuals’ characteristics and specificities should be taken into account given their key role in decision-making [29]. Therefore, understanding what motivates individuals to undertake, as well as identifying entrepreneurs’ typical personality traits, is important for both researchers and academics [1].
The need for achievement is one of the most extensively studied motivator and is derived from McClelland’s human motivation theory [30]. The achievement drive translates into the individual’s ambition to start new businesses and guide their growth. This motivator helps to understand the entrepreneurial activity [30, 31] and may be associated with knowledge acquisition, motivating students to create their businesses based on their own analyses [2]. A study on the characteristics of entrepreneurs found higher scores in the need for independence among entrepreneurs than among the general population [32]. This motivator is also found among academic communities [14, 33], although it characterizes most entrepreneurs rather than being restricted to these communities [31]. Another motivator for most entrepreneurs is the accomplishment of a business opportunity as a real possibility, with an effective potential for achievement [2]. According to Shane and Venkataraman [34], opportunities allow introducing new services, goods, and organizing methods into the market in a profitable way. This is why opportunity is seen as one of the best motivators that guide entrepreneurial behaviors. Although the need for admiration and recognition is a human trait, we live in a “harmfully” competitive society, where recognition and acceptance from others become a necessity early in life [35]. Notoriety and social status can also motivate most entrepreneurs to establish their own businesses [2]. Finally, the family’s role is also a motivator to undertake to the extent that family plays a key social and economic role in business creation and development. Family businesses are among the main sources of job creation in market economies [36].
The influence of the environment in entrepreneurial behaviors has been extensively investigated. Several studies have provided relevant information to create favorable conditions for the development of entrepreneurship ([37]; Taylor, [38]). According to these authors, the environment consists of a set of exogenous factors that create conditions for the development of entrepreneurial activities. Thus, institutions, regulations, laws, policies, knowledge, and networks influence the entrepreneurial activity. According to Kuratko and Hodgetts [39], the environment consists of external opportunities that influence the organization. Entrepreneurship, as a social dynamic process, results from the interaction between entrepreneur, team, opportunity, idea, and available resources [40].
According to Gartner [41], the discussion about the environment should refer to the availability of resources, the existence of skilled labor force, the accessibility of suppliers, markets, and customers, the governmental influences, the purchasing power, the conditions of the implementation area, and the level of industrialization. In addition to the environment, other authors emphasize the importance of culture as a factor capable of promoting or restricting entrepreneurial behaviors. Therefore, the environmental analysis should encompass economic, infrastructural, and political aspects [37]. According to Nayab [42], the major environmental influences are cultural and social variables, such as governmental and economic policies, and resource availability. Social and cultural influences relate to social organization, the social attitudes toward the business and its beginning [43], and the beliefs that have an impact on individuals’ behaviors and attitudes [2]. Demographic changes and changes resulting from more consumerist lifestyles are also environmental influences, with an emphasis on social networks since they influence individuals’ entrepreneurial behaviors [2, 44].
Carsud and Johnson [44] advocate that, with regard to the governmental influences expressed in the State ideologies, there is a tendency for more liberal governments to have a more positive perspective of entrepreneurship as a strategic and development area of society. However, these policies tend to be unstable and temporary, which can encourage or discourage entrepreneurship. Therefore, other types of support are necessary, such as more funding, less bureaucracy, and the creation of infrastructures to facilitate entrepreneurship.
The economic factors that influence entrepreneurship encompass the organization of the economy, the purchasing power, and the levels of confidence in the economy of a given society. Although the economic development of a society impacts the creation of opportunities, these tend to emerge in times of recession [1, 2].
Despite this, resource availability is regarded as another important factor, namely the availability of financial, human, material, and physical resources; human resources allow for business accomplishment and the creation of a reliable team, while material and physical resources influence the productive processes [2]. According to these authors, Portuguese entrepreneurs highlight eight environmental factors: profit expectation, predisposition to seek incentives, easy supply, easy creation of structure, taking advantage of other companies’ lack of success, easy identification of customers, family support and easy creation of a business, and, finally, easy identification and understanding of the competition. In parallel, it is important to understand these environmental influences and factors to raise awareness about entrepreneurship, and, consequently, boost the economy.
Self-efficacy can be defined as a personality trait that is easily associated with various desirable characteristics in the modern world, such as the motivation to learn or persistence, rather than a professional goal or performance [45, 46, 47]. Its analysis can provide important guidance and self-knowledge tools since perceived self-efficacy is positively correlated with an individual’s success in specific activities [48]. According to Bandura [49, 50], self-efficacy beliefs are among the factors that comprise the psychological mechanisms governing motivation. In fact, this author was a pioneer in the conceptual definition of self-efficacy and proposed a “Social Learning Theory,” which suggests that learning happens through behavioral modeling. Self-efficacy enables individuals to shape their perceptions about their own ability to perform a certain task successfully (or not). According to Bandura [5], perceived self-efficacy is defined as people’s beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives. According to this theory, individuals’ self-efficacy can influence their feelings, thoughts, behaviors, or motivation in a given activity or situation.
Bandura [5, 50, 51] argues that self-efficacy is a dynamic construct that changes as new information and experiences are acquired. The author proposes four sources that may affect the level of perceived self-efficacy. The first source relates
In this way, self-efficacy and self-perception can be considered essential in entrepreneurship since individuals with higher self-efficacy are able to invest more effort and persist longer than those with low self-efficacy [49].
The sample is composed of students from 17 Portuguese higher education polytechnic institutions that integrate the Poliempreende project. The sample was divided by polytechnic institute, study area (health, management, technology, and social sciences), and degree year, as well as by gender, student status, marital status, and the existence of entrepreneurs in the family. A total of 40 questionnaires were applied to each degree year of each of the above-mentioned areas. The final sample included 6532 students with a mean age of 22 years (minimum age of 17 and maximum age of 59 years), and was mostly composed of female students (64%). Table 1 describes the sample in detail.
Total ( | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Male | 2252 | 34.5 | ||
Female | 4194 | 64.2 | ||
86 | 1.3 | |||
22.28 | 5.34 | |||
Health | 1816 | 27.8 | ||
Technology | 1647 | 25.2 | ||
Social sciences | 1336 | 20.5 | ||
Management | 1500 | 23.0 | ||
233 | 3.6 | |||
1st year | 2055 | 31.5 | ||
2nd year | 2218 | 34.0 | ||
3rd year | 1706 | 26.1 | ||
4th year | 462 | 7.1 | ||
91 | 1.4 | |||
Students | 5359 | 82.0 | ||
Working students | 1077 | 16.5 | ||
96 | 1.5 | |||
Single | 5836 | 89.3 | ||
Divorced | 89 | 1.4 | ||
Married | 409 | 6.3 | ||
Co-habiting | 108 | 1.7 | ||
90 | 1.4 | |||
PI Beja | 469 | 7.2 | ||
PI Bragança | 255 | 3.9 | ||
PI Castelo Branco | 387 | 5.9 | ||
PI Cávado e Vale do Ave | 322 | 4.9 | ||
PI Coimbra | 513 | 7.9 | ||
PI Guarda | 463 | 7.1 | ||
PI Leiria | 492 | 7.5 | ||
PI Lisboa | 276 | 4.2 | ||
PI Portalegre | 150 | 2.3 | ||
PI Porto | 448 | 6.9 | ||
PI Santarém | 500 | 7.7 | ||
PI Setúbal | 405 | 6.2 | ||
PI Viana Castelo | 477 | 7.3 | ||
PI Viseu | 549 | 8.4 | ||
PI Tomar | 187 | 2.9 | ||
ESEnfC | 185 | 2.8 | ||
EST-UAlgarve | 454 | 7.0 |
Sociodemographic characteristics of the sample.
Data were collected using a self-administered questionnaire entitled
The scale was composed of 22 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1—of little importance to 5—very important). Respondents rated each item based on the degree of importance that they assigned to the opportunities and resources to undertake. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed with half of the sample (randomly divided), from which four factors emerged:
The scale was composed of 17 items measured on a 5-point Likert scale (1—of little importance to 5—very important). Respondents rated each item based on the degree of importance that they assigned to the motivations to undertake. An EFA was performed with half of the sample (randomly divided), from which four factors emerged:
The final version of this scale was composed of 15 items measured on a 5-point Likert scale (1—of little importance to 5—very important). Respondents rated each item based on the degree of importance that they assigned to the incentives to create a business.
An EFA was performed with half of the sample (randomly divided), from which two factors emerged:
The CFA performed with the other half of the sample confirmed the two-factor structure obtained, showing good indices of fit (NFI = .888, SRMR = .049, CFI = .890, TLI = .868, and RMSEA = .06). In both samples, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were greater than .85, indicating a good internal consistency.
Three composite scores were derived for this research:
The composite score for the
All scores showed a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient greater than .80, thus revealing a good internal consistency (Nunnally, [60]): α = .819 in
Finally, self-efficacy was measured based on the mean scores of the following items to assess the self-efficacy dimension of the Self-Concept Clinical Inventory [9], measured on a 5-point Likert scale (from 1—strongly disagree to 5—strongly agree):
The questionnaires were distributed and applied to the students of the higher education polytechnic institutes by the Poliempreende project coordinators, who were also responsible for collecting them after completion in their respective institution. All ethical principles of a research study were complied with the researchers explained the study purposes, participants gave their informed consent, and anonymity was ensured at all times.
In the scale of entrepreneurial motivations, the highest scores were obtained in the factors
The
Reference values | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Entrepreneurial motivations F1. Family and social achievement | 1–5 | 1 | 5 | 4.11 | 0.69 |
F2. Resources and income | 1–5 | 1 | 5 | 3.26 | 0.81 |
F3. Prestige | 1–5 | 1 | 5 | 3.45 | 0.82 |
F4. Learning and development | 1–5 | 1 | 5 | 4.01 | 0.59 |
Total scale | 1–5 | 1 | 5 | 3.75 | 0.55 |
Opportunities and resources to undertake F1. Resource availability | 1–5 | 1 | 5 | 3.86 | 0.68 |
F2. Business stability | 1–5 | 1 | 5 | 3.82 | 0.59 |
F3. Economic and political instability | 1–5 | 1 | 5 | 2.96 | 1.06 |
F4. Economic and political instability | 1–5 | 1 | 5 | 3.28 | 0.95 |
Total scale | 1–5 | 1 | 5 | 3.67 | 0.54 |
Incentives to entrepreneurship F1. Financial and governmental incentives | 1–5 | 1 | 5 | 3.94 | 0.69 |
F2. Educational and consultancy incentives | 1–5 | 1 | 5 | 3.94 | 0.68 |
Total scale | 1–5 | 1 | 5 | 3.93 | 0.64 |
Academic preparation to undertake | 2–10 | 2 | 10 | 6.11 | 1.97 |
Entrepreneurial potential | 3–15 | 3 | 15 | 11.17 | 2.11 |
Desire to undertake | 2–10 | 2 | 10 | 6.63 | 2.71 |
Self-efficacy | 1–5 | 1 | 5 | 4.04 | 0.52 |
Reference values, minimum, maximum, and standard deviations for the measures under analysis.
The
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | (11) | (12) | (13) | (14) | (15) | (16) | (17) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Entrepreneurial motivations: Family and social achievement(1) | 1 | .45** | .46** | .44** | .79** | .36** | .40** | .11** | .21** | .41** | .34** | .33** | .36** | .12** | .21** | .18** | .29** |
Resources and income (2) | 1 | .57** | .27** | .78** | .29** | .33** | .23** | .29** | .39** | .25** | .19** | .25** | .15** | .18** | .15** | .12** | |
Prestige (3) | 1 | .29** | .79** | .27** | .29** | .16** | .25** | .33** | .22** | .19** | .23** | .13** | .17** | .13** | .16** | ||
Learning and development (4) | 1 | .61** | .49** | .45** | .07** | .16** | .47** | .39** | .42** | .43** | .18** | .36** | .28** | .41** | |||
Global scale(5) | 1 | .45** | .48** | .19** | .31** | .52** | .39** | .36** | .41** | .18** | .29** | .23** | .31** | ||||
Opportunities and resources to undertake Resource availability (6) | 1 | .67** | .15** | .27** | .82** | .53** | .54** | .57** | .09** | .27** | .12** | .29** | |||||
Business stability (7) | 1 | .22** | .39** | .89** | .57** | .56** | .61** | .12** | .29** | .17** | .31** | ||||||
Economic and political instability(8) | 1 | .42** | .50** | .21** | .17** | .21** | .02 | .08** | .02 | .04** | |||||||
Business opportunities (9) | 1 | .57** | .26** | .22** | .27** | .10** | .12** | .07** | .11** | ||||||||
Global scale (10) | 1 | .59** | .57** | .63** | .12** | .29** | .15** | .30** | |||||||||
Incentives to entrepreneurship Financial and governmental incentives (11) | 1 | .69** | .97** | .06** | .27** | .12** | .32** | ||||||||||
Educational and consultancy incentives (12) | 1 | .84** | .07** | .26** | .10** | .33** | |||||||||||
Global scale (13) | 1 | .06** | .28** | .12** | .35** | ||||||||||||
Academic preparation to undertake (14) | 1 | .22* | .42** | .14** | |||||||||||||
Entrepreneurial potential (15) | 1 | .35** | .36** | ||||||||||||||
Desire to undertake (16) | 1 | .23** | |||||||||||||||
Self-efficacy (17) | 1 |
Intercorrelation matrix for the measures under analysis.
Based on the results obtained in Model 1, the
.217 | .047 | — | 317.76 (1, 64) | |||||
Academic preparation to undertake | .233 | .013 | .217 | 17.83*** | ||||
.402 | .162 | .115 | 219.74 (4, 64) | |||||
Academic preparation for entrepreneur | .160 | .013 | .149 | 12.74*** | ||||
Entrepreneurial motivations—Family and social achievement | .093 | .043 | .030 | 2.15* | ||||
Entrepreneurial motivations—Resources and income | .132 | .038 | .050 | 3.51*** | ||||
Entrepreneurial motivations—Prestige | .060 | .037 | .023 | 1.59* | ||||
Entrepreneurial motivations—Learning and development | 1.08 | .046 | .303 | 23.42*** | ||||
.419 | .175 | .014 | 26.36 (4, 64) | |||||
Academic preparation to undertake | .158 | .012 | .147 | 12.69*** | ||||
Entrepreneurial motivations—Family and social achievement | .019 | .044 | .006 | 0.44* | ||||
Entrepreneurial motivations—Resources and income | .074 | .038 | .028 | 1.94* | ||||
Entrepreneurial motivations—Prestige | .049 | .037 | .019 | 1.33* | ||||
Entrepreneurial motivations—Learning and development | .905 | .050 | .253 | 17.98*** | ||||
Opportunities and resources to undertake—Resource availability | .100 | .050 | .032 | 2.01* | ||||
Opportunities and resources to undertake—Business stability | .406 | .058 | .115 | 6.95*** | ||||
Opportunities and resources to undertake—Economic and political instability | .031 | .025 | .016 | 1.23* | ||||
Opportunities and resources to undertake—Business opportunities | −.016 | .030 | −.007 | −.54* | ||||
.427 | .182 | .007 | 26.48 (2, 64) | |||||
Academic preparation to undertake | .162 | .012 | .151 | 13.04*** | ||||
Entrepreneurial motivations—Family and social achievement | −.011 | .044 | −.004 | −.249* | ||||
Entrepreneurial motivations—Resources and income | .080 | .038 | .031 | 2.09* | ||||
Entrepreneurial motivations—Prestige | .054 | .037 | .021 | 1.45* | ||||
Entrepreneurial motivations—Learning and development | .856 | .051 | .239 | 16.88*** | ||||
Opportunities and resources to undertake—Resource availability | .015 | .051 | .005 | .29* | ||||
Opportunities and resources to undertake—Business stability | .270 | .061 | .077 | 4.42*** | ||||
Opportunities and resources to undertake—Economic and political instability | .013 | .025 | .007 | .53* | ||||
Opportunities and resources to undertake—Business opportunities | −.018 | .030 | −.008 | −.61* | ||||
Incentives to entrepreneurship—Financial and governmental incentives | .232 | .051 | .076 | 4.54*** | ||||
Incentives to entrepreneurship—Educational and consultancy incentives | .136 | .052 | .044 | 2.64** | ||||
.467 | .218 | .036 | ||||||
Academic preparation to undertake | .145 | .012 | .135 | 11.91*** | ||||
Entrepreneurial motivations—Family and social achievement | −.081 | .043 | −.027 | 1.89* | ||||
Entrepreneurial motivations—Resources and income | .126 | .037 | .048 | 3.38** | ||||
Entrepreneurial motivations—Prestige | .042 | .036 | .016 | 1.15* | ||||
Entrepreneurial motivations—Learning and development | .647 | .051 | .181 | 12.69*** | ||||
Resource availability | .015 | .050 | .005 | .29* | ||||
Business stability | .232 | .060 | .066 | 3.88*** | ||||
Economic and political instability | .026 | .025 | .013 | 1.07* | ||||
Business opportunities | −.020 | .029 | −.009 | −.68* | ||||
Incentives to entrepreneurship—Financial and governmental incentives | .165 | .050 | .054 | 3.31** | ||||
Incentives to entrepreneurship—Educational and consultancy incentives | .071 | .051 | .023 | 1.39* | ||||
Self-efficacy | .878 | .051 | .216 | 17.22*** |
Hierarchical regression analysis of the expected entrepreneurial potential based on the motivations related to family and social achievement, resources and income, prestige, learning and development, resource availability, business stability, economic and political instability, business opportunities, financial and governmental incentives, and educational and consultancy incentives.
Model 1 shows that the
The literature review conducted on the topic underlying this study highlighted the importance of entrepreneurship as an engine for a country’s economic, social, and technological growth and development. According to the results obtained, Portuguese polytechnic higher education students believe that
According to Parreira et al. [6], entrepreneurial motivations are important to undertake. The results of this study show that the main driving factor for entrepreneurship seems to be students’ motivation for learning and development, rather than a desire for prestige or notoriety. As already pointed out in McClelland’s human motivation theory [30], individuals feel the need to develop themselves to satisfy their various needs, such as the need for fulfillment, independence, and business opportunities. With respect to environmental influences and based on the results obtained [7], individuals tend to seek or create a stable business. This is probably due to the fact that entrepreneurship, as a dynamic social process, results from the interaction between entrepreneur, team, opportunity, idea, and available resources [40]. In addition, governmental and economic policies, resource availability, and the culture of the moment in which individuals intend to undertake influence their perception of entrepreneurship as a positive or negative process. With regard to incentives [8], the surveyed students value financial and governmental incentives the most. In fact, although educational and consultancy incentives are essential for students to become familiar with entrepreneurship, they seem to assign greater importance to financial incentives. With regard to correlations, the results on the
To enhance these results, we need to focus again on the key relationship between higher education institutions, the state, and students. According to Parreira et al. [6], the academia occupies, for various reasons, a privileged position to encourage, promote, motivate, and develop students’ entrepreneurial skills, contributing to the general development of society and sustaining the Triple Helix model [62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68]. The authors of this model assign a key role to the academia in the creation of knowledge-based societies. In recent years, the academia has become part of the social, business, and economic development, thus asserting itself as an
Individuals who are more educated and trained on this specific area and have more financial and governmental support are more likely to undertake following their desire to “take risks.” In addition, if they have more resources at their disposal, individuals will feel more stable toward their business and will be more likely to undertake based on their income. In this way, these individuals will be seen as someone of trust and prestige. At the same time, self-efficacy seems to play a key role in entrepreneurship. According to the results obtained, this measure is moderately correlated with several variables such as learning and development, business stability, financial, governmental, educational and consultancy incentives, and entrepreneurial potential. As previously mentioned, these results suggest that individuals who are more educated and prepared on this topic will search for new learning experiences in this area and have a greater ability to undertake. Self-efficacy [57] tends to drive individuals in their decision to undertake. A greater self-perception brings a greater entrepreneurial potential to the extent that the entrepreneurship process is strongly associated with the characteristics of the individual, who is the main agent of decision-making and the main responsible for performing the associated tasks [69]. Individuals will also experience greater stability in their business. Furthermore, the level of incentives offered by the State and Educational Institutions will make individuals feel more comfortable to learn and invest, which will, consequently, lead to a higher perceived self-efficacy.
Dopamine is a neurotransmitter both in the periphery and in the central nervous system. It is synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine. Tyrosine is first hydroxylated by the rate limiting enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase to Levodopa (L-DOPA) and L-DOPA is further converted to Dopamine with the action of L-Amino acid decarboxylase.
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive loss of dopamine (DA) neurons in substantia nigra pars compacta. According to the epidemiological studies cigarette smoking, coffee, anti-inflammatory agents and high serum uric acid are protective against PD. Teaching staff, medical personnel, people who work in farms, people who are exposed to lead or manganese and people who are deficient of vitamin D have increased risk of getting the disease [1].
There is a prodromal phase in PD before the disease fully develops. Hyposmia and constipation appear first, then depression follows, and finally the motor symptoms become evident such as bradykinesia (slowness of movement), tremor (involuntary shaking, most commonly of the hands) and rigidity (stiff or inflexible muscles), [2]. The cardinal features of PD are summarized in Figure 1.
Cardinal features of Parkinson’s disease.
The prevalence and incidence of PD may differ depending on various determinants such as age and gender [3]. A higher incidence of PD were reported in males than females with a ratio ranging between 1.37 to 3.7 [4]. Several studies reported that the prevalence and incidence of PD rises with age [5], with a prevalence rate of 108–257 per 100.000 persons and incidence rate of 11–19 per 100.000 persons [6].
Hyposmia is an important feature of Parkinson’s disease and might be a significant and valuable sign to take some precautions. As well known olfactory function declines as people age and might have detrimental effects in those people [7].
Dopamine is part of the neuronal system in olfactory system. Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA), Acetylcholine and norepinephrine have been the other transmitters [7].
More recently α-synuclein (α-syn) overexpression in olfactory bulb has been observed and it was related to symptoms and pathology of Parkinson’s disease [8]. Scientists developed methods to detect protein aggregation by nasal brushing as a guidance to early diagnosis [9]. Nasal brushing is a non-invasive technique to pick up olfactory epithelium from the olfactory mucosa which is thereafter analyzed by real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC) assay. This method has a high sensitiviy (97%) and specificity (100%) for Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (a neurodegenerative disease) diagnosis [10].
In addition to Parkinson’s disease, other neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis are characterized by accumulation of particular proteins in cellular aggregates.
α-Syn is an important molecule of the synapse, under physiologic conditions it regulates synaptic function in its soluble form. In PD patient brains monomers form amyloid-β sheet fibrils that aggregate into Lewy bodies [11]. These presynaptic alterations mediated by accumulation of α-Syn change the size of vesicle pools and function of vesicles, impair neurotransmitter exocytosis, vesicle recycling and neural communication [2].
Injury, environmental toxins, endogenous proteins, infection or age cause microglia to become activated and release of inflammatory cytokines such as IL1-β, TNF-α, nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) that cause dopaminergic neuronal deterioration. Damaged neurons further stimulate microglia by α-Syn, ATP and ROS [12]. The events related with neuroinflammation are summarized in Figure 2.
Stressed DA neurons and release of irritating mediators and producing a vicious cycle [
Neuroinflammation has been implicated in DA cell loss during Parkinson’s disease [13]. In experiments conducted on rats and mice Kurkowska and colleagues have shown that dexamethasone treatment prevented striatal DA depletion and protected DA neurons in substantia nigra (SN) [14].
Aspirin given orally increases the expression of tyrosine hydroxylase in the nigra and upregulates DA in the striatum in both normal and α-syn transgenic mice, indometacin on the other hand, protects neurons in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) model of PD and diminishes microglial activation in the effected area [15, 16].
COX-2 inhibitor celecoxib has also been found to be effective in rats injected with 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) in the striata, a method that caused retrograde neuronal damage, by reducing DA cell degeneration [17].
In addition to these drugs, the antiinflammatory cytokine IL-10 and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) ligand rosiglitazone have been found effective in 6-OHDA rat and MPTP mouse models of PD [18, 19].
However, unlike animal studies there are conflicting results in human reports. While several epidemiologic studies reported that the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) decrease the risk of PD [20], recent metaanalyses found no association between NSAIDs and the risk of Parkinson’s disease [21, 22].
Valproic acid (VPA) is an inhibitor of histone deacetylases (HDACs), and has been used in the treatment of epilepsy, migraine, schizophrenia and bipolar disorders [23]. It increases GABA activity, blocks Ca++ and Na + channels and decreases N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) mediated excitation [24, 25].
In a study conducted in our laboratory, VPA was found to be effective in a PD model induced by 6-OHDA injected into the SN of rats. Sham operated animals demonstrated trace amounts of apoptotic neurons, 6-OHDA caused significantly increased amounts of TUNEL positive neurons in susbstantia nigra pars compacta as compared with sham operated groups. Valproic acid treatment significantly diminished the apoptotic neurons in susbstantia nigra pars compacta as compared with 6-OHDA lesioned and saline treated animals. Valproic acid treatment also significantly diminished the apoptotic neurons as compared with 6-OHDA lesioned and levodopa treated animals [26]. The results of the experiment have been illustrated in Figure 3.
The neuroprotective effects of VPA could be associated with the glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3) alpha and beta, Akt, ERK and phosphoinositol pathways, tricarboxylic acid cycle, GABA and oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) system [27].
Photomicrographs demonstrate TUNEL positive neurons and graph comparing TUNEL positive neurons in right substantia nigra pars compacta. Sham operated (S), sham operated and VPA treated (SV), sham operated and L-DOPA treated (SL), Nigrally 6-OHDA injected (PD), Nigrally 6-OHDA injected and VPA treated (PV), Nigrally 6-OHDA injected and L-DOPA treated (PL), Nigrally 6-OHDA injected and VPA and L-DOPA treated (PVL) groups. Apoptotic neuron (TUNEL positive neuron) is demonstrated with arrow. The magnification is x20. Scale bar represents 100 μm. Nigrally 6-OHDA injected and VPA and L-DOPA treated (PVL) groups. Data are presented as percentage of apoptotic neurons in right substantia nigra pars compacta compared to total neurons in right substantia nigra pars compacta. Data are expressed as mean ± SEM. ***p < 0.001 vs. S, SV, SL; ###p < 0.001 vs. PD; ΘΘΘp<0.001 v PL.
Parkinson patients are being treated with DA precursor L-DOPA that increases the synthesis of dopamine in the substantia nigra; Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) inhibitors that increase the central uptake of levodopa (entecapone, talcapone), Monoamine oxidase B inhibitors (MAO-B inhibitors) that decrease the metabolism of dopamine (selegiline, rasagiline) and finally D1 and D2 receptor agonists pramipexole and ropinirole.
However, chronic use of dopaminergic medications in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease (PD) might cause some motor and non-motor behavioral side effects such as dyskinesias, impulse control disorders (ICDs), (uncontrollable gambling, shopping, binge eating, hypersexuality), punding (aimless, stereotypical repetitive behaviors) and compulsive medication use [28]. The prevalence of ICDs in PD patients using dopamine agonists was reported to range from 2.6% to 34.8% [29]. This brings us to another significant function of dopamine which is IMPULSIVITY.
Impulsivity implicates a variety of behaviors that are unsuitable or overly risky, immature, poorly planned, and often results with undesired consequences. Impulsivity is the main symptom of a wide range of psychiatric disorders such as ICDs and drug addiction. Moreover, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and mania, also contribute to the expression of impulsivity [30]. It is thought that dopamine has an important role in impulsive behavior, based on the therapeutic effects of psychostimulant drugs such as amphetamine and methylphenidate that increase dopaminergic transmission in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Namely, there is a paradox regarding why dopamine releasing psychostimulant drugs ameliorate ADHD symptoms, while the drugs that enhance dopamine transmission increase impulsivity, as in the case of medication induced adverse reactions in PD. This discrepancy means that other neurotransmitters also influence impulsivity [31].
The dopamine system and D2 receptors seem to be closely related to impulsive choice. The activation of D2 receptors in the nucleus accumbens region causes an increase in motor impulsivity. There are many studies highlighting the relationship between serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine dysregulation and impulse control disorders. Particularly, studies with human and animal subjects demonstrated the role of serotonin and dopamine in impulsivity. The importance of serotonin and dopamine interaction in the nucleus accumbens is underlined for impulse control disorders [32, 33].
ADHD is one of the most common psychiatric disorders of childhood which is characterized by problems in attention, concentration, mobility and impulse control. Dopamine and noradrenaline levels are low and dysregulated in ADHD and it is thought that symptoms of inattention may indicate dopamine and/or noradrenaline dysfunction in important regions of the cerebral cortex that control cognitive functions [34]. Neuroanatomical regions (cortical-striatal-thalamic-cortical network) that are thought to be important in ADHD are regions known to be the area of dopamine concentration.
Dopamine and norepinephrine are the most well studied neurotransmitters in understanding the etiology of ADHD. These neurotransmitters and their degradation products are found at a lower rate in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), blood and urine of children with ADHD. Molecular genetics and neuroimaging studies, as well as therapies with stimulant drugs, have also supported the hypothesis of dopamine dysfunction in ADHD etiology. The fact that methylphenidate, which acts by preventing dopamine reuptake in ADHD pharmacotherapy, has brought the dopaminergic system to the fore in candidate gene studies. Molecular genetic studies have indicated some candidate genes related to the dopamine system, such as D1, D2, D3, D4 and D5 receptors and dopamine transporters (DAT). Among these, the genes that are most emphasized and with positive findings are DRD4 (D4) and DAT1 genes (Table 1).
Receptor | Enzyme-Transporter |
---|---|
Dopamin D1 receptor gene (DRD1) | Tyrosine hydroxylase gene (TH) |
Dopamin D2 receptor gene (DRD2) | Catechol-O-methyl- transferase gene (COMT) |
Dopamin D3 receptor gene (DRD3) | Monoaminoxidase A gene (MAO-A) |
Dopamin D4 receptor gene (DRD4) | Dopamine transporter gene (DAT1/SLC6A3) |
Dopamin D5 receptor gene (DRD5) |
Candidate genes studied in the dopaminergic pathway.
Since stimulant drugs provide increase in extracellular DA by blocking DAT, molecular neuroimaging studies have mostly focused on the DAT [34]. In the meta-analysis of positron emission tomography (PET) and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) studies, higher striatal DAT density was reported in patients with ADHD [35].
Addiction is defined as seeking and using substances and chemicals such as alcohol, cannabis, morphine, metamphetamine, nicotine despite their physical and psychological negative effects on individuals. The negative effects are characterized by having trouble in stopping the intake after starting to use and by causing negative emotional states such as dysphoria, anxiety and irritability in case of discontinuation. In addition to addiction, these substances cause changes in the reward system, decision-making, memory and brain structures related to memory.
The mesocorticolimbic system, which is formed by the integration of mesolimbic and mesocortical pathways, is an important part of the reward system and dopamine (DA) is the main neurotransmitter in this system. The addictive substances essentially activate the mesolimbic dopamine pathway. Apart from the mesocorticolimbic system, another dopaminergic pathway, the nigrostriatal pathway also plays a role in addiction development.
There is good evidence that synaptic changes in mesolimbic pathways are involved in food and drug addiction. Namely, drug addiction and obesity are related to decreased striatal dopamine D2 receptor levels [36, 37]. Decreased D2 receptor levels in the striatum was also reported in patients with alcohol dependence [38]. In addition, lower striatal dopamine D2/D3 receptor levels were reported in cocaine and metamphetamine addicted subjects [39].
Even though the drugs that enhance DA activity could be effective for alcohol and/or substance use disorders, contradictory results have been reported by several studies. Hence, there is not enough evidence regarding the use of DA agonists for addiction [40].
The neurotransmitter systems that have been investigated in schizophrenia are dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin, glutamate and GABA. The most well-studied neurotransmitter in schizophrenia is dopamine. The fact that psychostimulant agents that increase dopamine activity such as amphetamine and cocaine cause schizophrenia-like symptoms in normal individuals and that neuroleptics that block postsynaptic dopamine D2 receptors regress the symptoms of schizophrenia supports the dopamine hypothesis. Overactivation of the dopaminergic neurons in the mesolimbic pathway is thought to play a role in the emergence of delusions and hallucinations, which are positive symptoms of psychosis. Neuroreceptor imaging studies indicated the higher levels of dopamine D2 receptor availability in individuals with schizophrenia [36]. The main mechanism of action of the current antipsychotic drugs is the antagonism of mainly dopaminergic D2 receptors [41].
As can be observed easily dopamine is involved in the pathogenesis of many conditions such as Parkinson’s disease, Schizophrenia and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. It is the key substance for impulsivity and addiction as well.
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",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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The use of aquatic organisms as bioindicators of metal pollution allowed the obtaining of valuable information about the acute and chronic toxicity on common Romanian aquatic species and the estimation of the environment quality. Laboratory toxicity results showed that Cd, As, Cu, Zn, Pb, Ni, Zr, and Ti have toxic to very toxic effects on Cyprinus carpio, and this observation could raise concerns because of its importance as a fishery resource. The benthic invertebrates’ analysis showed that bioaccumulation level depends on species, type of metals, and sampling sites. The metal analysis from the shells of three mollusk species showed that the metals involved in the metabolic processes (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, and Mg) were more accumulated than the toxic ones (Pb, Cd). The bioaccumulation factors of metals in benthic invertebrates were subunitary, which indicated a slow bioaccumulation process in the studied aquatic ecosystems. The preliminary aquatic risk assessment of Ni, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, As, and Zn on C. carpio revealed insignificant to moderate risk considering the measured environmental concentrations, acute and long-term effects and environmental compartment.",book:{id:"5355",slug:"water-quality",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality"},signatures:"Stefania Gheorghe, Catalina Stoica, Gabriela Geanina Vasile, Mihai\nNita-Lazar, Elena Stanescu and Irina Eugenia Lucaciu",authors:[{id:"186964",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefania",middleName:null,surname:"Gheorghe",slug:"stefania-gheorghe",fullName:"Stefania Gheorghe"},{id:"194072",title:"Dr.",name:"Catalina",middleName:null,surname:"Stoica",slug:"catalina-stoica",fullName:"Catalina Stoica"}]},{id:"42035",doi:"10.5772/55354",title:"Arsenic in Groundwater: A Summary of Sources and the Biogeochemical and Hydrogeologic Factors Affecting Arsenic Occurrence and Mobility",slug:"arsenic-in-groundwater-a-summary-of-sources-and-the-biogeochemical-and-hydrogeologic-factors-affecti",totalDownloads:6141,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:45,abstract:null,book:{id:"3491",slug:"current-perspectives-in-contaminant-hydrology-and-water-resources-sustainability",title:"Current Perspectives in Contaminant Hydrology and Water Resources Sustainability",fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Contaminant Hydrology and Water Resources Sustainability"},signatures:"Julia L. Barringer and Pamela A. Reilly",authors:[{id:"163098",title:"Dr.",name:"Julia",middleName:null,surname:"Barringer",slug:"julia-barringer",fullName:"Julia Barringer"},{id:"167449",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Pamela",middleName:"A.",surname:"Reilly",slug:"pamela-reilly",fullName:"Pamela Reilly"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58138",title:"Water Pollution: Effects, Prevention, and Climatic Impact",slug:"water-pollution-effects-prevention-and-climatic-impact",totalDownloads:21387,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:"The stress on our water environment as a result of increased industrialization, which aids urbanization, is becoming very high thus reducing the availability of clean water. Polluted water is of great concern to the aquatic organism, plants, humans, and climate and indeed alters the ecosystem. The preservation of our water environment, which is embedded in sustainable development, must be well driven by all sectors. While effective wastewater treatment has the tendency of salvaging the water environment, integration of environmental policies into the actor firms core objectives coupled with continuous periodical enlightenment on the present and future consequences of environmental/water pollution will greatly assist in conserving the water environment.",book:{id:"6157",slug:"water-challenges-of-an-urbanizing-world",title:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World",fullTitle:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World"},signatures:"Inyinbor Adejumoke A., Adebesin Babatunde O., Oluyori Abimbola\nP., Adelani-Akande Tabitha A., Dada Adewumi O. and Oreofe Toyin\nA.",authors:[{id:"101570",title:"MSc.",name:"Babatunde Olufemi",middleName:null,surname:"Adebesin",slug:"babatunde-olufemi-adebesin",fullName:"Babatunde Olufemi Adebesin"},{id:"187738",title:"Dr.",name:"Adejumoke",middleName:"Abosede",surname:"Inyinbor",slug:"adejumoke-inyinbor",fullName:"Adejumoke Inyinbor"},{id:"188818",title:"Dr.",name:"Abimbola",middleName:null,surname:"Oluyori",slug:"abimbola-oluyori",fullName:"Abimbola Oluyori"},{id:"188819",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tabitha",middleName:null,surname:"Adelani-Akande",slug:"tabitha-adelani-akande",fullName:"Tabitha Adelani-Akande"},{id:"208501",title:"Dr.",name:"Adewumi",middleName:null,surname:"Dada",slug:"adewumi-dada",fullName:"Adewumi Dada"},{id:"208502",title:"Ms.",name:"Toyin",middleName:null,surname:"Oreofe",slug:"toyin-oreofe",fullName:"Toyin Oreofe"}]},{id:"66437",title:"Detection of Underground Water by Using GPR",slug:"detection-of-underground-water-by-using-gpr",totalDownloads:2945,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Water is the human vital requirement for life; in these days, decreasing of the fresh water increases the importance of the aquifer water. However, Upper Egypt is higher than north Egypt, so the water map continually changes daily, and the aquifer water is deeper than 10 m. The ground penetrating radar (GPR) system is used for underground water detection. GPR is a promising technology to detect and identify aquifer water or nonmetallic mines. One of the most serious components for the performance of GPR is the antenna system. The technology of the remote sensing and radar is rapidly developing, and it has led to the ultra-wideband electronic systems. All of these factors, such as miniaturized, low cost, possible compromise solution between depth and resolution, scanning in real time, easy to interpret, and decreased the false alarm, are important in designing the ground penetrating system. The electrical properties of the sand and fresh water layers are investigated using laboratory measurement and EM simulation. Different types of antenna may be used in GPR to operate over a frequency range for different penetration depth. Frequency-modulated continuous wave is also used for GPR and for through-the-wall applications. However, most of these kinds of antennas are limited by their large volume for certain applications. Therefore, a compact Vivaldi antenna with EBG and a compact planar printed quasi-Yagi antenna with meandered ground plane are designed to fulfill all above requirement.",book:{id:"6836",slug:"groundwater-resource-characterisation-and-management-aspects",title:"Groundwater",fullTitle:"Groundwater - Resource Characterisation and Management Aspects"},signatures:"Dalia N. Elsheakh and Esmat A. Abdallah",authors:[{id:"111813",title:"Dr.",name:"Dalia",middleName:null,surname:"Elsheakh",slug:"dalia-elsheakh",fullName:"Dalia Elsheakh"},{id:"111867",title:"Prof.",name:"Esmat",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"esmat-abdallah",fullName:"Esmat Abdallah"}]},{id:"57345",title:"Safe Drinking Water: Concepts, Benefits, Principles and Standards",slug:"safe-drinking-water-concepts-benefits-principles-and-standards",totalDownloads:6046,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Water is connected to every forms of life on earth. As a criteria, an adequate, reliable, clean, accessible, acceptable and safe drinking water supply has to be available for various users. The United Nation (UN) and other countries declared access to safe drinking water as a fundamental human right, and an essential step towards improving living standards. Access to water was one of the main goal of Millinium Development Goals (UN-MDGs) and it is also one of the main goal of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The UN-SDG goal 6 states that “Water sustains life, but safe clean drinking water defines civilization”. Despite these facts, there are inequalities in access to safe drinking water in the world. In some countries, sufficient freshwater is not available (physical scarcity); while in other countries, abundant freshwater is available, but it is expensive to use (economic scarcity). The other challenge is the increasing population of the world at an alarming rate, while the available freshwater resources almost remains constant. This chapter presents aspects of safe drinking water - background information, definition of water safety and access, benefits, principles and regulations, factors challenging the sustainable water supply and water quality standards and parameters.",book:{id:"6157",slug:"water-challenges-of-an-urbanizing-world",title:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World",fullTitle:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World"},signatures:"Megersa Olumana Dinka",authors:[{id:"206964",title:"Dr.",name:"Megersa Olumana",middleName:null,surname:"Dinka",slug:"megersa-olumana-dinka",fullName:"Megersa Olumana Dinka"}]},{id:"53211",title:"Biofloc Technology (BFT): A Tool for Water Quality Management in Aquaculture",slug:"biofloc-technology-bft-a-tool-for-water-quality-management-in-aquaculture",totalDownloads:16802,totalCrossrefCites:58,totalDimensionsCites:135,abstract:"Biofloc technology (BFT) is considered the new “blue revolution” in aquaculture. Such technique is based on in situ microorganism production which plays three major roles: (i) maintenance of water quality, by the uptake of nitrogen compounds generating in situ microbial protein; (ii) nutrition, increasing culture feasibility by reducing feed conversion ratio (FCR) and a decrease of feed costs; and (iii) competition with pathogens. The aggregates (bioflocs) are a rich protein-lipid natural source of food available in situ 24 hours per day due to a complex interaction between organic matter, physical substrate, and large range of microorganisms. This natural productivity plays an important role recycling nutrients and maintaining the water quality. The present chapter will discuss some insights of the role of microorganisms in BFT, main water quality parameters, the importance of the correct carbon-to-nitrogen ratio in the culture media, its calculations, and different types, as well as metagenomics of microorganisms and future perspectives.",book:{id:"5355",slug:"water-quality",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality"},signatures:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho Emerenciano, Luis Rafael Martínez-\nCórdova, Marcel Martínez-Porchas and Anselmo Miranda-Baeza",authors:[{id:"146126",title:"Dr.",name:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho",middleName:null,surname:"Emerenciano",slug:"mauricio-gustavo-coelho-emerenciano",fullName:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho Emerenciano"},{id:"186970",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Porchas",slug:"marcel-martinez-porchas",fullName:"Marcel Martínez-Porchas"},{id:"186971",title:"Prof.",name:"Anselmo",middleName:null,surname:"Miranda-Baeza",slug:"anselmo-miranda-baeza",fullName:"Anselmo Miranda-Baeza"},{id:"195101",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Córdoba",slug:"luis-rafael-martinez-cordoba",fullName:"Luis Rafael Martínez-Córdoba"}]},{id:"52639",title:"Metals Toxic Effects in Aquatic Ecosystems: Modulators of Water Quality",slug:"metals-toxic-effects-in-aquatic-ecosystems-modulators-of-water-quality",totalDownloads:4232,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:47,abstract:"The topic of this work was based on the assessment of aquatic systems quality related to the persistent metal pollution. The use of aquatic organisms as bioindicators of metal pollution allowed the obtaining of valuable information about the acute and chronic toxicity on common Romanian aquatic species and the estimation of the environment quality. Laboratory toxicity results showed that Cd, As, Cu, Zn, Pb, Ni, Zr, and Ti have toxic to very toxic effects on Cyprinus carpio, and this observation could raise concerns because of its importance as a fishery resource. The benthic invertebrates’ analysis showed that bioaccumulation level depends on species, type of metals, and sampling sites. The metal analysis from the shells of three mollusk species showed that the metals involved in the metabolic processes (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, and Mg) were more accumulated than the toxic ones (Pb, Cd). The bioaccumulation factors of metals in benthic invertebrates were subunitary, which indicated a slow bioaccumulation process in the studied aquatic ecosystems. The preliminary aquatic risk assessment of Ni, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, As, and Zn on C. carpio revealed insignificant to moderate risk considering the measured environmental concentrations, acute and long-term effects and environmental compartment.",book:{id:"5355",slug:"water-quality",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality"},signatures:"Stefania Gheorghe, Catalina Stoica, Gabriela Geanina Vasile, Mihai\nNita-Lazar, Elena Stanescu and Irina Eugenia Lucaciu",authors:[{id:"186964",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefania",middleName:null,surname:"Gheorghe",slug:"stefania-gheorghe",fullName:"Stefania Gheorghe"},{id:"194072",title:"Dr.",name:"Catalina",middleName:null,surname:"Stoica",slug:"catalina-stoica",fullName:"Catalina Stoica"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"837",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"19",title:"Animal Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/19.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"259298",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Narayan",slug:"edward-narayan",fullName:"Edward Narayan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Edward Narayan graduated with Ph.D. degree in Biology from the University of the South Pacific and pioneered non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology tools for amphibians - the novel development and validation of non-invasive enzyme immunoassays for the evaluation of reproductive hormonal cycle and stress hormone responses to environmental stressors. \nDr. Narayan leads the Stress Lab (Comparative Physiology and Endocrinology) at the University of Queensland. A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. 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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. 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